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Shamanic Gender Liminality with Special Reference to the Natkadaw of Myanmar and the Bissu of Sulawesi

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Shamanic Gender Liminality with Special Reference to the Natkadaw of Myanmar and the Bissu of Sulawesi THE UNIVERSITY OF WALES, TRINITY ST. DAVID Shamanic gender liminality with special reference to the NatKadaw of Myanmar and the Bissu of Sulawesi. being a dissertation in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of M.A. in Social Anthropology at the University of Wales, Trinity St. David. AHAH7001 2013 Kevin Michael Purday Declaration Form Master’s Degrees by Examination and Dissertation Declaration Form. 1. This work has not previously been accepted in substance for any degree and is not being concurrently submitted in candidature for any degree. Signed…… Date …….. 20th March 2013 2. This dissertation is being submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of M.A. in Social Anthropology. Signed ….. Date ……20th March 2013 3. This dissertation is the result of my own independent work/investigation, except where otherwise stated. Other sources are acknowledged by footnotes giving explicit references. A bibliography is appended. Signed candidate: …. Date: ….20th March 2013 4. I hereby give consent for my dissertation, if accepted, to be available for photocopying, inter-library loan, and for deposit in the University’s digital repository. Signed (candidate)…… Date……20th March 2013 Supervisor’s Declaration. I am satisfied that this work is the result of the student’s own efforts. Signed: ………………………………………………………………………….. Date: ……………………………………………………………………………... 1 List of contents Declaration Form ................................................................................................................ 1 List of contents ..................................................................................................................... 2 List of illustrations ............................................................................................................. 4 Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................ 5 Abstract .................................................................................................................................. 6 Note ......................................................................................................................................... 6 1. Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 8 1a: Shamans as ‘in between’ people. ..................................................................................... 8 1b: Shamans as mediators between male and female ................................................. 19 2. Methods of investigation .......................................................................................... 32 2a: Theoretical framework ................................................................................................... 32 2b: Design .................................................................................................................................... 33 2c: Sample ................................................................................................................................... 34 2d: Data collection – the interview framework .............................................................. 35 2d: Data collection – the interview procedure ............................................................... 35 2e: Ethical issues ....................................................................................................................... 36 3. The NatKadaw of Myanmar ..................................................................................... 37 3a: The background ................................................................................................................. 37 3b: The NatKadaw .................................................................................................................... 40 3c: Why have co-gendered NatKadaw become so numerous in recent years? .... 49 i) The mass lay meditation movement .......................................................................................... 49 ii) The female role of the medaw ...................................................................................................... 51 iii) The increase in the number and importance of female nats ........................................ 52 iv) Hybridisation between religion and the market economy ............................................ 53 v) The growing importance of Aung San Suu Kyi ..................................................................... 56 vi) The suitability of co-gendered people for the role of NatKadaw ................................ 58 vii) Co-gendered NatKadaw may be unusually talented in trance .................................... 58 viii) The role of NatKadaw as a prestigious position open to co-gendered people ... 61 ix) A co-gendered NatKadaw gains a sympathetic family ..................................................... 65 x) The psychological fit between being co-gendered and becoming a NatKadaw ..... 66 xi) Buddhism accepts first-gender – third-gender relationships for the laity ............. 66 xii) In Buddhism being co-gendered can be seen as the result of karma ....................... 69 4. The Bissu of Sulawesi ................................................................................................. 72 4a: The background – the Bugis people ............................................................................ 72 4b: The Bissu .............................................................................................................................. 77 4c: Why are there so few Bissu left on Sulawesi? ........................................................... 82 i) The traditional Bugis worldview is fast disappearing ....................................................... 82 ii) The role of the Bissu is associated with the feudal past ................................................... 83 iii) The removal of state support means that Bissu have to earn their living ............... 84 iv) The Bugis acceptance of Islam set up tensions with traditional beliefs .................. 86 v) Islam has two different views on third gender people ..................................................... 87 2 vi) The rise of Wahhabism has made holding syncretist views more difficult ............ 88 vii) The Dutch support for Bugis beliefs proved problematic at independence ......... 89 viii) Since independence there have been virulent attacks on traditional beliefs ..... 89 ix) Being a calabai is an alternative role for co-gendered biological males .................. 91 x) The pornography law of 2008 is so widely worded that it could cover Bissu ........ 92 xi) Adat – custom – no longer includes civil or religious authority .................................. 93 xii) Adat – custom – is coming to mean little more than budaya – the arts ................... 94 5: Discussion – the differing fortunes of NatKadaw and Bissu ......................... 96 6: Conclusion ................................................................................................................... 102 7: Sources ......................................................................................................................... 105 7a: Bibliography ...................................................................................................................... 105 7b: Filmography ...................................................................................................................... 129 8. Appendices .................................................................................................................. 131 8a: Appendix 1: Interview Outline and Release Permission ................................... 131 8b: Appendix 2: The question framework employed in the interviews ............... 132 Semi-structured interview – starting questions in English ...................................................... 132 Semi-structured interview – questions in English and Burmese ........................................... 133 Semi-structured interview – questions in English and Bahasa Indonesia .......................... 134 8c: Appendix 3: Bissu as performer ................................................................................. 135 8d: Appendix 4: Natkadaw and Bissu interviewed ...................................................... 137 Natkadaw: Thain Htay ....................................................................................................................... 137 Natkadaw: Li Tin Moung .................................................................................................................. 138 Natkadaw: Daw Kyin Saing ............................................................................................................. 140 Natkadaw: Nay Win Aung ................................................................................................................ 141 Natkadaw: Knowknow ...................................................................................................................... 143 Natkadaw: Sei Moung Moung ......................................................................................................... 146 Natkadaw: San Htoo ........................................................................................................................... 147 Natkadaw: Ko Min Min and his spiritual sister Ei Sabei ..................................................... 149 Natkadaw: Soe Lay .............................................................................................................................
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