National Geographic Geography Skills Handbook

Geography Skills Handbook

How Do I Study Geography?

eographers have tried to understand the best way to teach and learn about geography. GIn order to do this, geographers created the Five Themes of Geography. The themes acted as a guide for teaching the basic ideas about geography to students like yourself. People who teach and study geography, though, thought that the Five Themes were too broad. In 1994, geographers created 18 national geography standards. These standards were more detailed about what should be taught and learned. The Six Essential Elements act as a bridge connecting the Five Themes with the standards. These pages show you how the Five Themes are related to the Six Essential Elements and the 18 standards. 5 Themes of Geography 1 Location Location describes where something is. Absolute location describes a place’s exact position on the Earth’s surface. Relative location expresses where a place is in relation to another place. 2 Place Place describes the physical and human characteristics that make a location unique. 3 Regions Regions are areas that share common characteristics. 4 Movement Movement explains how and why people and things move and are connected. 5 Human-Environment Interaction Human-Environment Interaction describes the relationship between people and their environment.

(t to b)ThinkStock /SuperStock, (2)Janet F oster/Masterfile, (3)Mark Tomalty/Masterfile, (4)© age fotostock / SuperStock, (5)Jurgen Freund /Nature Picture Library Themes and Elements 6 18 Essential Elements Geography Standards

I. The World in Spatial Terms 1 How to use maps and other tools Geographers look to see where a place is located. Location 2 How to use mental maps to organize information acts as a starting point to answer “Where Is It?” The location 3 How to analyze the spatial organization of people, of a place helps you orient yourself as to where you are. places, and environments

4 The physical and human characteristics II. Places and Regions of places Place describes physical characteristics such as landforms, climate, and plant or animal life. It might also describe 5 How people create regions to interpret human characteristics, including language and way of life. Earth’s complexity Places can also be organized into regions. Regions are places 6 How culture and experience inﬂ uence united by one or more characteristics. people’s perceptions of places and regions

III. Physical Systems Geographers study how physical systems, such as 7 The physical processes that shape Earth’s surface hurricanes, volcanoes, and glaciers, shape the surface of 8 The distribution of ecosystems on Earth’s surface the Earth. They also look at how plants and animals depend upon one another and their surroundings for their survival. 9 The characteristics, distribution, and migration of human populations 10 The complexity of Earth’s cultural mosaics IV. Human Systems 11 The patterns and networks of economic People shape the world in which they live. They settle interdependence in certain places but not in others. An ongoing theme in 12 The patterns of human settlement geography is the movement of people, ideas, and goods. 13 The forces of cooperation and conﬂ ict 14 How human actions modify the physical V. Environment and Society environment How does the relationship between people and their natural 15 How physical systems aﬀ ect human systems surroundings influence the way people live? Geographers study how people use the environment and how their 16 The meaning, use, and distribution of resources actions affect the environment.

VI. The Uses of Geography Knowledge of geography helps us understand the 17 How to apply geography to interpret the past relationships among people, places, and environments 18 How to apply geography to interpret the present over time. Applying geographic skills helps you understand and plan for the future the past and prepare for the future.

GH1 Contents Geography Globes and Maps (p. GH3) • From 3-D to 2-D Skills Handbook • Great Circle Routes

Projections (p. GH4) Throughout this text, you will discover how geography • Planar Projection has shaped the course of events in United States • Cylindrical Projection history. Landforms, waterways, climate, and natural • Conic Projection resources all have helped or hindered human activities. Common Map Projections (p. GH5) Usually people have learned either to adapt to their • Winkel Tripel Projection • Robinson Projection environments or to transform it to meet their needs. • Goode’s Interrupted Equal-Area The resources in this handbook will help you get the Projection most out of your textbook—and provide you with • Mercator Projection skills you will use for the rest of your life. Determining Location (p. GH6) • Latitude The study of geography is more than knowing a lot of facts about places. • Longitude Rather, it has more to do with asking questions about the Earth, pursuing • The Global Grid their answers, and solving problems. Thus, one of the most important geo- • Northern and Southern Hemispheres graphic tools is inside your head: the ability to think geographically. • Eastern and Western Hemispheres

Reading a Map (p. GH8) • Using Scale • Absolute and Relative Location

Physical Maps (p. GH10) Political Maps (p. GH11) Thematic Maps (p. GH12) • Qualitative Maps • Flow-Line Maps

Geographic Information Systems (p. GH13)

Geographic Dictionary (p. GH14)

GH2 Geography Handbook Geography Handbook

Globes and Maps A globe is a scale model of the Earth. Because Earth is round, a globe Teach presents the most accurate depiction of geographic information such as area, distance, and direction. However, globes show little close-up D Differentiated detail. A printed map is a symbolic representation of all or part of the Instruction planet. Unlike globes, maps can show small areas in great detail. Visual/Spatial Use an orange to illustrate the challenges of From 3-D to 2-D transferring measurements from Think about the surface of the Earth as the globe accurately shows a great circle route, a three-dimensional to a two- peel of an orange. To flatten the peel, you have as indicated on the map below. However, as dimensional form. Sketch an out- to cut it like the globe shown here. To create shown on the flat map, the great circle distance maps that are not interrupted, mapmakers, or (dotted line) line of the continents and two or cartographers, use mathematical formulas to between Tokyo three lines of longitude and lati- North transfer information from the three-dimensional and Los Angeles Pole tude onto an orange. Then care- globe to the two-dimensional map. However, appears to be far le Rou fully remove the peel (in one at Circ te when the curves of a globe become straight lines longer than the true Gre Los Angeles piece, if possible) and gently flat- on a map, distortion of size, shape, distance, or direction distance Tokyo N area occurs. (solid line). In fact, ten it. Allow students to examine D the great circle dis- W E the peel, and point out how lines S tance is 345 miles and shapes are distorted when (555 km) shorter. the curved peel is flattened. OL

N C Critical Thinking Circle Dis eat tan Gr 2 mi. (8,807 ce W E ,47 km 5 ) Making Inferences Have stu- S Tokyo Los Angeles True Direction Distance dents use a piece of string and a 5,787 mi. (9,313 km) globe to find the shortest route from New York to Hong Kong. (over the top of the globe) OL Great Circle Routes Practicing SKILLS A straight line of true direction—one that runs directly from west to east, for example—is not 1. Explain the signiﬁ cance of: globe, map, cartographer, always the shortest distance between two points. great circle route. This is due to the curvature of the Earth. To find 2. Describe the problems that arise when the curves of the shortest distance, stretch a piece of string C a globe become straight lines on a map. around a globe from one point to the other. The 3. Use a Venn diagram like the one below to identify the string will form part of a great circle, an imagi- similarities and differences between globes and maps. nary line the follows the curve of the Earth. Ship captains and airline pilots use these great circle routes to reduce travel time and conserve fuel. Globes Maps The idea of a great circle route is an important difference between globes and maps. A round

Geography Handbook GH3

Answers 3. Globes present the most accurate depic- 1. globe: scale model of the Earth; map: sym- tion of geographic information such as bolic representation of all or part of the area, distance, and direction, but do not planet; cartographer: mapmakers; great show close-up detail. Maps are symbolic circle route: routes that follow the great representations of all or part of the planet circle along the curve of the Earth and can show areas in great detail. Both 2. Size, shape, distance, or area becomes show information about places on the distorted. Earth.

GH3 Geography Handbook

Projections C Critical Thinking To create maps, cartographers project the round Earth onto a flat surface — making a map projection. Distance, shape, direction, or size Identifying Central Issues C may be distorted by a projection. As a result, the purpose of the map usu- Ask: Why do map makers use ally dictates which projection is used. There are many kinds of map projec- projections? (Projections help in tions, some with general names and some named for the cartographers transferring information from a who developed them. Three basic categories of map projections are shown here: planar, cylindrical, and conic. three-dimensional surface to a two- dimensional surface.) OL

D Differentiated Planar Projection Instruction A planar projection shows the Earth centered Kinesthetic If students are in such a way that a straight line coming from the center to any other point represents the struggling with the concept of shortest distance. Also known as an azimuthal projection, give them a large projection, it is most accurate at its center. As a E QU sheet of paper or poster board result, it is often used for maps of the Poles. ATOR and a globe. Have students place the paper and the globe in the same physical relationships shown in the illustrations. Check to make sure students can visualize how each projection offers a different Cylindrical Projection approximation of the sphere. BL A cylindrical projection is based on the projec- D tion of the globe onto a cylinder. This projection EQUATOR is most accurate near the Equator, but shapes and distances are distorted near the Poles.

Conic Projection A conic projection comes from placing a cone over part of a globe. Conic projections are best suited for showing limited east-west areas that are not too far from the Equator. For these uses, a conic projection can indicate distances and directions fairly accurately. Differentiated

Instruction GH4 Geography Handbook

Activity: Creating a Graphic Organizer

Visual/Spatial To help students remember “Special-Purpose.” Have students complete the the several different categories and examples organizer by taking notes on each of the differ- of maps discussed in this section, guide them in ent types of maps. OL creating a graphic organizer entitled “Types of Maps.” Branching this main head should be three boxes labeled “Political,” “Physical,” and

GH4 Geography Handbook

Common Map Projections Robinson Projection Each type of map projection has advantages C Critical Thinking and some degree of inaccuracy. Four of the most ARCTIC CIRCLE common projections are shown here. Comparing and Contrasting Ask students to cover the text and Winkel Tripel Projection TROPIC OF CANCER look at the selected projections. EQUATOR AR CTIC CIRCLE Ask: What is one similarity and TROPIC OF CAPRICORN PRIME MERIDIAN one difference between the

TR OPIC OF CANCER Winkel Tripel Projection and the ANTARCTIC CIRCLE Goode’s Interrupted Equal-Area EQUATOR The Robinson projection has minor distortions. The sizes and Projection? (similarity: both show

RICORN PRIME MERIDIAN shapes near the eastern and western edges of the map are TROPIC OF CAP accurate, and outlines of the continents appear much as they all of the continents; difference: do on the globe. However, the polar areas are flattened. Goode’s projection splits Antarctica TIC CIRCLE ANTARC into four pieces, while the Winkel Mercator Projection Tripel projection does not.) BL Most general reference world maps are the Winkel Tripel pro- R jection. It provides a good balance between the size and shape of land areas as they are shown on the map. Even the polar C areas are depicted with little distortion of size and shape. R Reading Strategy ARCTIC CIRCLE Analyzing Text Structure Goode’s Interrupted Equal-Area Projection Have students read the selected ARCTIC CIRCLE captions. Ask: How is the infor- TROPIC OF CANCER

A I mation structured in these cap- D EQUATOR TROPIC OF CANCER I R

M TROPIC OF CAPRICORN tions? (Both captions propose a

EQUATOR E

I R PRIME MERIDIAN TROPIC OF CAPRICORN P benefit of the projection, followed by a drawback.) OL ANTARCTIC CIRCLE ANTARCTIC CIRCLE An interrupted projection resembles a globe that has been cut apart and laid flat. Goode’s Interrupted Equal-Area pro- The Mercator projection increasingly distorts size and distance jection shows the true size and shape of Earth’s landmasses, as it moves away from the Equator. However, Mercator pro- but distances are generally distorted. jections do accurately show true directions and the shapes of landmasses, making these maps useful for sea travel.

Practicing SKILLS

1. Explain the signiﬁ cance of: map projection, planar, 5. Use a Venn diagram like the one below to identify the cylindrical, conic, interrupted projection. similarities and differences between the Winkel Tripel 2. How does a cartographer determine which map pro- and Mercator projections. jection to use?

3. How is Goode’s Interrupted Equal-Area projection dif- Winkel Tripel Mercator ferent from the Mercator projection? projection projection 4. Which of the four common projections described above is the best one to use when showing the entire world? Why?

Geography Handbook GH5

Answers areas not too far from the Equator; inter- 4. Winkel Tripel, because it distorts the size 1. map projection: projecting image of rupted projection: shows true size and and shape of landmasses the least. earth onto a flat surface to make a shape of Earth but distorts distances 5. Both show all continents with little to map, different projections have their 2. by deciding what it will be used for to no distortion of shape. Mercator shows advantages/disadvantages. planar: determine the least distortion true direction, but distorts land size shows shortest distance between points, 3. Goode distorts distances while show- and distance. Winkel Tripel shows little most often used for maps of the Poles; size distortion. cylindrical: most accurate near the ing the true size and shape. Mercator Equator; conic: best for limited east-west distorts size and distances but shows true directions. GH5 Geography Handbook

Determining Location S Skill Practice Geography is often said to begin with the question: Where? The basic tool for answering the question is location. Lines on globes and maps Visual Literacy Have students provide information that can help you locate places. These lines cross study the selected figures. Ask: one another forming a pattern called a grid system, which helps you find What are two differences exact places on the Earth’s surface. between longitude and latitude? A hemisphere is one of the halves into which the Earth is divided. Geographers divide the Earth into hemispheres to help them classify (Lines of latitude run horizontally and describe places on Earth. Most places are located in two of the four and are parallel. Lines of longitude hemispheres. 90°N (North Pole) 75°N run vertically and intersect at the 60°N poles.) OL Latitude 45°N Lines of latitude, or parallels, circle the Earth parallel 30°N to the Equator and measure the distance north or south Differentiated of the Equator in degrees. The Equator is measured at D 15°N Instruction 0° latitude, while the Poles lie at latitudes 90°N (north) 0° (Equator) Logical/Mathematical Have and 90°S (south). Parallels north of the Equator are called north latitude. Parallels south of the Equator are 15°S students use the Internet or library called south latitude. resources to determine their exact 30°S 45°S absolute location. If you have 60°S 75°S access to GPS equipment, you may S 90°S (South Pole) wish to let students use it to check their work. OL Longitude Lines of longitude, or meridians, circle the Earth from Pole to Pole. These lines measure distance east or west of the Prime Meridian at 0° longitude. Meridians east of the Prime Meridian are known as east latitude. Meridians west of the Prime Meridian

60°W are known as west longitude. The 180° meridian on 45°W 60°E the opposite side of the Earth is called the International 30°W 45°E 15°W 30°E Date Line. 0° (Prime Meridian) 15°E

90°N (North Pole) 75°N 60°N The Global Grid 45°N Every place has a global address, or absolute location. 30°N

You can identify the absolute location of a place by Tokyo 15°N D naming the latitude and longitude lines that cross exactly at that place. For example, Tokyo, Japan, is located at 0° (Equator)

36°N latitude and 140°E longitude. For more precise 15°S readings, each degree is further divided into 60 units 30°S called minutes. 60°E 45°S 75°E 135°E 90°E 120°E Hands-On 105°E

Chapter Project GH6 Geography Handbook

Creating a Global Putting It Together Tell students to a separate sheet of paper. Each correct Treasure Hunt “bury” their treasure in each of the loca- answer earns another clue to a new locations. Then have students use the facts they tion, eventually leading to the buried trea- Directions Organize students into teams learned about the place to create clues for sure, so remind students to make sure their and have each team choose 10 places on a Treasure Atlas. Clues will be locations, clues follow a logical route. OL Earth to research and study. Students may that, when followed, will lead to the buried choose places that are well known or unfa- treasure. The correct response to each clue miliar. However, all places should be on will be a place name and coordinates that land and located at least 50 miles (80 km) can be easily looked up. Clues should be from each other. Tell students to make a list written on index cards. Students should of 8–10 interesting facts about each place. list all the clues with their answers on

GH6 Geography Handbook

Northern and Southern Eastern and Western Hemispheres Hemispheres S Skill Practice The diagram below shows that the Equator The Prime Meridian and the International Date divides the Earth into the Northern and Southern Line divide the Earth into the Eastern and Western Visual Literacy Point out that Hemispheres. Everything north of the Equator is Hemispheres. Every thing east of the Prime most people probably are not used in the Northern Hemisphere. Everything south Meridian for 180° is in the Eastern Hemisphere. to seeing the globe from these of the Equator is in the Southern Hemisphere. Everything west of the Prime Meridian for 180° is angles. Ask: What view do these Northern Hemisphere in the Western Hemisphere. Eastern Hemisphere illustrations show? (the globe viewed from the top and the bottom) EUROPE Ask: How do you generally view ATLANTIC NORTH OCEAN AMERICA ASIA the globe? (from the side, along the PACIFIC PACIFIC OCEAN Equator) If students still struggle to OCEAN North AFRICA understand the difference between EUROPE Pole C AFRICA these views, use an actual globe to ASIA INDIAN show them the view reflected in OCEAN AUSTRALIA the illustration. BL

S Southern Hemisphere C Critical Thinking Western Hemisphere INDIAN Detecting Bias Ask: Since OCEAN planet Earth has no true top or AUSTRALIA NORTH AMERICA bottom, why do globes show AFRICA ATLANTIC OCEAN Europe on the top half of Earth? ANTARCTICA South (early map makers and explorers ATLANTIC Pole OCEAN were from Europe) AL PACIFIC SOUTH OCEAN PACIFIC AMERICA OCEAN SOUTH AMERICA

Practicing SKILLS

1. Explain the signiﬁ cance of: location, grid system, world cities. Have a partner try to identify the cities. hemisphere, Northern Hemisphere, Southern 5. Use a chart like the one below to identify the conti- Hemisphere, Eastern Hemisphere, Western Hemisphere, nents in each hemisphere. Some may be in more than latitude, longitude, Prime Meridian, absolute location. one hemisphere. 2. Why do all maps label the Equator 0° latitude and the Hemisphere Continents Prime Meridian 0° longitude? Northern 3. Which lines of latitude and longitude divide the Earth into hemispheres? Southern 4. Using the Reference Atlas maps, ﬁ ll in a chart like the Eastern one below by writing the latitude and longitude of three Western

Geography Handbook GH7

Answers east of the Prime Meridian for 180°; 4. Answers will vary according to cities 1. location: a specific place on Earth; grid Western Hemisphere: everything west chosen. system: pattern formed as the lines of of the Prime Meridian for 180° 5. Northern: North America, Asia, latitude and longitude cross one 2. They are where the division between Europe, Africa; Eastern: Asia, Europe, another; hemisphere: half of a sphere or north/south (N/S) and east/west (E/W) Africa, Australia; Southern: Antarctica, globe; Northern Hemisphere: everything occur, respectively. Australia, South America, Africa; north of the Equator; Southern 3. Equator and Prime Meridian Western: North America, South Hemisphere: everything south of the America Equator; Eastern Hemisphere: everything

GH7GH7 Geography Handbook

Reading a Map S Skill Practice In addition to latitude and longitude, maps feature other important tools to help you interpret the information they contain. Learning to Using Geography Skills Have use these map tools will help you read the symbolic language of maps students use the scale bar on the more easily. map to calculate the distance in kilometers between Paris and Key Stockholm. First, have students use Title The key lists and explains the symbols, colors, and lines a ruler to measure the distance The title tells you what kind of used on the map. The key is sometimes called a legend. between the cities on the map in information the map is showing. centimeters (4.5 cm). Then, have Europe: Political students measure the map’s scale 30°W 20°W 10°W 10°E 20°E 40°E 50°E in centimeters. (600 km 5 1.7 cm) 0° 30°E Ask: How can you use this to find Scale Bar A National RCTIC ICELAND CIRCLE boundary the distance between Paris and The scale bar shows the relation- Den. National Stockholm? (set up a proportion: ship between map measurements 60°N capital and actual distances on the Earth. Major city 0 600 kilometers 600 km x By laying a ruler along the scale 5 S 0 600 miles SWEDEN bar, you can calculate how many Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area projection NORWAY Helsingfors 1.7 cm 4 cm (Helsinki) miles or kilometers are represented N Christiania St. (Oslo) 600 km 3 4 cm per inch or centimeter. The map W Petersburg x 5 Stockholm projection used to create the map is E North a S e 1.7 cm Sea S often listed near the scale bar. DENMARK ic UNITED lt x OL Copenhagen Ba RUSSIA 5 1,412 km) 50°N KINGDOM R NETH. Compass Rose Amsterdam Berlin The compass rose indicates London ATLANTIC GERMANY R Reading Strategy directions. The four cardinal Brussels BELG. directions— north, south, east, and OCEAN Paris LUX. Reading Maps Ask: According Bern Vienna west — are usually indicated with Budapest FRANCE LIECHT. to the map, what is the capital of arrows or the points of a star. SWITZ. AUSTRIA-HUNGARY Belgrade ROMANIA SAN Bucharest Black The intermediate directions — MONACO MARINO Russia? (St. Petersburg) Ask: What 40°N Sarajevo Sea SERBIA northeast, northwest, southeast, ANDORRA ITALY BULGARIA major city is located southeast of PORTUGAL MONT. and southwest — may also be shown. Madrid Cetinje Soﬁa OL Lisbon SPAIN Rome Tirane¨ Constantinople Vienna? (Budapest) ALBANIA Cities Seville GREECE OTTOMAN Mediter EMPIRE ranean Cities are represented by a dot. Athens Sea Sometimes the relative sizes of CYPRUS AFRICA MALTA U.K. cities are shown using dots of differ- U.K. ent sizes.

Capitals Boundary Lines National capitals are On political maps of large areas, boundary often represented by lines highlight the borders between differ- a star within a circle. ent countries or states. Additional

Support GH8 Geography Handbook

Activity: Technology Connection

Contrasting Have students use an Internet close view? (distant view) Ask: What view mapping Web site to help them understand would show the names of neighboring streets? scale. Tell students to find a particular location, (closer view) Point out that a distant view corre- such as their school or home address. Then sponds to an increase in scale: it allows you to have them use the map’s zoom function to help view a wider area but you cannot see much visualize the benefits of increasing and decreas- detail. Conversely, a close view corresponds to a ing scale when viewing a location. Ask: To find decrease in scale: detail is increased, but the the nearest lake, would you use a distant or a size of the area is diminished. OL

GH8 Geography Handbook

Using Scale All maps are drawn to a certain scale. Scale is a consistent, proportional relationship between the measurements shown on the map and W Writing Support the measurement of the Earth’s surface. Expository Writing To give W Small-Scale Maps A small-scale map, like this Large-Scale Maps A large-scale map, like this students practice thinking about political map of France, can show a large area map of Paris, can show a small area with a great scale, have them write about two but little detail. Note that the scale bar on this amount of detail. Study the scale bar. Note that imaginary experiences. First, have map indicates that about 1 inch is equal to the map measurements correspond to much 200 miles. smaller distances than on the map of France. students imagine they are an ant beginning to climb a tree. Next, France: Political The City of Paris have them imagine they are giants MONTMARTRE Sacré Coeur 5°W U.K. 0° 5°E 10°E AV BLVD DE VILLIERS B bending down to look at a nest in el Lille BELG. DE LVD Gare Chann LUX. BLVD D N English 50°N TERNES LLES E C du Nord IGNO LICHY OL DES MALESHERBESBAT N the top of the same tree. GERMANY LVD B LLES Gare W Place RCE PARC E COU Gare de l’Est Charles MONCEAU W E de Gaulle St. Lazare S Paris BLVD (Étoile) HAUSSMANN S Arc de Triomphe Differentiated GRANDS Orléans Opéra BLVD DE D Nantes CH AM ATL ANTIC P STRASBOURG BLVDS Instruction S É FRANCE SWITZ. LYS OCEAN CHAILLOT ÉES Bibliothéque Grand Palais Place de la Nationale Concorde Kinesthetic Have two students Bay of Q TUILERIES Lyon Seine UA GARDENS Biscay ITALY I D RUE DE RIVOL Pompidou stand side-by-side, but 10 feet (3 m) ES BLVD DE 45°N AY TU Center QUAI D’ORS National ILE SÉBASTOPOL Assembly RIES MARAIS National Bordeaux INVALIDES BLVD Louvre I apart. Ask: What is the relative Eiffel ESPLANADE Hôtel boundary Tower de Ville Toulouse Nice DES INVALIDES ST. GERMAIN Île de la Cité position of each student to the Regional Corsica CHAMP SAINT DE MARS BLVD R boundary Marseille Hôtel des Rodin GERMAIN other? (One is 10 feet (3 m) to the Museum Notre National 0 200 kilometers Invalides Dame capital 0 1 kilometer ASPAIL LATIN left. The other is 10 feet (3 m) to the ANDORRA 0 200 miles Luxembourg QUARTER Palace Major city Lambert Azimuthal 0 1 mile SPAIN BLVD Sorbonne BL Equal-Area projection ST MICHEL right.)

Absolute and Relative Location find a reference point—a location you already As you learned on page GH6, absolute location know—on a map. Then look in the appropriate D is the exact point where a line of latitude crosses a direction for the new location. For example, line of longitude. Another way to indicate location locate Paris (your reference point) on the map of is by relative location, or the location of one place France above. The relative location of Lyon can in relation to another. To find relative location, be described as southeast of Paris.

Practicing SKILLS

1. Explain the signiﬁ cance of: key, compass rose, cardinal 4. Describe the relative location of your school in two directions, intermediate directions, scale bar, scale, rela- different ways. tive location. 5. Use a Venn diagram to identify the similarities and 2. Describe the elements of a map that help you inter- differences of small-scale maps and large-scale maps. pret the information displayed on the map.

3. How does the scale bar help you determine distances Small-scale maps Large-scale maps on the Earth’s surface?

Geography Handbook GH9

Answers Earth; scale: consistent, proportional measurements and actual distances on 1. key: lists and explains symbols, colors, relationship between measurements Earth; compass rose indicates direction and lines on map; compass rose: indi- shown on map and measurement of 3. shows the relationship between map cates direction; cardinal directions: Earth’s surface; relative location: loca- measurements and actual distances north, south, east, and west; interme- tion of one place in relation to another 4. Answers will vary according to school. diate directions: northeast, northwest, 2. title tells kind of information shown on southeast, and southwest; scale bar: map; key lists and explains symbols, 5. Small scale shows large areas but little shows relationship between map mea- colors, and lines used on map; scale detail. Large scale shows small area surements and actual distances on bar shows relationship between map with great detail. Both show location.

GH9 Geography Handbook

Physical Maps W Writing Support A physical map shows the location and the topography, or shape of W the Earth’s physical features. A study of a country’s physical features Narrative Writing Have inter- often helps to explain the historical development of the country. For ested students research and write example, mountains may be barriers to transportation, and rivers and a story about a physical feature streams can provide access into the interior of a country. that affected history. Students can explore how mountain ranges and cliffs have served as protection, Texas: Physical how frozen lakes and straits

R G

Water Features O R allowed for travel, or even how E MO. C

A Physical maps show rivers, streams, K T er 36°N the construction of a canal Y iv an R lakes, and other water features. Canadi OKLAHOMA changed transportation. AL M O

U o ARK. d

a N c Lake a Red t Riv T NEW s er Texoma E Landforms A C Critical Thinking MEXICO o n I a P N Ll Physical maps may show landforms L S A Making Generalizations Sab I B ine r R such as mountains, plains, plateaus, N a ive C z r LA. S o Ask: What can relief and eleva- and valleys. s Toledo Bend 32°N Guadalupe Peak Res. 8,749 ft. TEXAS Pec Sam Rayburn Res. tion tell you about rivers? (Both os R (2,667 m) R i N iv v e e e c r r T he N Edwards rin s elements give a sense of direction: Davis Co ity R l i o v Plateau r R Mts. Stockton a e d i o v r Plateau R e W iv water flows downhill so rivers flow Relief E er r Chisos S Balcones from high elevation to lower Physical maps use shading and texture Mts. Escarpment 106°W 102°W n lai Galveston OL to show general relief—the differences in N P elevation.) ueces River l Bay Elevations ta as elevation, or height, of landforms. o Feet Meters C 28°N 4,920 1,500 Matagorda R Bay 1,000 i 3,280 o 1,640 500 MEXICO G Padre 200 ra 655 n Island 0 de 0 Gulf of Mexico 0 100 kilometers

Mountain peak 0 100 miles 98°W 94°W Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area projection

Practicing SKILLS

1. Explain the signiﬁ cance of: physical map, topography, Physical Feature What You Can Learn from the Map relief, elevation. Davis Mountains 2. Complete a table like the one to the right to explain Red River what you can learn from the map about each of the Gulf Coastal Plains physical features listed.

GH10 Geography Handbook

Answers 2. Davis Mountains: location, elevation, 1. physical map: shows location and topogra- length; Red River: location, length, route; phy of Earth’s physical features; topogra- Gulf Coastal Plains: location, elevation, phy: shape of Earth’s physical features; length relief: difference in elevation of landforms; elevation: height

GH10 Geography Handbook

Political Maps Differentiated A political map shows the boundaries and locations of political units D such as countries, states, counties, cities, and towns. Many features Instruction depicted on a political map are human-made, or determined by humans D Gifted and Talented Political rather than by nature. Political maps can show the networks and links that exist within and between political units. maps change more rapidly than physical maps. Have interested students select an area and Texas: Political research how political maps of Human-Made Features this area have changed over time. MO. Political maps show human-made features such Students may be interested to 36°N iver C an R Canadi OKLAHOMA as boundaries, capitals, cities, roads, highways, learn how their own state or Amarillo and railroads. region has changed politically, or ARK. NEW Red R MEXICO iver they may wish to study another Lubbock Wichita area. Have students create a pre- Falls Fort Worth S abin sentation of their findings. AL e Ri Dallas ver B T LA. r r Abilene a in z i 32°N o t y El Paso s R R Pec i i os v v Ri Waco e e v r r C Critical Thinking e r TEXAS C olo ra do Comparing and Contrasting R Beaumont Austin iv er Houston Ask: When you fly in an airplane San Antonio Victoria Galveston and look down at the ground, Nueces er 106°W MEXICO Riv 28°N what human-made features can N State capital Corpus you see? (roads, buildings, farms, Laredo R Christi i Major city o Physical Features G Padre W E ra Island dams, some lakes, railroads) Ask: nd Political maps may show some physical features 0 200 kilometers e S Brownsville such as relief, rivers, and mountains. What human-made features can 0 200 miles Gulf of Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area projection you not see? (boundaries, capital Mexico 102°W 98°W 94°W designation) BL Nonsubject Area Areas surrounding the subject area of the map are usually a different color to set them apart. They are labeled to give you a context for the area you are studying.

Practicing SKILLS

1. Explain the signiﬁ cance of: political map, human-made. Human-Made Feature What You Can Learn from the Map 2. What types of information would you ﬁ nd on a politi- Austin cal map that would not appear on a physical map? El Paso 3. Complete a table like the one to the right to explain Texas state boundary what you can learn from the map about each of the human-made features listed.

Geography Handbook GH11

Answers 3. Austin: location, that it is the capital city 1. political map: shows boundaries and loca- of Texas; El Paso: location; Texas state tions of political units such as countries, boundary: what states border Texas, what states, counties, cities, and towns; human- river forms its southern border made: determined by humans rather than nature 2. capitals, cities, roads, highways, railroads

GH11 Geography Handbook

Thematic Maps S Skill Practice Maps that emphasize a single idea or a particular kind of information about an area are called thematic maps. There are many kinds of the- Visual Literacy Have students matic maps, each designed to serve a different need. This textbook study the “Europe: Slavic includes thematic maps that show exploration and trade, migration of Migrations” map. Ask: What do peoples, economic activities, and war and political conflicts. the arrows on this map repre- sent? (The main routes of migration Qualitative Maps Flow-Line Maps taken by Slavic peoples in c. 700.) Maps that use colors, symbols, lines, or dots to Maps that illustrate the movement of people, Ask: How is color used to present show information related to a specific idea are animals, goods, and ideas, as well as physical information on this map? (It dis- called qualitative maps. Such maps are often processes like hurricanes and glaciers, are called tinguishes the three major groups used to depict historical information. For exam- flow-line maps. Arrows are usually used to rep- ple, the qualitative map below shows the pri- resent the flow and direction of movement. The of Slavs by their place of origin.) mary exports of Latin America. flow-line map below shows the movement of Ask: How would you explain the Slavic peoples throughout Europe. forks that appear in several arrows? (These indicate places Latin America: Europe: Slavic Migrations where immigrants from the same Resources and Exports area of origin diverged into two VENEZUELA ATLANTIC Migration of 20°E 30°E N ESTONIA

Slavic Peoples, c. 700 a OL Au OCEAN E groups.) e FR. W ECUADOR COLOMBIA Au GUIANA Eastern Slavs S (Fr.) c i S t EQUATOR Western Slavs l LATVIA GUYANA a SURINAME 0° Southern Slavs B RUSSIA Au LITHUANIA BRAZIL Present-day PERU RUSSIA PACIFIC boundary OCEAN BOLIVIA 10°E BELARUS PARAGUAY POLANDV i st R u GERMANY . l 20°S a N TRO PIC OF CAPR 50°N ICOR Dn N SLAVIC iep W E er R CZE HOMELAND . CHILE CH UKRAINE S REP. D ARGENTINA URUGUAY ni AKIA este S OV R. r 0 1,000 kilometers SL AUSTRIA MOLDOVA HUNGARY 0 1,000 miles 40°S Lambert Azimuthal SLOV. ROMANIA Equal-Area projection A CROATIA 100°W 80°W 60°W 40°W 20°W d r R. ia BOS.& Danube Black ti HERZ. Resources ITALY c SERBIA Sea Se 60°S a BULGARIA Coal Food 0 200 kilometers Petroleum products MONT. MACEDONIA 0 200 miles Natural gas Primary Products TURKEY Lambert Azimuthal ALBANIA 40°N Coffee as a Percentage Equal-Area projection GREECE Iron ore of Exports Sugarcane Bauxite 75% or more Cotton Copper 50%–74% Au Gold Cut ﬂowers 25%–49% Zinc Leather Less than 25% Timber Wool No data Additional

Support GH12 Geography Handbook

Activity: Collaborative Learning

Collaborative Learning Making Thematic Maps Divide the class map displaying the location of public libraries Ask students if they have diffi- culty distinguishing one color into several groups. Each group will research a or city parks). After groups choose their themes, from another on the map theme that interests them and create a the- each group should designate tasks (research, above. If so, these students may matic map to present to the class. Themes may drawing maps, creating the presentation) benefit from other resources, be national (for example, a U.S. map showing among themselves so that each group member such as maps that make dis- the location of roller coasters or professional participates. Schedule a period for all the groups tinctions using shading or sym- football stadiums) or local (for example, a city to present their maps to the class. OL bols rather than color.

GH12 Geography Handbook

Geographic Information Systems Modern technology has changed the way maps are made. Most car- S Skill Practice tographers use computers with software programs called geographic Visual Literacy Ask: How information systems (GIS). A GIS is designed to accept data from dif- could you make GIS maps with- ferent sources—maps, satellite images, printed text, and statistics. The GIS converts the data into a digital code, which arranges it in a data- out a computer? (You could draw base. Cartographers then program the GIS to process the data and pro- the data on transparencies, and duce maps. With GIS, each kind of information on a map is saved as a layer the transparencies.) OL separate electronic layer. Assess Summarizing Have students work in pairs to make study cards for the Geography Handbook. Students can use main headings and subheadings to organize the section material. When the cards Copyright © 2008 by David W. Boles. All Rights Reserved. Copyright © 2008 by David W. Boles. All Rights Reserved. Copyright © 2008 by David W. Boles. All Rights Reserved. S are finished, have students take 1 The first layer of information in a GIS 2 Additional layers of information are 3 Complex information can be presented turns testing each other on what pinpoints the area of interest. This allows the added based on the problem or issue being using more than one layer. For example, the they have learned. OL user to see, in detail, the area he or she studied. In this case, hospital administrators hospital’s surrounding neighborhoods needs to study. In this case, the area of study want to find out about the population living include other groups in addition to African is a 5 mile (8 km) radius around Christ in neighborhoods near the hospital so they Americans. A third layer showing whites who Hospital in Jersey City, New Jersey. can offer the community what it needs. A live within the 5 mile (8 km) radius has been second layer showing African Americans who added to the GIS. Administrators can now live within the 5 mile (8 km) radius has been use this information to help them make deci- Close added to the GIS. sions about staffing and services associated Identifying Ask: What are the with the hospital. four main types of maps? (physical, political, qualitative, and flow-line)

Practicing SKILLS

1. Explain the signiﬁ cance of: thematic map, qualitative 5. Complete a chart like the one below by identifying maps, ﬂ ow-line maps. three examples of each type of thematic map found in 2. Which type of thematic map would best show the this textbook. Note the page numbers of each. spread of Islam during Muhammad’s time? Qualitative Maps Flow-Line Maps 3. Which type of thematic map would best show average income per capita in the United States? 4. How does GIS allow cartographers to create maps and make changes to maps quickly and easily?

Geography Handbook GH13

Answers 2. qualitative 1. thematic map: emphasizes a single idea or 3. flow-line particular kind of information about an area; qualitative map: uses colors, symbols, 4. by allowing information to be stored and lines, or dots to show information related displayed on separate electronic layers to a specific idea; flow-line map: illustrates 5. Answers will vary. Note that most maps movement of people, animals, goods, and in the text are qualitative maps; most ideas, as well as physical processes like climate maps are qualitative and flow-line. hurricanes and glaciers

GH13 Geographic Dictionary

Volcano Mountain peak

Strait Sound Valley Cape Island

Ocean Cliff

Isthmus

Bay Harbor As you read about the history of the United States, you will Gulf Delta encounter the terms listed below. Many of the terms are pictured in Peninsula the diagram. Seacoast

absolute location exact location of a place on the earth described glacier large, thick body of slowly moving ice by global coordinates gulf part of a large body of water that extends into a basin area of land drained by a given river and its branches; area shoreline, generally larger and more deeply indented of land surrounded by lands of higher elevations than a bay bay part of a large body of water that extends into a shoreline, harbor a sheltered place along a shoreline where ships can generally smaller than a gulf anchor safely canyon deep and narrow valley with steep walls highland elevated land area such as a hill, mountain, cape point of land that extends into a river, lake, or ocean or plateau channel wide strait or waterway between two landmasses that lie hill elevated land with sloping sides and rounded summit; close to each other; deep part of a river or other waterway generally smaller than a mountain cliff steep, high wall of rock, earth, or ice island land area, smaller than a continent, completely surrounded continent one of the seven large landmasses on the earth by water cultural feature characteristic that humans have created in a isthmus narrow stretch of land connecting two larger place, such as language, religion, housing, and settlement land areas pattern lake a large inland body of water delta flat, low-lying lan d built up from soil carried downstream by latitude distance north or south of the Equator, measured in a river and deposited at its mouth degrees divide stretch of high land that separates river systems longitude distance east or west of the Prime Meridian, measured downstream direction in which a river or stream flows from its in degrees source to its mouth lowland land, usually level, at a low elevation elevation height of land above sea level map drawing of the earth shown on a flat surface Equator imaginary line that runs around the earth halfway meridian one of many lines on the global grid running from the between the North and South Poles; used as the starting point North Pole to the South Pole; used to measure degrees of to measure degrees of north and south latitude longitude

GH14 Mountain range

Source of Glacier river Channel Highland

Lake Plateau Hills

Canyon Mouth of river

River Desert Upstream Downstream Plain Lowland Basin Tributary

mesa broad, flat-topped landform with steep sides; smaller than a Prime Meridian line of the global grid running from the plateau North Pole to the South Pole at Greenwich, England; mountain land with steep sides that rises sharply (1,000 feet or starting point for measuring degrees of east and west more) from surrounding land; generally larger and more rug- longitude ged than a hill relief changes in elevation over a given area of land mountain peak pointed top of a mountain river large natural stream of water that runs through the land mountain range a series of connected mountains sea large body of water completely or partly surrounded mouth (of a river) place where a stream or river flows into a by land larger body of water seacoast land lying next to a sea or ocean ocean one of the four major bodies of salt water that surround the sea level position on land level with surface of nearby ocean continents or sea ocean current stream of either cold or warm water that moves in sound body of water between a coastline and one or more islands a definite direction through an ocean off the coast parallel one of many lines on the global grid that circle the earth source (of a river) place where a river or stream begins, often in north or south of the Equator; used to measure degrees of highlands latitude strait narrow stretch of water joining two larger bodies of peninsula body of land jutting into a lake or ocean, surrounded water on three sides by water physical feature characteristic of a place occurring naturally, tributary small river or stream that flows into a larger river or such as a landform, body of water, climate pattern, or stream; a branch of the river resource upstream direction opposite the flow of a river; toward the source plain area of level land, usually at a low elevation and often of a river or stream covered with grasses valley area of low land between hills or mountains plateau large area of flat or rolling land at a high elevation, about volcano mountain created as ash or liquid rock erupts from inside 300–3,000 feet high the earth

GH15