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arts Article Women Architects in the Transition: Comparative Analysis of ‘Palomeras’ Dwellings, Madrid (Spain) Angel Cordero Ampuero Departamento de Composición Arquitectónica, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain; [email protected] Received: 31 January 2020; Accepted: 6 April 2020; Published: 14 April 2020 Abstract: This study examines the contribution of women architects to Palomeras operation projects in the context of the Spanish transition and the Madrid housing emergency in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Works were selected according to their professional impacts; 11 projects were analyzed by redrawing and studying the main types of dwelling. The current reading interpretation—according to a gender perspective—focuses on reproduction of tasks in main spaces at home: in-depth testing of the scope of kitchen surface and glazing ratios, as well as direct lighting, views and minimum distance of housekeeping paths. Furthermore, the comparative and qualitative analysis was based on meaningful data, which yield subtle but expressive results about the consequences of gender-inclusive architect teams. Thus, it is possible to approach and discuss the role played by some women architects of the Madrid School after second-wave feminism, in a key time for gender change in architectural practice in Spain. Keywords: architecture; architectural analysis; gender studies; urban planning; architectural design; housing; domestic space; kitchen design 1. Introduction 1.1. Palomeras Neighborhood By the end of the 1970s, Spain was immersed in a complex political shift towards democracy. The first milestones of that evolution took place before the death of the dictator Francisco Franco in 1975 (Tamames 1988), a period known as the Spanish transition (Tusell 1997). The approval of the new constitution, voted for by Spaniards on 6 December 1978, marked a crucial moment for the Transition to a political democracy system. From that moment, at least until the general election held on 28 October 1982, won by the Socialists (Partido Socialista Obrero Español, PSOE), the Spanish political system experienced accelerated changes that transformed the whole society. Political changes in Madrid started as early as April 1979, when the first municipal democratic elections allowed socialists from the PSOE and communists from the PCE (Partido Comunista de España) rule the city in a coalition, under the Mayor of Madrid, Enrique Tierno Galván. That climate of social agitation coincided with a deep economic crisis, which started in 1973; from that substratum emerged a strong local movement, unusual in Spanish history, which in fact faded away when the first democratic decade came to an end. This struggle, identified with the “social debt” from Franco’s regime (Miquel 2003), began in Madrid as a resistance to the re-housing of slums, reasonably close to the urban center, which were in danger of being “thrown out” of the city and moved to an outer metropolitan circle (Figure1). After many confrontations, neighbors managed to meet Joaqu ín Garrigues Walker, Minister of Public Works and Urbanism, and finally got a “communicated order” signed by his successor Jesús Sancho Rof on 25 May 1979, under the third office of Adolfo Suárez González; it meant a compromise: a new policy of social housing. This was the starting point for the Remodelación de Barrios (neighborhood Arts 2020, 9, 48; doi:10.3390/arts9020048 www.mdpi.com/journal/arts Arts 20202020,, 99,, 48x FOR PEER REVIEW 22 of of 16 Remodelación de Barrios (neighborhood remodeling) program in Madrid that affected 28 districts and remodeling)close to 40,000 program lodgings; in it Madrid was “the that biggest affected operation 28 districts of urban and close outskirts to 40,000 housing lodgings; in Europe it was during “the biggestthe 1980s” operation (Román of 2003, urban p. outskirts265). housing in Europe during the 1980s” (Román 2003, p. 265). Figure 1. Madrid plan, 1978. Palomeras Palomeras area surrounde surroundedd by a red circle. Created by author. Palomeras waswas thethe districtdistrict mainly mainly concerned concerned in in the the operation, operation, as as 10,334 10,334 flats flats were were built built on on 460 460 ha (haLó pez(López de Lucio de Lucio 2003). 2003). Due to Due its size, to its the size, area wasthe dividedarea was into divided three sectors: into three Palomeras sectors: Sureste—East Palomeras ofSureste—East Avenida Pablo of Neruda;Avenida Palomeras Pablo Neruda; Norte—North Palomeras of Avenida Norte—North de la Albufera; of Avenida Palomeras de la Sur—South Albufera; ofPalomeras Avenida Sur—South de la Albufera. of Avenida Finally, this de southernla Albufera. sector Finally, was segregated this southern as Palomeras sector was Sur segregated and Madrid as Sur,Palomeras the latter Sur developedand Madrid according Sur, the latter to the developed new urban according planning to of the 1987 new (Guerra urban deplanning la Vega of 1989 1987). However,(Guerra de the la three Vega previous 1989). However, areas had tothe maintain three prev a sortious of areas planning had which to maintain was considered a sort of obsolete planning at thewhich time, was with considered open blocks obsolete and high at density.the time, Neighbors’ with open associations blocks and were high in favordensity. of theNeighbors’ solution, butassociations technical were opinions in favor showed of the againstsolution, it but (Perib tecáhnicalñez Ayala opinions 2003 showed). Under against these it circumstances, (Peribáñez Ayala the professionals2003). Under centered these circumstances, themselves on architectonicthe profession andals constructive centered qualitiesthemselves as theon targetarchitectonic for the rescue and ofconstructive the urban landscapequalities as (Capitel the target 1983 for). the rescue of the urban landscape (Capitel 1983). This type of urbanism began just at the en endd of the Civil War when Technical OOfficeffice ofof JuntaJunta de ReconstrucciReconstrucciónón de Madrid (Reconstruction Council) started to work.work. Headed Headed by by Pedro Bidagor, thisthis oofficeffice waswas responsibleresponsible forfor thethe designdesign ofof PlanPlan GeneralGeneral dede OrdenaciOrdenaciónón UrbanaUrbana dede Madrid (Madrid(Madrid MasterMaster Plan), completed in 1941 and finallyfinally validatedvalidated asas ActAct inin 1946:1946: a plan designed to constraint the urban expansion insideinside a a green green belt, belt, crowned crowned by satellite by satellite settlements. settlements. Thus, PalomerasThus, Palomeras nucleus nucleus was planned was forplanned 50,000 for inhabitants 50,000 inhabitants (Sambricio (Sambricio 1999, p. 192) 1999, through p. 192) a Plan through Parcial a (localPlan Parcial master (local plan), master a development plan), a waydevelopment of planning way imported of planning from Italian imported 1942 Law.from Despite Italian of1942 the datesLaw. andDespite its ideological of the dates determinants, and its Bidagorideological Plan determinants, influenced the Bidagor growth Plan of Madrid influenced for years: the growth it ruled of until Madrid 1964, for when years: was it adopted ruled until the Plan1964, General when dewas Ordenaci adoptedón deltheÁ Planrea Metropolitana General de Ordenación de Madrid del(General Área Metropolitana Metropolitan de Area Madrid Zoning (General Plan). Then,Metropolitan the new Area plan wasZoning overtaken Plan). byThen, private the capitalnew plan land was speculation, overtaken in collusionby private with capital municipal land government.speculation, in Thus, collusion Palomeras with startedmunicipal the government.Remodelación deThus, Barrios Palomeraswith an started urban regulationthe Remodelación designed de forBarrios a population with an urban density regulation of 500 per designed Ha, characterized for a population by “the proliferationdensity of 500 of per five-bays Ha, characterized and light-wells by blocks, solid high arrangements, with clearly abusive density” (Terán 1999, p. 254). Arts 2020, 9, 48 3 of 16 Meanwhile, Instituto Nacional de Vivienda (National Agency of Housing, INV) started working in 1939 on social housing regulations. From then until 1957, INV endeavored the unsuccessful task of promoting houses; then, from the establishment of the Ministry of Housing and, moreover, after 1959 Stabilization Plan and its macroeconomic changes, INV evolved into a verifier agency for private initiatives, as required under Decree 2114/1968 Regulations Implementing the Social Housing laws of 1963 and 1964. In November 1976, a year after Franco’s death, a new Social Housing Act was approved; by then, just before decentralization of Spanish Kingdom, INV could still promote, under exceptional circumstances, but was mainly devoted to grant “the status of social housing to projects which met the objective requirements” (Ministerio de la Vivienda 1976, p. 25773). Subsequent development of this law, 17 May 1977 was adopted the new Design Rules for Social Housing, in force at Palomeras remodeling time. Summarizing, technical rules, planning regulations, the issue of management and the public pressure hardly allowed some subtle changes in housing designs for Palomeras, every one of them composed in common linear blocks or residential towers (Martínez Santamaría 2003). 1.2. Spanish Women Architects Throughout the 20th century, and especially during Franco’s Regime, women encountered serious obstacles to studying architecture, and it was only by the end of the 1970s that their numbers increased in a significant