Downloading the Daily Shopping, As Well As Caring for Children While Working

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Article Women Architects in the Transition: Comparative Analysis of ‘Palomeras’ Dwellings, Madrid (Spain)

Angel Cordero Ampuero

Departamento de Composición Arquitectónica, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain; [email protected]

Received: 31 January 2020; Accepted: 6 April 2020; Published: 14 April 2020

Abstract: This study examines the contribution of women architects to Palomeras operation projects in the context of the Spanish transition and the Madrid housing emergency in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Works were selected according to their professional impacts; 11 projects were analyzed by redrawing and studying the main types of dwelling. The current reading interpretation—according to a gender perspective—focuses on reproduction of tasks in main spaces at home: in-depth testing of the scope of kitchen surface and glazing ratios, as well as direct lighting, views and minimum distance of housekeeping paths. Furthermore, the comparative and qualitative analysis was based on meaningful data, which yield subtle but expressive results about the consequences of gender-inclusive architect teams. Thus, it is possible to approach and discuss the role played by some women architects of the Madrid School after second-wave feminism, in a key time for gender change in architectural practice in Spain.

Keywords: architecture; architectural analysis; gender studies; urban planning; architectural design; housing; domestic space; kitchen design

1. Introduction

1.1. Palomeras Neighborhood By the end of the 1970s, Spain was immersed in a complex political shift towards democracy. The first milestones of that evolution took place before the death of the dictator Francisco Franco in 1975 (Tamames 1988), a period known as the Spanish transition (Tusell 1997). The approval of the new constitution, voted for by Spaniards on 6 December 1978, marked a crucial moment for the Transition to a political democracy system. From that moment, at least until the general election held on 28 October 1982, won by the Socialists (Partido Socialista Obrero Español, PSOE), the Spanish political system experienced accelerated changes that transformed the whole society. Political changes in Madrid started as early as April 1979, when the first municipal democratic elections allowed socialists from the PSOE and communists from the PCE (Partido Comunista de España) rule the city in a coalition, under the Mayor of Madrid, Enrique Tierno Galván. That climate of social agitation coincided with a deep economic crisis, which started in 1973; from that substratum emerged a strong local movement, unusual in Spanish history, which in fact faded away when the first democratic decade came to an end. This struggle, identified with the “social debt” from Franco’s regime (Miquel 2003), began in Madrid as a resistance to the re-housing of slums, reasonably close to the urban center, which were in danger of being “thrown out” of the city and moved to an outer metropolitan circle (Figure1). After many confrontations, neighbors managed to meet Joaqu ín Garrigues Walker, Minister of Public Works and Urbanism, and finally got a “communicated order” signed by his successor Jesús Sancho Rof on 25 May 1979, under the third office of Adolfo Suárez González; it meant a compromise: a new policy of social housing. This was the starting point for the Remodelación de Barrios (neighborhood

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Remodelación de Barrios (neighborhood remodeling) program in Madrid that affected 28 districts and remodeling)close to 40,000 program lodgings; in it Madrid was “the that biggest aﬀected operation 28 districts of urban and close outskirts to 40,000 housing lodgings; in Europe it was during “the biggestthe 1980s” operation (Román of 2003, urban p. outskirts265). housing in Europe during the 1980s” (Román 2003, p. 265).

Figure 1. Madrid plan, 1978. Palomeras Palomeras area surrounde surroundedd by a red circle. Created by author.

Palomeras waswas thethe districtdistrict mainly mainly concerned concerned in in the the operation, operation, as as 10,334 10,334 flats flats were were built built on on 460 460 ha (haLó pez(López de Lucio de Lucio 2003). 2003). Due to Due its size, to its the size, area wasthe dividedarea was into divided three sectors: into three Palomeras sectors: Sureste—East Palomeras ofSureste—East Avenida Pablo of Neruda;Avenida Palomeras Pablo Neruda; Norte—North Palomeras of Avenida Norte—North de la Albufera; of Avenida Palomeras de la Sur—South Albufera; ofPalomeras Avenida Sur—South de la Albufera. of Avenida Finally, this de southernla Albufera. sector Finally, was segregated this southern as Palomeras sector was Sur segregated and Madrid as Sur,Palomeras the latter Sur developedand Madrid according Sur, the latter to the developed new urban according planning to of the 1987 new (Guerra urban deplanning la Vega of 1989 1987). However,(Guerra de the la three Vega previous 1989). However, areas had tothe maintain three prev a sortious of areas planning had which to maintain was considered a sort of obsolete planning at thewhich time, was with considered open blocks obsolete and high at density.the time, Neighbors’ with open associations blocks and were high in favordensity. of theNeighbors’ solution, butassociations technical were opinions in favor showed of the againstsolution, it but (Perib tecáhnicalñez Ayala opinions 2003 showed). Under against these it circumstances, (Peribáñez Ayala the professionals2003). Under centered these circumstances, themselves on architectonicthe profession andals constructive centered qualitiesthemselves as theon targetarchitectonic for the rescue and ofconstructive the urban landscapequalities as (Capitel the target 1983 for). the rescue of the urban landscape (Capitel 1983). This type of urbanism began just at the en endd of the Civil War when Technical OOfficeffice ofof JuntaJunta de ReconstrucciReconstrucciónón de Madrid (Reconstruction Council) started to work.work. Headed Headed by by Pedro Bidagor, thisthis oofficeffice waswas responsibleresponsible forfor thethe designdesign ofof PlanPlan GeneralGeneral dede OrdenaciOrdenaciónón UrbanaUrbana dede Madrid (Madrid(Madrid MasterMaster Plan), completed in 1941 and finallyfinally validatedvalidated asas ActAct inin 1946:1946: a plan designed to constraint the urban expansion insideinside a a green green belt, belt, crowned crowned by satellite by satellite settlements. settlements. Thus, PalomerasThus, Palomeras nucleus nucleus was planned was forplanned 50,000 for inhabitants 50,000 inhabitants (Sambricio (Sambricio 1999, p. 192) 1999, through p. 192) a Plan through Parcial a (localPlan Parcial master (local plan), master a development plan), a waydevelopment of planning way imported of planning from Italian imported 1942 Law.from Despite Italian of1942 the datesLaw. andDespite its ideological of the dates determinants, and its Bidagorideological Plan determinants, influenced the Bidagor growth Plan of Madrid influenced for years: the growth it ruled of until Madrid 1964, for when years: was it adopted ruled until the Plan1964, General when dewas Ordenaci adoptedón deltheÁ Planrea Metropolitana General de Ordenación de Madrid del(General Área Metropolitana Metropolitan de Area Madrid Zoning (General Plan). Then,Metropolitan the new Area plan wasZoning overtaken Plan). byThen, private the capitalnew plan land was speculation, overtaken in collusionby private with capital municipal land government.speculation, in Thus, collusion Palomeras with startedmunicipal the government.Remodelación deThus, Barrios Palomeraswith an started urban regulationthe Remodelación designed de forBarrios a population with an urban density regulation of 500 per designed Ha, characterized for a population by “the proliferationdensity of 500 of per five-bays Ha, characterized and light-wells by blocks, solid high arrangements, with clearly abusive density” (Terán 1999, p. 254).

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Meanwhile, Instituto Nacional de Vivienda (National Agency of Housing, INV) started working in 1939 on social housing regulations. From then until 1957, INV endeavored the unsuccessful task of promoting houses; then, from the establishment of the Ministry of Housing and, moreover, after 1959 Stabilization Plan and its macroeconomic changes, INV evolved into a veriﬁer agency for private initiatives, as required under Decree 2114/1968 Regulations Implementing the Social Housing laws of 1963 and 1964. In November 1976, a year after Franco’s death, a new Social Housing Act was approved; by then, just before decentralization of Spanish Kingdom, INV could still promote, under exceptional circumstances, but was mainly devoted to grant “the status of social housing to projects which met the objective requirements” (Ministerio de la Vivienda 1976, p. 25773). Subsequent development of this law, 17 May 1977 was adopted the new Design Rules for Social Housing, in force at Palomeras remodeling time. Summarizing, technical rules, planning regulations, the issue of management and the public pressure hardly allowed some subtle changes in housing designs for Palomeras, every one of them composed in common linear blocks or residential towers (Martínez Santamaría 2003).

1.2. Spanish Women Architects Throughout the 20th century, and especially during Franco’s Regime, women encountered serious obstacles to studying architecture, and it was only by the end of the 1970s that their numbers increased in a significant way in the three Spanish universities of Madrid, Barcelona and Seville (Agudo and Sánchez de Madariaga 2011). It means that only a few women were able to act as architects in offices located in Madrid in the days when the big operation of remodeling of districts led to the building of 10,000 apartments in Palomeras. We are referring to professionals selected, in those days, from the upper classes, occasionally daughters or wives of architects who, in any case, had climbed a critical step in gender demands. What can we say of women belonging to those thousands of families who finally got a suitable flat in Palomeras after suffering difficulties for years in slums almost without any basic services? Without going into too much detail, we must consider that, by 1981, nuclear families with a male head of family accounted for two-thirds of the population, and that half of them comprised four or more members (de Miguel 1992). If we consider, on the other hand, the activity in productive works, it is evident that the reproductive work was handled in those days by the female population, even if they were engaged in paid activities too. Given such negative circumstances, this paper raises quite an easy question: From a gender perspective, are we able to recognize the contribution of women architects integrated into the teams that worked on those projects? In the information that will be analyzed, belonging to 11 housing projects, a woman architect led only one team, Carmen Bravo Durá. In the other seven teams, only two women are mentioned: Carmen Herrero Izquierdo, in the team directed by Javier Frechilla and José Manuel López-Peláez, in charge of two projects; and Juana María López y López-Prisuelos, together with José Joaquín Elizaga Asensi and Juan Luis Sánchez Sola. In short, there was a total of three women and 33 male architects, making the female proportion a little over 9%. Was it therefore possible for them to contribute significantly? This paper does not aim to discuss the housekeeping management (Hayden 1982) in projects closely tied to the strict rules of social housing in 1976. In that operation of dwelling emergency (Paredes Grosso 1983) it was not possible to introduce alternative spaces, public or private, for reproductive works; there was no place even for experiment in the design of kitchens (Bravo 2011), necessary for the preparation of food or the washing of clothes, beyond important details of their configuration and their relation to the rest of the domestic spaces. Nevertheless, the female architects that worked in the projects for Palomeras belonged to second-wave feminism, fully conscious of recent achievements that neither their mothers nor their grandmothers could have ever imagined (Friedman 1998, p. 215), which is why their contribution to the design of housing could be decisive in the face of strictly masculine points of view. Arts 2020, 9, 48 4 of 16 Arts 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 16

2. Methods Methods Criteria Criteria Due to the extension of the “Remodelación “Remodelación de Barrios” program, we have decided to choose the projects published in Number 242 of the review, Arquitectura, a monographic issue published in 1983 1983 devoted to Palomeras and prepared by the organ of expression of the Colegio de Arquitectos of Madrid (Figure 22).). WithWith thisthis criterioncriterion inin mindmind wewe paidpaid specialspecial attentionattention toto thethe architecturalarchitectural qualityquality ofof thethe projects as it was accepted in the professional and academic environment. On the other hand, these projects createdcreated 86098609 ﬂats,flats, which which was was 83% 83% of of the the total total Palomeras Palomeras operation. operation. We We must must note note that that the restthe restof signiﬁcant of significant projects projects selected selected by Ram by Ramónón Guerra Guerra de la de Vega la Vega in his in guide his guide for 1989 for 1989 were were conceived conceived and andbuilt built by the by end the ofend the of decade, the decade, when awhen new urbana new centralurban areacentral was area being was planned being planned for the “Madrid for the “MadridSur” neighborhood. Sur” neighborhood.

FigureFigure 2. 2.PalomerasPalomeras plan plan with with original original sectors; sectors; Location Location of housing projects studied.studied. CreatedCreated by by author. author.

Regarding thethe type type of of apartments apartments studied, studied, we decidedwe decided to choose to choose a model a formodel each group.for each Although group. Althoughwith this decision with this one decision loses the one architectural loses the architectural interest for interest singular for architectural singular architectural problems, like problems, corners likeor adaptations corners or toadaptations the urban plan,to the we urban could plan, focus we on could the domestic focus on design the domestic of each proposal. design of On each the proposal.other hand, On although the other the hand, projects although frequently the develop projects several frequently blocks, develop even with several more blocks, than one even housing with moretypology, than there one appearshousing clearlytypology, in all there of them appears the identification clearly in all ofof the them main the model, identification from which of the emerges main model,special solutions.from which Based emerges on the special document solutions. already Base published,d on the wedocument have decided already to published, re-draw the we outline have decidedplans of theto re-draw elected flatthe tooutline the same plans scale, of the with elected the same flat graphic to the criteria,same scale, isolated with from the same the rest graphic of the criteria,edification isolated to proceed from tothe the rest analysis of the within edification homogeneous to proceed conditions. to the analysis within homogeneous conditions.According to 1977 social housing rules, designs were strictly regulated on the family size, number and typeAccording of rooms. to 1977 As social three-bedrooms housing rules, typology designs has were been strictly studied, regulated this leads on the to family a five orsize, six number people andfamily: type five of peoplerooms. forAs athree-bedrooms main bedroom, onetypology double has bedroom been studied, plus one this single leads bedroom, to a five for or a six minimum people family:house plan five ofpeople 66 m 2for; or a sixmain people bedroom, for a mainone double bedroom bedroom plus two plus double one single bedrooms, bedroom, for a for minimum a minimum plan houseof 76 m plan2 (Ministerio of 66 m2; or de six la Viviendapeople for 1977 a main, p. 13306).bedroom Both plus of two these double houses bedrooms, could have for aa kitchenminimum of 8plan m2, ofwith 76 am ratio2 (Ministerio between de kitchen la Vivienda and living-room 1977, p. 13306). of at Both least of 40% these for houses six people. could Regulations have a kitchen at theof 8 time m2, withwas cleara ratio about between its ideal kitchen family, and withliving-room a “worker-father of at least and40% housekeeper-mother”for six people. Regulations (Carreiro at the Otero time was and clearGonz aboutález 2019 its ,ideal p. 204); family, sometimes with a clearly,“worker-father as talking and of “familyhousekeeper-mother” head” (Ministerio (Carreiro de la Vivienda and González 1968), 2019,sometimes p. 204); subtly, sometimes as naming clearly, “matrimonial as talking bedroom” of “family or quantifying head” (Ministerio a “family de program” la Vivienda up to 1968), eight sometimes subtly, as naming “matrimonial bedroom” or quantifying a “family program” up to eight

Arts 2020, 9, 48 5 of 16 people or more, with two-people specifications just for exceptional circumstances. In 1977 rules still required to display a hand-washing ceramic sink, even space and technical facilities for a washing machine had to be considered. Regard to natural lighting, the design had to provide a minimum glazed surface for 8% of the kitchen plan; with a standard 1 m height window, this means around 80 cm width, 0.1 m/m2 ratio between glazed walls and floor space of the kitchen. Summarizing, the rules itself constrained a gender segregated house, where women carried the load of reproductive work in reduced and uncomfortable spaces. According to contemporary debates (Muxí Martínez 2018), we proceeded to identify the reproductive tasks within the domestic space: the best identified, production of aliments and clothes washing. Because the cleaning of family space, including the order, was undertaken in all the rooms where “it is necessary to clean, cook, order, wash, iron and care” (Sánchez de Madariaga 2004, p. 15), we left out their identification with architectural elements, beyond the generic wellbeing of the people who developed the work in the own residence—exposure to the sun, ventilation, general orientation or views. The same is applied to the care of persons, being parents or descendants, as looking after them applies to the whole flat, although some of the rooms, like bathrooms, concentrate the harder functions. Departing from these functions of feeding and washing, we have selected criteria for an analysis, both objective and comparative, suitable for a typological selection: kitchen surfaces and dimensions (Sánchez de Madariaga 2004, p. 85), washing rooms—if any—and drying places “to address the need for hanging up the washing” (Pernas et al. 2007); their relation to the sitting room and the main bedroom; glazed walls of these spaces, direct external views, balconies, internal courtyards or drying lines; minimal distance between the entrance door and the fridge—or any furniture for storage, if known, from the kitchen range to the dining table; and, finally, the minimal distance from the washing machine to the clothes line. Thus, the study takes account of some modernity criteria, defining the gender perspective kitchen design principles:

Set the kitchen next to the house entrance, close to the dining-room, visually related to the living-room, reduce the distance attending the main door or downloading the daily shopping, as well as caring for children while working. Carreiro Otero and González(2019, p. 186)

Even though these criteria looks rather minor from nowadays perspective, at the time could be underlined as ﬁrst evidences of a more sensitive architecture, for a Spanish social context that began, slightly, to take oﬀ its real feminist revolution.

3. Results According to the order of their publication in Number 242 of Arquitectura, the projects are listed below, quoted whenever it has been possible according to the criteria of the Guide “Arquitectura de Madrid” (COAM 2014):

1. VSM (Viviendas Sociales de Madrid) housing in Palomeras Sureste, UD 3 mega-block (Estanislao Pérez Pita y Jerónimo Junquera García del Diestro): los Andaluces St. 16–34, 7–17 with San Claudio, with Rafael Alberti; 1979–81 (Project), 1980–82 (Building).

It is a group of lineal blocks, defined by the façade play between pure lineal typology and its hybridization with the tower. There are very few differences, however, between the plans, apart from the difference between three bedrooms—towers—and two or four—lineal. Kitchens and drying places—the latter appear only in the tower typology as balconies in one of the bedrooms—are located at the far end of the plan, opposite the sitting room/dining room. For three-bedroom “tower typology” apartments, the kitchen accounts for 10.89% of the total surface. This means, for the working area, 55.05% of the living-room floor, natural lighting and an indirect view to the outside, through the dormitory terrace (while living room enjoys direct exterior Arts 2020, 9, 48 6 of 16 Arts 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 16 Arts 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 16 views). The kitchen window achieves a ratio between glazed façade and floor space of 0.23 m/m2, 2 views).views). The The kitchen kitchen window window achiev achieveses a ratio a ratio between between glazed glazed façade façade and and floor floor space space of of0.23 0.23 m/m m/2m, , above the study average (Figure 3). aboveabove the the study study average average (Figure (Figure 3).3 ).

Figure 3. VSM (Viviendas Sociales de Madrid) housing in Palomeras Sureste, UD 3 mega-block. FigureFigure 3. 3.VSMVSM (Viviendas (Viviendas Sociales Sociales de deMadrid) Madrid) housing housing in inPalomeras Palomeras Sureste, Sureste, UD UD 3 mega-block. 3 mega-block. Three-bedroom “tower typology” apartment. Plan redrawn and photo by author. Three-bedroomThree-bedroom “tower “tower typology” typology” apartmen apartment.t. Plan Plan redrawn redrawn and and photo photo by by author. author. 2. S5 and S7 mega-blocks in Palomeras Sureste (José Luis Romany Aranda, Carlos Ferrán Alfaro y 2. 2. S5 S5and and S7 S7mega-blocks mega-blocks in inPalomeras Palomeras Sureste Sureste (Jos (José Luisé Luis Romany Romany Aranda, Aranda, Carlos Carlos Ferrán Ferrá Alfaron Alfaro y y Fernando Navazo Rivero): los Extremeños St. with Gerardo Diego, with Luis Buñuel, with FernandoFernando Navazo Navazo Rivero): Rivero): los los Extremeños Extremeños St.St. withwith GerardoGerardo Diego, Diego, with with Luis Luis Buñuel, Buñuel, with with Pablo Pablo Neruda, with Rafael Alberti, with Riojanos; 1979–81 (P), 1980–83 (B). PabloNeruda, Neruda, with with Rafael Rafael Alberti, Alberti, with with Riojanos; Riojanos; 1979–81 1979–81 (P), (P), 1980–83 1980–83 (B). (B). They are a series of blocks in “L” grouped two to two, forming a group of half blocks in “C” They are a series of blocks in “L” grouped two to two, forming a group of half blocks in “C” which,They in two are cases, a series face of each blocks ot inher, “L” thus grouped forming two semi-opened to two, forming blocks. a group In the of plan, half blocks the association in “C” which, of which, in two cases, face each other, thus forming semi-opened blocks. In the plan, the association of twoin twoflats cases, results face in eacha corner, other, internal thus forming and extern semi-openedal, although blocks. the outcome In the plan, is a the variation association (with of one two two flats results in a corner, internal and external, although the outcome is a variation (with one bedroomflats results more in aor corner, less) internalof the andintermediate external, althoughtype of thea three-bedroom outcome is a variation apartment. (with Kitchens one bedroom are bedroom more or less) of the intermediate type of a three-bedroom apartment. Kitchens are composedmore or less) in an of “L” the shape, intermediate opened type towards of a three-bedroom the balcony (which apartment. would Kitchens serve as area drying composed place) in of an the “L” composed in an “L” shape, opened towards the balcony (which would serve as a drying place) of the sittingshape, room. opened towards the balcony (which would serve as a drying place) of the sitting room. sitting room. ForFor three-bedroom three-bedroom apartments, apartments, the kitchen accountsaccounts forfor 7.91%7.91% of of the the total total surface, surface, well well below below the For three-bedroom apartments, the kitchen accounts for 7.91% of the total surface, well below thecommon common average. average. This This means, means, for for the the working working area, area, 37.76% 37.76% of of the the living-room living-room floor, floor, with with natural natural but the common average. This means, for the working area, 37.76% of the living-room floor, with natural butoblique oblique lighting lighting and and narrow narrow oblique oblique views views to the to outside the outside (while (while living living room enjoysroom enjoys direct exteriordirect but oblique lighting and narrow oblique views to the outside (while living room enjoys direct2 exteriorviews). views). The kitchen The kitchen window window achieves achieves a ratio betweena ratio between glazed wallsglazed and walls floor and space floor of space 0.11 m of/m 0.11, far exterior views). The kitchen window achieves a ratio between glazed walls and floor space of 0.11 m/mbelow2, far the below study the average study (Figureaverage4 ).(Figure 4). m/m2, far below the study average (Figure 4).

Figure 4. S5 and S7 mega-blocks in Palomeras Sureste. Three-bedroom apartment. Plan redrawn and FigureFigure 4. S5 4. S5and and S7 S7mega-blocks mega-blocks in inPalomeras Palomeras Sureste. Sureste. Three-bedroom Three-bedroom apartment. apartment. Plan Plan redrawn redrawn and and photo by author. photophoto by by author. author.

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3. 3. IVIMAIVIMA (Instituto (Instituto de la de Vivienda la Vivienda de Madrid de Madrid) residential) residential building building in Palomeras in Palomeras Sureste, Sureste, UV UV 1 block 1 block (Manuel(Manuel de delas lasCasas Casas Gómez, Gómez, Ignacio Ignacio de delas lasCa Casassas Gómez Gómez y Jaime y Jaime Lorenzo Lorenzo Saiz-Calleja): Saiz-Calleja): loslos AndalucesAndaluces St. St.1–5 1–5with with Antonio Antonio Mairena, Mairena, with with Luis Luis Marín, Mar íwithn, with Miguel Miguel Hernández, Hernández, with with Pablo Pablo Neruda;Neruda; 1979 1979 (P), (P), 1980–83 1980–83 (B). (B). A Alineal lineal block block ofof double double bay bay forms forms the arrangement,the arrangement, with a centralwith a axis central available axis for available communication for communicationcores and lighted cores inner and courtyards.lighted inner The courtyards. apartments The with apartments two or four with bedrooms two or four are variationsbedrooms (moreare variationsor less elongated)(more or less of the elongate usuald) three-bedroom of the usual flat,three-bedroom in an “L” shape, flat, in where an “L” the shape, longer where axis follows the longerthe successionaxis follows of the bedrooms succession and of thebedrooms transversal and the leads transversal to the kitchen leads to and the thekitchen living and room. the living That is room.why That kitchens is why must kitchens slip o mustff the slip living off room, the livin ing order room, to in get order light to from get light the neighboring from the neighboring sitting-room sitting-roombalcony, except balcony, in four-bedroom except in four-bedroom flats, where theflats, kitchen where shares the kitchen the terrace shares/drying the terrace/drying balcony with the balconymain bedroom.with the main bedroom. ForFor three-bedroom three-bedroom apartments, apartments, the the kitchen kitchen accounts accounts for for12.84% 12.84% of the of the total total surface. surface. This This means, means, forfor the the working working area, area, 57.51% 57.51% of ofthe the living-room living-room floor, floor, with with oblique oblique natural natural lighting lighting through through the the neighboringneighboring terrace terrace and and almost almost no no view toto thethe outside outside (while (while living living room room enjoys enjoys direct direct exterior exterior views). 2 views).Nevertheless, Nevertheless, the kitchen the kitchen window window achieves achieves a ratio a between ratio between glazed glazed walls and walls floor and space floor of space 0.27 m of/m , 0.27well m/m above2, well the above study the average study (Figureaverage5 ).(Figure 5).

FigureFigure 5. IVIMA 5. IVIMA residential residential building building in Palomeras in Palomeras Surest Sureste,e, UV 1 UV Block. 1 Block. Three-bedroom Three-bedroom apartment. apartment. PlanPlan redrawn redrawn and and photo photo by byauthor. author.

4. 4. HousesHouses along along Palomeras Palomeras Park, Park, UD UD 2 mega-block 2 mega-block (Juan (Juan Montes Montes Mieza, Mieza, Pablo Pablo Carvajal Carvajal Urquijo, Urquijo, MarioMario Muelas Muelas Jiménez Jiménez y FernandoFernando Prats Prats Palazuelo): Palazuelo): Rafael Rafael Alberti Alberti Av. 1–7 Av. with 1–7 Rafael with Hern Rafaelández HernándezHijicos, withHijicos, San with Claudio; San Cl 1979audio; (P), 1979 1980–82 (P), (B).1980–82 (B). ThisThis arrangement arrangement was was considered considered an an iconic iconic image image of of the the new new quarter, quarter, with with its facades bending on on concentricconcentric shapes of 90°, 90◦, clos closinging the the corner corner of of the the A-3 A-3 and and M-40 M-40 highways. highways. Each Each block block is built is built on ona a “C”“C” shape shape so sothat that the the alignment alignment of ofthe the central central blocks blocks predominates predominates over over the the two two external external streets. streets. On On thethe contrary, contrary, towards towards the the inner inner street street the the opposite opposite blocks blocks suggest suggest a semi-opened a semi-opened quarter, quarter, with with front front yardsyards between between emphatic towers.towers. The The apartments, apartments, the mostthe commonmost common example beingexample the three-bedroombeing the three-bedroomtype, in tower type, suffer in light tower variations suffer light in the variations lineal zone, in the where lineal the zone, kitchen where faces the the kitchen sitting room faces despite the sittingbeing room located despite on the being perpendicular located on the axis. perpendicu In both caseslar axis. the lineal In both disposition cases the oflineal the kitchendisposition ends of in a thedrying kitchen balcony. ends in a drying balcony. ForFor three-bedroom three-bedroom apartments, apartments, the the kitchen kitchen accounts accounts 12.40% 12.40% of ofthe the total total surface. surface. This This means, means, for for thethe working working area, area, 58.87% 58.87% of of the the living living room room floor, floor, with with natural natural lighting and exteriorexterior viewsviews throughthrough the thebalcony balcony for for drying drying clothes; clothes; these these outside outside views vi couldews could be similar be similar to the livingto theroom living ones, room depending ones, dependingon the orientation. on the orientation. The kitchen The kitchen window window achieves achieves a ratio a between ratio between glazed glazed walls andwalls floor and space floor of space0.15 of m 0.15/m2 ,m/m similar2, similar to the to study the study average average (Figure (Figure6). 6).

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FigureFigure 6. Houses 6. Houses along along Palomeras Palomeras Park, Park, UD UD2 mega-blo 2 mega-block.ck. Three-bedroom Three-bedroom apar apartment.tment. Plan Plan redrawn redrawn Figure 6. Houses along Palomeras Park, UD 2 mega-block. Three-bedroom apartment. Plan redrawn andand photo photo by author. by author. and photo by author. 5. 5.SocialSocial housing housing in inPalomeras Palomeras Sureste (Javier(Javier Frechilla Frechilla Camoiras, Camoiras, Jos éJoséManuel Manuel López-Pel López-Peláezáez Morales, 5. Social housing in Palomeras Sureste (Javier Frechilla Camoiras, José Manuel López-Peláez Morales,Eduardo Eduardo Sánchez Sánchez López, López, María María del Carmen del Carmen Herrero Herrero Izquierdo Izquierdo y Emilio y RodrEmilioíguez Rodríguez González): Morales, Eduardo Sánchez López, María del Carmen Herrero Izquierdo y Emilio Rodríguez González):Coín St. Coín 1–5 withSt. 1–5 Luis with Buñuel, Luis Buñuel, with Rafael with Alberti;Rafael Alberti; 1981 (P), 1981 1982–87 (P), 1982–87 (B). (B). González): Coín St. 1–5 with Luis Buñuel, with Rafael Alberti; 1981 (P), 1982–87 (B). It is a double-bay lineal block, with inner yards and central communication cores. The ItIt is is a a double-bay lineal block, with innerinner yardsyards andand centralcentral communicationcommunication cores.cores. The The three-bedroom apartment type, which is the most common, develops in a two-band scheme: three-bedroomthree-bedroom apartmentapartment type,type, which which is theis the most most common, common, develops develops in a two-band in a two-band scheme: scheme: outward outward bedrooms and inside bathrooms and storage, the latter close to the entrance facing the outwardbedrooms bedrooms and inside and bathrooms inside bathrooms and storage, and the storage, latter close the tolatter the entranceclose to facingthe entrance the kitchen. facing By the the kitchen. By the end of the line, close to the kitchen, is located the living room, opening onto a balcony kitchen.end of the By line,the end close of to the the line, kitchen, close isto located the kitchen, the living is located room, the opening living ontoroom, a balconyopening thatonto is a alsobalcony used that is also used as a drying space. thatas a is drying also used space. as a drying space. For three-bedroom apartments, the kitchen accounts for 10.68% of the total surface. This means, ForFor three-bedroom three-bedroom apartments, apartments, the the kitchen kitchen accounts accounts for for 10.68% 10.68% of of the the total total surface. surface. This This means, means, for the working area, 56.98% of the living room floor, with both natural lighting and direct exterior forfor the the working working area, area, 56.98% 56.98% of of the the living living room room floor, ﬂoor, with with both both natural natural lighting lighting and and direct direct exterior exterior views, the same of the living room ones. The kitchen window achieves a ratio between glazed walls views,views, the the same same of of the the living living room room ones. ones. The The kitc kitchenhen window window achieves achieves a a ratio ratio between between glazed glazed walls walls and floor space of 0.25 m/m2, somewhat2 above the study average (Figure 7). andand floor ﬂoor space space of of 0.25 0.25 m/m m/m2, ,somewhat somewhat above above the the study study average average (Figure (Figure 77).).

Figure 7. Social housing in Palomeras Sureste. Three bedrooms apartment. Plan redrawn and photo Figure 7. Social housing in Palomeras Sureste. Three bedrooms apartment. Plan redrawn and photo by author.Figure 7. Social housing in Palomeras Sureste. Three bedrooms apartment. Plan redrawn and photo byby author. author. 6. VICOMSA (Viviendas Sociales de Madrid, S.A.) residential blocks in Palomeras Sureste, UD 5 6.6. VICOMSAVICOMSA (Viviendas (Viviendas Sociales Sociales de de Madrid, Madrid, S.A. S.A.) )residential residential blocks blocks in in Palomeras Palomeras Sureste, Sureste, UD UD 5 5 mega-block (Carmen Bravo Durá, Jaime Martínez Ramos, José Luis de Miguel Rodríguez y Juan mega-blockmega-block (Carmen (Carmen Bravo Bravo Durá, Durá ,Jaime Jaime Martínez Martínez Ra Ramos,mos, José José LuisLuis de de Miguel Miguel Rodríguez Rodríguez y y Juan Juan Antonio González Cárceles): Angelillo St. 1–3, 9–17 with los Asturianos, with Fuengirola, with AntonioAntonio González González Cárceles): Cárceles): Angelillo Angelillo St. St. 1–3, 1–3, 9–17 9–17 with with los los Asturianos, Asturianos, with with Fuengirola, Fuengirola, with with Fuente de Piedra, with Leoneses, with Miguel Hernández, with Santa Cruz de Retamar, with Fuente de Piedra, with Leoneses, with Miguel Hernández, with Santa Cruz de Retamar, with Torremolinos; 1979 (P), 1981–83 (B). Torremolinos; 1979 (P), 1981–83 (B).

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Fuente de Piedra, with Leoneses, with Miguel Hernández, with Santa Cruz de Retamar, with Torremolinos; 1979 (P), 1981–83 (B). Arts 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 16 This cluster is developed in 11 blocks, formed by the succession of two, three or four towers, This cluster is developed in 11 blocks, formed by the succession of two, three or four towers, separated on the ground floor and linked to the rest by a narrow bay of double drying balconies and a separated on the ground floor and linked to the rest by a narrow bay of double drying balconies and central inner yard. The kitchen, as often happens in tower typologies, is disposed along a transversal a central inner yard. The kitchen, as often happens in tower typologies, is disposed along a axis to the living room, being both articulated by the entrance and opening onto the drying balcony at transversal axis to the living room, being both articulated by the entrance and opening onto the the opposite side. drying balcony at the opposite side. For three-bedroom apartments, the kitchen accounts for 13.62% of the total surface. This means, For three-bedroom apartments, the kitchen accounts for 13.62% of the total surface. This means, for the working area, 65.28% of the living-room floor, with both natural lighting and direct exterior for the working area, 65.28% of the living-room floor, with both natural lighting and direct exterior views through the balcony (both to streets and inner gardens, on which is focused the living room). views through the balcony (both to streets and inner gardens, on which is focused the living room). The kitchen window achieves a ratio between glazed walls and floor space of 0.34 m/m2, clearly above The kitchen window achieves a ratio between glazed walls and floor space of 0.34 m/m2, clearly the study average (Figure8). above the study average (Figure 8).

FigureFigure 8. 8.VICOMSAVICOMSA residential residential blocks blocks in inPalomeras Palomeras Sureste, Sureste, UD UD 5 5mega-block. mega-block. Three-bedroom Three-bedroom apartment.apartment. Plan Plan redraw redrawnn and and photo photo by by author. author.

7. 7. HousesHouses along along Palomeras Palomeras Park, Park, UD UD 8 mega-block 8 mega-block (Juan (Juan Montes Montes Mieza, Mieza, Pablo Pablo Carvajal Carvajal Urquijo Urquijo y Marioy Mario Muelas Muelas Jiménez): Jiménez): Benjamín Benjam Palenciaín Palencia St. St.28, 28,29, 29,30, 30,34–78, 34–78, 41–47 41–47 with with El ElBosco, Bosco, with with Humanes,Humanes, with with Malgrat Malgrat de de Mar, Mar, with with Pablo Pablo Neruda; Neruda; 1981 1981 (P), (P), 1982–85 1982–85 (B). (B).

WeWe face face an an urban urban arrangement arrangement joined joined by by two two series series of of lineal lineal blocks blocks of of medium medium height, height, disposed disposed transversaltransversal to to longitudinal ways,ways, plus plus two two towers towers in the in center the center of the composition,of the composition, which are which crisscrossed. are crisscrossed.The three-bedroom The three-bedroom apartment apartment type in the type blocks in th ise designed blocks is indesigned a cross-ventilation in a cross-ventilation plan, practically plan, practicallysquare, with square, the bedrooms with the bedrooms being placed being in one placed of the in facades. one of the From facades. the entrance, From the on entrance, the opposite on band,the oppositethe sitting band, room the follows sitting theroom kitchen, follows opening the kitche onton, the opening terrace onto and dryingthe terrace balcony, and respectively.drying balcony, respectively.For three-bedroom apartments, the kitchen accounts for 13.04% of the total surface. This means, forFor the three-bedroom working area, 62.67% apartments, of the the living-room kitchen accounts ﬂoor, with for direct 13.04% natural of the lighting total surface. but an This oblique means, view forthrough the working the next area, long 62.67% terrace, of while the living-room living room enjoysfloor, with direct direct views natural to the thatlighting terrace, but opening an oblique up to viewthe through central courtyard. the next long The terrace, kitchen while window living achieves room enjoys a ratio direct between views glazed to the walls that andterrace, ﬂoor opening space of up0.11 to mthe/m central2, below courtyard. the study The average kitchen (Figure window9). achieves a ratio between glazed walls and floor space of 0.11 m/m2, below the study average (Figure 9). 8. IVIMA (Instituto de la Vivienda de Madrid) housing complex in Palomeras North, UV 10 mega-block (Ignacio de las Casas Gómez, Manuel de las Casas Gómez y Jaime Lorenzo Saiz-Calleja): Albufera Av. with Benjamín Palencia, with Carlos Solé, with José Paulete, with Pío Felipe; 1982 (P), 1982–87 (B).

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Arts 2020, 9, 48 10 of 16 Arts 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 16

Figure 9. Houses along Palomeras Park, UD 8 mega-block. Three-bedroom apartment. Plan redrawn and photo by author.

8. IVIMA (Instituto de la Vivienda de Madrid) housing complex in Palomeras North, UV 10 mega-block (Ignacio de las Casas Gómez, Manuel de las Casas Gómez y Jaime Lorenzo FigureFigure 9. Houses 9. Houses along alongPalomeras Palomeras Park, UD Park, 8 mega-blo UD 8 mega-block.ck. Three-bedroom Three-bedroom apartment. apartment. Plan redrawn Plan redrawn andSaiz-Calleja): photoand photoby author. byAlbufera author. Av. with Benjamín Palencia, with Carlos Solé, with José Paulete, with Pío Felipe; 1982 (P), 1982–87 (B).

8. IVIMATheThe ensemble (Instituto ensemble is dedisposed is disposedla Vivienda as asa double ade double Madrid row row) ofhousing of tower tower blocks, blocks,complex following following in Palomeras the the curve curve North, that looks UV fromfrom10 Tío Tíomega-blockP Píoío hillhill towardstowards (Ignacio the the slopes slopesde las of of Casas Vallecas, Vallecas, Gómez, inside inside Manuel of of which which de a a pedestrian pedestrianlas Casas path pathGómez with with y trees treesJaime is is supposed. Lorenzosupposed. The TheSaiz-Calleja):flats flats are are practically practically Albufera homogeneous, homogeneou Av. with Benjamíns, except except onPalenc on the the groundia, ground with floor Carlos floor and andSolé, in thein with the penthouse, Josépenthouse, Paulete, with with thewith sittingthe sittingPíoroom Felipe;room in an in1982 “L” an (P), shape,“L” 1982–87 shape, as is (B). commonas is common in tower in tower typology. typology. Despite Despite a dining a dining kitchen kitchen being proposedbeing (de las Casas 1983), the surfaces are small, and the conventional living-dining room is maintained proposedThe ensemble (Casas is 1983),disposed the as surfaces a double arerow small,of tower and blocks, the followingconventional the curveliving-dining that looks room from is according to social housing VPO (Vivienda de Protección Oficial) norms. On the other hand, the Tíomaintained Pío hill towards according the slopes to social of Vallecas, housing inside VPO of(Vivienda which ade pedestrian Protección path Oficial with) norms. trees is On supposed. the other bow-window ending for the kitchen is articulated with a small washing-drying place opening onto the Thehand, flats theare bow-windowpractically homogeneou ending fors, the except kitchen on theis articulatedground floor with and a insmall the penthouse,washing-drying with theplace rounded inner yard. sittingopening room onto in thean rounded“L” shape, inner as yard.is common in tower typology. Despite a dining kitchen being For three-bedroom apartments, the kitchen accounts for 13.30% of the total surface. This means, proposedFor three-bedroom(Casas 1983), theapartments, surfaces the are kitchen small, accounts and the for conventional 13.30% of the living-diningtotal surface. Thisroom means, is for the working area, 60.24% of the living-room floor, with both direct natural lighting and direct maintainedfor the working according area, to 60.24% social ofhousing the living-room VPO (Vivienda floor, dewith Protección both direct Oficial natural) norms. lighting On the and other direct exterior views through the bow window; however, while these views are focused to the spaces between hand,exterior the bow-windowviews through ending the bow for window;the kitchen however, is articulated while thesewith viewsa small are washing-drying focused to the placespaces blocks, living room views enjoys wider views, either to inner gardens or to the parks and streets. Apart openingbetween onto blocks, the rounded living room inner views yard. enjoys wider views, either to inner gardens or to the parks and from the balcony for drying clothes, the kitchen ending achieves a ratio between glazed walls and floor streets.For three-bedroom Apart from the apartments, balcony for the drying kitchen clothe accountss, the for kitchen 13.30% endingof the total achieves surface. a ratioThis means,between space of 0.16 m/m2, closely similar to the study average (Figure 10). forglazed the working walls and area, floor 60.24% space of of the 0.16 living-room m/m2, closely floo similarr, with to both the studydirect average natural (Figurelighting 10). and direct exterior views through the bow window; however, while these views are focused to the spaces between blocks, living room views enjoys wider views, either to inner gardens or to the parks and streets. Apart from the balcony for drying clothes, the kitchen ending achieves a ratio between glazed walls and floor space of 0.16 m/m2, closely similar to the study average (Figure 10).

FigureFigure 10. 10.IVIMAIVIMA housing housing complex inin Palomeras Palomeras North, North, UV 10UV mega-block. 10 mega-block. Three-bedroom Three-bedroom apartment. apartment.Plan redrawn Plan redraw and photon and by photo author. by author.

Figure 10. IVIMA housing complex in Palomeras North, UV 10 mega-block. Three-bedroom apartment. Plan redrawn and photo by author.

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9.9. PalomerasPalomeras residential residential blocksblocks (Alfonso(Alfonso Navarro Navarro Guzm Guzmánán y Marcelo y Marcelo Franco Franco Bedoya): Bedoya): Pablo NerudaPablo NerudaAv. with Av. Extremeños, with Extremeños, with Campowith Campo de la de Paloma, la Paloma, with with Palomeras, Palomeras, with with Lago Lago Calafate, Calafate, with withLeoneses; Leoneses; 1982 1982 (P). (P). The arrangement has four buildings of closed blocks, plus two semi-closed, which are disposed followingThe arrangementthe street alignments. has four buildingsThe apartment of closed mode blocks,l is practically plus two semi-closed,identical for whichall the areblocks disposed and specialfollowing solutions. the street It has alignments. three bedrooms The apartment located model opposite is practically to the entrance identical hall; for allin thea transversal blocks and disposition,special solutions. after the It has entrance, three bedrooms are located located the livin oppositeg room to theand entrance the kitchen, hall; inwhich a transversal opens in disposition, the inner façadeafterthe onto entrance, the drying are balcony. located the living room and the kitchen, which opens in the inner façade onto theFor drying these balcony. three-bedroom apartments, the kitchen accounts 11.09% of the total surface. This means,For for these the working three-bedroom area, 50.80% apartments, of the the living-room kitchen accounts floor, with 11.09% both of thenatural total lighting surface. and This direct means, viewsfor the to working the inner area, courtyard 50.80% of (while the living-room living room ﬂoor, enjoys with bothexterior natural views). lighting The andkitchen direct window views to achievesthe inner a courtyardratio between (while glazed living walls room and enjoys floor exterior space views).of 0.08 Them/m kitchen2, far below window the achievesstudy average a ratio 2 (Figurebetween 11). glazed walls and ﬂoor space of 0.08 m/m , far below the study average (Figure 11).

FigureFigure 11. 11. PalomerasPalomeras residential residential blocks. blocks. Three-bedroom Three-bedroom ap apartment.artment. Plan Plan redrawn redrawn and and photo photo by by author.

10.10. PalomerasPalomeras housing housing (José (Jos éJoaquínJoaquí nElízaga Elízaga Asensi, Asensi, Juan Juan Luis Luis Sánchez Sánchez Solá Sol áyy Juana Juana María Marí aLópez López López-Prisuelos):López-Prisuelos): Benjamín Benjamí nPalencia Palencia St. St. 12–16 12–16 with with Calella, Calella, with with José Jos éGarcíaGarcí aGranda, Granda, with with José Jos é Paulete;Paulete; 1982 1982 (P), (P), 1982–88 1982–88 (B). (B). It is an arrangement of towers in a square plan, 90°-staggered pattern—in a checkerboard It is an arrangement of towers in a square plan, 90◦-staggered pattern—in a checkerboard composition—incomposition—in two two groups groups of of five five and and two two groups groups of of three three blocks. blocks. Flats Flats with with two, two, three three or or four four bedroomsbedrooms show show little little variation: variation: against against the the common common articulation articulation in in the the “L”-shaped “L”-shaped kitchen-living kitchen-living room,room, in in these these towers towers both both are are concentrated concentrated in in one one of of the the facades, facades, whereas whereas the the bedrooms bedrooms look look out out to to thethe orthogonal. orthogonal. The The elongated elongated kitchen kitchen allows allows for for a asmall small dining dining place place at at its its external external end. end. ForFor three-bedroom three-bedroom apartments, apartments, the the kitchen kitchen accounts accounts for for 12.99% 12.99% of of the the total total surface. surface. This This means, means, forfor the the working working area, area, 61.46% 61.46% of of the the living-room living-room floor, floor, with with both both natural natural lighting lighting and and direct direct exterior exterior views,views, the the same same of of the the living living room room ones. ones. The The kitc kitchenhen window window achieves achieves a aratio ratio between between glazed glazed walls walls 2 andand floor floor space space of of 0.10 0.10 m/m m/m,2 below, below the the study study average average (Figure (Figure 12). 12).

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Figure 12. Palomeras housing. Three-bedroom apartment. Plan redrawn and photo by author. FigureFigure 12. Palomeras 12. Palomeras housing. housing. Three-bedroom Three-bedroom apartmen apartment.t. Plan Planredrawn redrawn and photo and photo by author. by author.

11.11. 11.PalomerasPalomerasPalomeras housing,housing, housing, UVUV 9 UV9 PlotPlot 9 Plot (Eduardo(Eduardo (Eduardo SánchezSánchez Sánchez López,López, López, JavierJavier Javier FrechillaFrechilla Frechilla Camoiras,Camoiras, Camoiras, JoséJosé Jos ManuelManuelé Manuel López-PeláezLópez-PeláezLópez-Pel Morales,áMorales,ez Morales, ManuelManuel Manuel ParedesParedes Paredes Grosso,Grosso, Grosso, MaríaMaría Mar deldelía Carmen delCarmen Carmen HerreroHerrero Herrero IzquierdoIzquierdo Izquierdo yy EmilioEmilio y Emilio RodríguezRodríguezRodríguez González):González): González): laslas MarismasMarismas las Marismas St.St. 1–55;1–55; St. 1–55; 19821982 1982 (P),(P), 1984–871984–87 (P), 1984–87 (B).(B). (B). The arrangement, despite its heterogeneous plan, is composed as an urban continuous: two TheThe arrangement, arrangement, despite despite its he itsterogeneous heterogeneous plan, plan, is composed is composed as an as urban an urban continuous: continuous: twotwo semi-openedsemi-opened sections,sections, twotwo lineallineal blocksblocks andand oneone moremore blockblock inin aa rotatedrotated “L”“L” shapeshape whichwhich isis usedused toto formsemi-opened a small square. sections, The use two of lineal a single blocks type and of apartment one more blockallows in for a rotatedthree bedrooms “L” shape with which a lineal is used formto a form small a square. small square. The use Theof a usesingle of atype single of apartment type of apartment allows for allows three forbedrooms three bedrooms with a lineal with a development,development, disposeddisposed inin aa doubledouble corridorcorridor atat bobothth sidessides ofof thethe centralcentral axisaxis forfor courtyardscourtyards andand communicationlineal development, cores. The disposed limited in aheight double of corridor the edification at both sides (ground of the floor central plus axis four) for courtyardsallows the and communicationcommunication cores. cores. The The limited limited height height of of the edificationedification (ground (ground floor floor plus plus four) four) allows allows the creationthe creationcreation ofof thesethese courtyardscourtyards withwith lightlight andand ventilation,ventilation, bothboth dryingdrying balconiesbalconies andand bathrooms.bathrooms. Kitchens,of these lighted courtyards through with these light drying and ventilation, areas, are both located drying close balconies to the entrance and bathrooms. hall, opposite Kitchens, to lightedthe Kitchens,through lighted these through drying areas, these are drying located areas, close are to lo thecated entrance close hall,to the opposite entrance to hall, the livingopposite room. to the livingliving room.room. For Forfour-bedroom four-bedroom apartments, apartments, the the kitchen kitchen accounts accounts for for 10.98% 10.98% of of the the total total surface. surface. This This means, means, for theFor working four-bedroom area, 42.18% apartments, of the livingthe kitchen room floor,accounts with for no 10.98% view and of the oblique total naturalsurface. lightingThis means, through forfor thethe workingworking area,area, 42.18%42.18% ofof thethe livingliving roomroom flfloor,oor, withwith nono viewview andand obliqueoblique naturalnatural lightinglighting throughthe balcony the balcony for drying for drying clothes clothes and theand interior the interior courtyard courtyard (while (while living living room room enjoys enjoys direct direct exterior throughviews). the The balcony kitchen forwindow drying clothes achieves and aratio the interior between courtyard glazed walls (while and living floor spaceroom ofenjoys 0.08 mdirect/m2, far exteriorexterior views).views). TheThe kitchenkitchen windowwindow achievesachieves aa raratiotio betweenbetween glazedglazed wallswalls andand floorfloor spacespace ofof 0.080.08 below2 the study average (Figure 13). m/mm/m2,, farfar belowbelow thethe studystudy averageaverage (Figure(Figure 13).13).

FigureFigureFigure 13.13. PalomerasPalomeras 13. Palomeras housing,housing, housing, UVUV 99 Plot.Plot. UV Three-bedroomThree-bedroom 9 Plot. Three-bedroom apapartment.artment. apartment. PlanPlan redrawnredrawn Plan andand redrawn photophoto byby and author.author. photo by author. WhenWhen comparingcomparing thethe figures,figures, wewe foundfound thethe followfollowinging resultsresults (Table(Table 1),1), wherewhere projectsprojects designeddesigned byby gender-inclusivegender-inclusive teamsteams areare markedmarked inin purple,purple, andand figuresfigures aboveabove thethe averageaverage appearappear inin boldbold type.type.

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When comparing the ﬁgures, we found the following results (Table1), where projects designed by gender-inclusive teams are marked in purple, and ﬁgures above the average appear in bold type.

Table 1. Kitchen surface and glazed walls ratios, including averages.

Kitchen/Living Room Kitchen Glazed Walls/Floor Project Kitchen/Total Ratio Ratio Ratio (m/m2) 1 1089% 55.05% 0.23 2 7.91 37.76% 0.11 3 12.84% 57.51% 0.27 4 12.40% 58.87% 0.15 5 10.68% 56.98% 0.25 6 13.62% 65.28% 0.34 7 13.04% 62.67% 0.11 8 13.30% 60.24% 0.16 9 11.09% 50.80% 0.08 10 12.99% 61.46% 0.10 11 10.89% 42.18% 0.08 Averages 11.79% 55.35% 0.17 Non-inclusive teams average 11.64% 54.70% 0.16 Inclusive-teams average 12.05% 56.47% 0.19 Purple data ﬁelds represent gender-inclusive teams. In bold type, ﬁgures above average.

For all the apartment types, a dimensional comparative analysis established three domestic paths: from home entrance to fridge, main home grocery container, specifically placed in housing designs; from stove to dining table, supply chain for family feeding; from the washing machine to the clothes line, whether it is a specific balcony, inner courtyard or exterior terrace (Figure 14). Quantitative assessment of both kitchen ratios and path dimensions (Table2) provides no clear difference between non-inclusive and gender-inclusive architect teams. However, inclusive-team ratios always show better averages, up to 10% less of the distance covered by people in charge of reproduction tasks.

Table 2. Main reproduction task paths. Distance in meters.

Project Entrance–Fridge Stove–Dining Table Washing Machine–Clothesline 1 9.4 15.2 4.2 2 9.8 12.1 8.1 3 6.7 7.9 12.2 4 5.2 10.1 1.5 5 5.6 7.9 2.4 6 5.0 10.1 1.2 7 2.9 8.8 2.9 8 4.4 9.0 0.6 9 4.0 6.6 1.8 10 6.1 9.3 10.4 11 3.6 6.8 1.2 Averages 5.7 9.4 4.2 Non-inclusive team ratios 6.06 9.96 4.46 Inclusive-team ratios 5.08 8.53 3.81 Purple data ﬁelds represent gender-inclusive teams. In bold type, (better) ﬁgures below average. ArtsArts2020 2020, 9, ,9 48, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 ofof 1616

Figure 14. Apartment types: main reproduction task paths. Gender-inclusive teams numbered on purpleFigure circles 14. Apartment (sub-ﬁgures types: are relatedmain reproduction to the numbered task list pa ofths. projects). Gender-inclusive Created by teams author. numbered on purple circles (sub-figures are related to the numbered list of projects). Created by author. Further comparisons can lead to more qualitative analysis, especially if kitchens have natural directFurther lighting comparisons or if the working can lead space to hasmore exterior qualitative views analysis, (Table3). especially In the latter if kitchens case, ﬁgures have clearlynatural showdirect a lighting broader or concern if the working about the space isolation has exterior condition views related (Table to domestic3). In the reproductivelatter case, figures tasks. clearly This thereforeshow a broader represents concern a contribution about the made isolation by women condition professionals related to domestic through their reproductive gender perspective tasks. This approachtherefore torepresents architectural a contribution design. made by women professionals through their gender perspective approach to architectural design.

Table 3. Kitchen lighting and views.

Project Kitchen: Natural Direct Lighting Kitchen: Exterior Direct Views 1 × 2 3 4 × 5 × × 6 × × 7 × 8 × ×

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Table 3. Kitchen lighting and views.

Project Kitchen: Natural Direct Lighting Kitchen: Exterior Direct Views 1 × 2 3 4 × 5 × × 6 × × 7 × 8 × × 9 × × 10 × × 11 Non-inclusive team ratios 71.43% 28.57% Inclusive-team ratios 75.00% 75.00% Purple data ﬁelds represent gender-inclusive teams. Bold type represents higher ratios.

4. Discussion Data serve to illustrate the complex reality where, from a gender perspective, the contributions of women architects from Madrid during the Transition are not of paramount importance; however, they certainly reveal subtle things that could be expected during such a period of transformation. In this sense, it is convenient to consider two important factors for a better understanding of the ﬁgures:

Gender perspective does not belong exclusively to women: some non-inclusive teams—formed • exclusively by men architects—showed a signiﬁcant sensitivity towards domestic spaces for reproductive tasks. On the other hand, this contribution was very important for their professional success and resulted in the critical fortune of teams like the one led by Manuel de las Casas. On the opposite side, being a woman architect does not necessarily mean that there is an automatic • approximation to a balanced gender perspective, partly due to the “syndrome of queen bee” (Gutiérrez Mozo 2011) and partly for a sociological reasons, obvious during the period analyzed, when access to the architect profession implied belonging to the wealthy bourgeoisie, where women could stay out of reproductive tasks.

Moreover, we must point out that this is only a detailed analysis of a special operation of housing in a limited period. Thus, the sample cannot be taken as a generalization of all Spanish women architects during the period of the Transition, not even for those who came from Madrid. Finally, when reﬂecting upon architecture, one cannot forget the complexity of the practice. In housing design, many design decisions give priority to, for example, gender aspects, mean neglecting another, such as lighting, spaciousness or noise control. In other areas of architecture, the project may become economically unsustainable, so that social beneﬁts could be lost. This paper intended, nevertheless, to open a door to investigate and discuss the role played by female architects of the Madrid School after second-wave feminism, providing a key to understanding many of the successes and some of the shortcomings that have survived until the present day.

Funding: This research received no external funding. Conﬂicts of Interest: The author declares no conﬂict of interest.

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