ETHICAL CHALLENGES IN TRANS-PACIFIC RELATIONS SELECTED ESSAYS | 2013 CONTEST First trans-PaciFic student contest

What is the greatest ethical challenge facing U.S.-Asia relations? Carnegie Council for Ethics in International Affairs challenged American and East Asian students to partner and submit a joint essay or video to answer this question—whether about U.S.-Asia relations in general, or U.S. relations with a particular East Asian country. Each entry had to be a collaboration between a citizen of the United States and a citizen of an East Asian country.

The contest received entries from undergraduate, graduate, and postgraduate students from the U.S., Cambodia, China, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan, Thailand, and Vietnam. In total, nearly a hundred students paired up to publicly post their entries on the Council’s social media site, Global Ethics Network (www.globalethicsnetwork.org). As one participant from China remarked, “[T]his competition is a wonderful experience and a great chance for us to deepen understanding of two countries.”

This contest is part of Ethics for a Connected World, a three-year global education project to mark the Council’s 2014 Centennial. The winners, Robert D. O’Brien and Shiran Shen, received a trip to New York City to attend the 2013 Council Global Ethics Network Annual Meeting and to give a presentation on their work. carnegie council for ethics in international affairs Founded by Andrew Carnegie in 1914, Carnegie Council for Ethics in International Affairs is an educational, nonprofit, nonpartisan organization that produces lectures, publications, and multimedia materials on the ethical challenges of living in a globalized world. Its work is rooted in the premise that the incorporation of moral principles into discussions of international affairs will yield a more peaceful, just world. The educational value of the Council’s programs lies in its three-part formula: thematic focus on ethics, access to world-renowned experts, and an in-house studio that produces original video and audio resources for a global market.

Henry Luce Foundation This contest was made possible by a generous grant from the Henry Luce Foundation, established in 1936 by the late Henry R. Luce, co-founder and editor-in-chief of Time Inc., to honor his parents who were missionary educators in China. The Foundation seeks to bring important ideas to the center of American life, strengthen international understanding, and foster innovation and leadership in academic, policy, religious, and art communities.

Copyright © 2013 Carnegie Council for Ethics in International Affairs www.carnegiecouncil.org 170 East 64th Street, New York, NY 10065 taBLe oF contents

introduction LaBor rigHts and HuMan rigHts

Engaging Students in a Trans-Pacific Conversation on Sewing Dissension: The Struggle for Labor Rights in Ethics Cambodia’s Garment Industry devin t. StEWArt Abigail GrEGG and Elita OUk Page 2 Page 28

Two Faces of Economic Development: The Ethical Controversy Surrounding U.S.-Related Sweatshops in winning essay Developing Asian Countries Benjamin Adam SCHOrr and Annabelle WONG The U.S., China, and Cybersecurity: The Ethical Page 32 Underpinnings of a Controversial Geopolitical Issue robert d. O’BrIEN and Shiran SHEN Speaking Against the Silence: An Ethical Analysis of Page 4 Censorship Practices within China Today Qingchuan Lv and Brian YU Page 36 FinaLists Confronting Traditions and Contextualizing Modernity: The Challenges of Protecting Women’s Human Rights in geoPoLitics and security Southeast Asia Julio AmAdOr III and michele CANtOS A Pivot and a Promise: The Future of U.S.-Myanmar Page 40 Relations thaw Zin Aung GYI and reid LIdOW Page 8 cLiMate cHange and deVeLoPMent The Ethical Challenge in Sino-U.S. Relations: The Threat of War The Ethical Challenges of Climate Change and tONG Zhichao and William YALE Intergenerational Equity Page 12 tsering Jan vAN dEr kUIJp and LIN Lilin Page 44 Senkaku/Diaoyu Conflict Endangers U.S. Rebalance to the Asia-Pacific Time, Talent, Treasure: Revisiting Development Ana mArtINOvIC and Iris SOrIANO Partnerships between the Philippines and the Page 16 United States Christopher derige mALANO and This Is How You Lose: Against Political Pressure by Jeanne Carmel pUErtOLLANO Militarism Page 48 Alexandra Nicolette kHOO and Sean LAGUNA Page 20

In Case of Intervention, Break Glass: How the China- contriButors U.S. Impasse on Syria Could Be Used to Move the G2 toward a Unified Global Ethic About the Winning Authors and Finalists Gage demont HANSEN and Page 52 Jasper WONG Yun Guang Page 24 introduction Engaging Students in a Trans-Pacific Conversation on Ethics By devin t. StEWArt, Senior program director, Carnegie Council

t may be a cliché, but the world is States and one from China, and it sweatshop labor and economic growth, changing. That was the theme of identified cybersecurity as the biggest and the challenge of inter-generational I the U.S. government assessment of ethical challenge in U.S.-Asia relations. justice and climate change disasters. threats this year—as well as the contest The authors, Robert D. O’Brien and Just a couple of years ago, few people that produced this book. Shiran Shen, will be invited to join would have imagined that, after decades For the first time, the U.S. director of Carnegie Council’s annual Global Ethics of isolation, Myanmar would open its National Intelligence listed cyber threats, Fellows meeting in New York City. These doors to the world so dramatically. displacing terrorism, as the top security annual meetings aim to advance ethical Despite crumbling infrastructure, risk to the United States. Along with dialogue between cultures, and perhaps challenges in healthcare and education, President Obama’s “pivot” or rebalancing can play a role in finding peaceful and spreading religious violence, of foreign policy assets toward Asia, this solutions to international disputes. Myanmar’s democratic change new security environment brings U.S.- This year’s Trans-Pacific Student represents hope to its people as well as Asia relations back to center stage in Contest was a first for us in some ways, to many around the world, as students world affairs. Obama has declared and we are happy to report that our noted. After President Thein Sein’s first American prosperity in the twenty-first experiment was a success. Carnegie official White House visit, Myanmar century will depend on cybersecurity. Council has held international student became host to the prestigious World But will a corresponding set of contests for years but this was the first Economic Forum meeting in its capital cyberethics follow suit? time we asked Americans and Asians Naypyidaw in June. Some signs are encouraging. to collaborate on submissions, which Nevertheless, Myanmar’s religious Increased tensions between the United included both essays and videos, and strife demands a strategic rethink in U.S. States and China over cyber-attacks all submissions were posted online for policy, argue authors Thaw Zin Aung have pushed the two nations to agree public viewing. Gyi and Reid Lidow. “If the U.S. is on a new dialogue on establishing The collaborative nature of the project serious about the pivot, and recognizes cybernorms—which happened to be the suggests that the arguments reflected its ethic of responsibility to Myanmar, recommendation of the winning essay of concerns that were shared across the then it will work to build state capacity Carnegie Council’s 2013 Trans-Pacific Pacific Ocean. This is to say, the issues by shifting from a wait-and-see Student Contest. identified were not those particular to approach to a proactive “Three Pillars” “Cybersecurity is a new issue, a one cultural perspective; they reflected [economic, political, and inter-cultural] global issue, and an important issue. a more pluralistic view. Moreover, the engagement model,” they write. Breaking it apart into its ethical submissions were created by students, The world may be changing but old underpinnings provides a framework for so the insights represent the concerns of fashioned balance-of-power Realism is effectively addressing it at the bilateral the next generation. still in play. The rise of China—one of level. Bilateral cooperation can, in turn, Along with cybersecurity, topics of the most significant changes in drive a broader global conversation on other student submissions also mirrored international affairs today—has been creating a system of norms that provides changes in U.S.-Asia relations and in the accompanied by a growing risk from for a more secure cyber realm,” write world at large. Some of those topics territorial disputes in East Asia. the authors. included the opening of Myanmar, the International relations theory tells us Symbolically, our winning essay was rise of China and increased threat of that when the balance of power shifts, written by a student from the United war, the moral conundrums of the threat of conflict may increase. As

2 students pointed out, these conflicts may Yet are sweatshops a necessary evil of Should current generations sacrifice be mitigated by managing the role of the economic growth? Authors Benjamin economic development for the sake of military in addressing these disputes. Adam Schorr and Annabelle Wong future generations? Authors Tsering Jan Authors Ana Martinovic and Iris remind us that, “Even as U.S.-Asia van der Kuijp and Lin Lilin pinpoint this Soriano point to a dilemma some relations aim at boosting overall problem: “Most worrisome about military officers have noted in the past: economic progress, these countries climate change is not just how it will “It may be a moral duty for the U.S. to cannot overlook the moral obligation of affect tomorrow’s weather but how it comply to its security-treaty with Japan, respecting and defending fundamental will impact the children of the future. but is it worth jeopardizing its human rights, and must continuously Out of this dilemma between boosting relationship with China? This is an work at reconciling these divergent industrial production and curbing ethical challenge that the United States concerns.” climate change emerges the greatest needs to confront.” Finally, scholars have explored the ethical challenge for China and the Moral questions regarding sweatshops ethical implications of climate change. United States: how to safeguard the have been around since the Industrial But its consequences, potentially health and well-being of their people Revolution. But the record deaths from including extreme weather, mass while guaranteeing the same for future the collapse of the Rana Plaza factory in migration, and even armed conflict, generations.” Bangladesh this spring forced average will likely only become more shoppers to consider the ethical apparent in the future, raising a New York City implications of their purchasing choices. question of inter-generational justice. June 2013

Devin T. Stewart is senior program director and senior fellow at Carnegie Council for Ethics in International Affairs. He also is a Truman Security Fellow, and an adjunct assistant professor in international affairs at Columbia University and New York University. Stewart’s writings have appeared in more than ten languages in numerous publications, including the American Interest, Newsweek, Foreign Policy, SAIS Review, Ethics & International Affairs, The Wall Street Journal, the International Herald Tribune, Current History, the Asahi Shimbun, and The National Interest.

3 winning essay The U.S., China, and Cybersecurity: The Ethical Underpinnings of a Controversial Geopolitical Issue Addressing the fundamental ethical considerations of cybersecurity will provide a better framework for easing bilateral tensions than tit-for-tat negotiations and public naming and shaming. By robert d. O’BrIEN (United States) and Shiran SHEN (China) Tao Zero www.flickr.com/photos/t_zero/ (CC) Zero www.flickr.com/photos/t_zero/ Tao Inside a circuit board

he rise of Asia is one of the most importance of the bilateral relationship divergent Chinese and American views, significant developments in the between the United States and China, determined in large part by differing T twenty-first century geopolitical the two largest economies in the world. stances on various ethical questions, are landscape. Pundits who dubbed the These two countries, which feature inhibiting cooperation. In this essay, twentieth century the “American markedly different political systems and however, we would like to examine Century” are now predicting that the cultures, have an unprecedented another issue that looms large in both twenty-first century will be the “Pacific opportunity to cooperate in reshaping U.S.-China ties and international Century.” Asia’s ascendance is driven in global norms in the name of the greater relations writ large—cybersecurity. large part by the return of China, whose good. To do so, however, they will have Though commonly conceptualized as a economic and political might has been to overcome numerous bilateral strategic geopolitical issue, we contend growing at unprecedented speeds, to a disputes, many of which are grounded in that its underpinnings are comprised of position of international prominence. divergent views on ethics. a series of ethical considerations. China’s re-emergence as a significant Human rights and climate change are Moreover, we believe that addressing global player has heightened the two of the most prominent areas where some of these fundamental ethical

4 considerations will provide a better addressing it at the bilateral level. According to Mandiant, several papers framework for easing bilateral tensions Bilateral cooperation can, in turn, drive on computer network security and and promoting cooperation than surface- a broader global conversation on intrusion detection were co-authored by level tit-for-tat negotiations and public creating a system of norms that provides faculty at SJTU and researchers at PLA naming and shaming. for a more secure cyber realm. Unit 61398, an allegedly operational Cybersecurity is an issue that has unit actively engaged in cyber rapidly ascended in importance in the the role of cybersecurity in espionage. U.S.-China relationship. U.S. military u.s.-china relations The media’s activism coupled with and security officials are increasingly American private sector angst has wary of the adversarial effects of Cybersecurity has quickly catapulted spurred a U.S. government response. potential cyber warfare. In his to the top of the U.S.-China bilateral Recognizing the severity of the confirmation hearings for the post of agenda. The two sides, however, have problem, the Department of State has secretary of defense in 2011, Leon expressed very different understandings elevated the issue to a place of Panetta warned, “the next Pearl Harbor of the situation, making resolution of the prominence in its annual strategic that we confront could very well be a dispute difficult. While some nascent dialogue with China. The White House cyber attack.” China is widely assumed forms of dialogue have begun, a grander has also taken notice. In early March, at both the popular and elite levels in the vision for addressing the problem is President Obama and National Security United States to be the biggest initiator needed. We believe that vision can be Advisor Tom Donilon both publicly of cyber attacks on U.S. government, found in isolating the ethical dilemmas criticized China for its role in business, and media networks. On the at the core of the issue. supporting cyber attacks and cyber Chinese side, the view is a bit different. Stories on suspected attacks from espionage targeting U.S. networks. Chinese officials, too, feel that they are Chinese hackers—whether government- President Obama also conveyed his victims in the cyber realm and note that affiliated or not—have been prevalent in concerns personally to Xi Jinping a considerable proportion of malicious the U.S. media in recent years. In 2010, during a phone call to congratulate Xi cyber activities globally have originated The New York Times reported that on his recent installment as China’s from computer hosts located in the investigators had tracked cyber attacks president. More recently, Donilon stated United States. This latent sense of U.S.- on Google to Shanghai Jiao Tong that cybersecurity should be included in China distrust in the realm of cyberspace University (SJTU) and a vocational all major U.S.-China bilateral economic is dangerous as it can exacerbate the school in eastern China. The most discussions. The U.S. perspective is broader strategic distrust about each notorious case came in 2011, when a clear—China is at fault and needs to other’s current and future intentions, McAfee white paper documented rectify its wrongdoings. brewing hostility that is threatening to Operation Shady RAT, an ongoing series With the United States publicly the health of the most important bilateral of cyber attacks since mid-2006 that denouncing China’s alleged role in relationship in the world. have hit at least seventy-two cyber attacks on American Cybersecurity is an important organizations, including defense organizations, Chinese officials and geopolitical issue, but framing it in pure contractors, businesses, the United public intellectuals have responded in strategic terms neglects its core—a Nations, and the International Olympic several ways. Some highlight the series of basic ethical considerations. Committee. According to McAfee, the uncertain nature of attributing cyber Economically, these include questions Internet security company that executed attacks to a particular entity since a about the ethics of espionage targeting the investigation, the operation was “a hacker can take control of another private sector entities as well as, more five-year targeted operation by one computer in nearly any country to generally, the ethics of intellectual specific actor” and the targeting of launch malicious cyber activity without property. In the politico-military realm, athletic oversight organizations around the owner even being aware of it. cybersecurity raises general ethical the time of the 2008 Beijing Olympic Others react with rage, condemning the questions about intelligence gathering Games “potentially pointed a finger at a U.S. side for making “groundless” and reasonable diplomatic and military state actor behind the intrusions.” This accusations and “carrying a Cold War responses to intrusions and attacks that state actor is widely presumed to be mentality.” To them, this is simply occur in the cyber realm. China. More recently, the security firm another American plot to demonize Cybersecurity is a new issue, a global Mandiant released a report stating that China. Still others point out that China issue, and an important issue. Breaking cyber spying collaboration had been is a major victim of cyber attacks. In it apart into its ethical underpinnings discovered between SJTU and the December 2011, several of China’s provides a framework for effectively People’s Liberation Army (PLA). most popular online shopping,

5 winning essay microblogging, social networking, and neglecting the fundamental ethical More importantly, the issue of gaming websites were hacked, leaking questions at its core. Identifying these economically motivated cyber the account information for more than ethical questions not only adds further espionage is underwritten by difficult 100 million usernames, passwords, and nuance to our respective understandings questions regarding intellectual emails. According to He Rulong, of the issue, but also provides a property. This is a longstanding area of spokesman of the Chinese Embassy in framework for addressing it. contention between the United States London, 6,747 overseas servers were and China, but one worth rehashing. In found to have controlled more than 1.9 cybersecurity and ethics: short, different cultures employ million mainframes in China with the economic aspect different practices of idea attribution, a Trojans or botnets in February and reality which is all-too-often March of this year. Who do these One example of the ethical overlooked. American academic papers Chinese officials and pundits identify as foundations of cybersecurity can be frequently feature hundreds of the initiators of these attacks? The found in the economic aspects of the footnotes; many serious papers by United States. According to a 2009 issue. The American mainstream media Chinese scholars employ only a few Xinhua News report, about 40 percent and U.S. government statements have footnotes. Who is right? Do Americans of cyber attacks on Chinese computer painted this as a fairly straightforward excessively individualize the systems in 2005 originated in the United problem—China is stealing precious production of knowledge, losing sight States. intellectual property from American of its true social value, or do Chinese While the issue of cybersecurity has companies. Yet a closer look at the issue academics understate the role that become one of great importance in U.S.- yields a measure of its complexity. individuals play in creating ideas? And China relations, steps to address it More specifically, norms regarding the what role does culture and tradition remain rudimentary in nature. On April ethics of economically motivated cyber play? In the U.S., students are 13, 2013, U.S. Secretary of State John espionage remain underdeveloped and encouraged at a very young age to Kerry announced that the two sides had viewing the procurement of commercial “think outside the box” as well as to agreed to establish a cybersecurity data as pure theft fails to take into “find your own way of learning.” working group. A little over a week later, account cultural considerations Americans are taught to use the ideas the chairman of the U.S. Joint Chiefs of regarding the ethics of intellectual presented to them to chart their own, Staff, General Martin Dempsey, property protection. unique course forward. In China, by convened a joint conference with In recent months, numerous reports contrast, students learn primarily Chinese General Fang Fenghui, who have been released identifying China as through rote memorization—the pledged to work with the United States a thief—the illegal procurer of sensitive consumption of knowledge and later because the consequences of a major American proprietary information. It is reproduction of it on standardized tests. cyber attack “may be as serious as a important to note however, that even Such a system has its roots in the nuclear bomb.” General Fang, the chief assuming these reports are accurate and ancient practice of imperial of the PLA General Staff and a member China does procure economic data from examination, in which prospective of the Central Military Commission, American firms through cyber officials proved they were worthy of indicated that he would be willing to espionage, the People’s Republic is not governing by demonstrating their establish a cybersecurity “mechanism,” alone in doing so. Indeed, a recent U.S. mastery of the content and style of with the caveat that progress might not National Intelligence Estimate notes Confucian wisdom. Examinees be swift. that France, Russia, and Israel have sometimes spent a lifetime in These steps toward dialogue are engaged in hacking for economic preparation, memorizing the work of positive in nature, but they are only intelligence. The diversity of sages such as Confucius and Mencius small bricks in the construction of a these countries—a democracy, an so as to reproduce it in essays that were bridge that needs to extend across a authoritarian regime, and a democracy notoriously rigid in form. In other great divide. One challenge to founded on religious grounds—is words, in China, imitation can be not improving the bilateral dialogue can be indicative of the fact that relevant only the sincerest form of flattery, but found in the framing of the issue itself: norms on cyber espionage are neither also the sincerest form of respect. This cybersecurity is typically couched universal nor well-established. Such a cultural norm, in turn, influences within a strategic geopolitical context. fact creates an area of ethical fuzziness conceptions of the ethics of intellectual We contend that viewing cybersecurity that makes assertions of right and property itself, posing questions like: Is as simply a strategic and technological wrong as regards economic cyber intellectual property itself always matter, however, proves restrictive, espionage problematic. ethical, particularly when one takes into

6 account the disparities in wealth, health determine what is permissible as cybersecurity has a spillover effect on care, and access to technology it can opposed to what “crosses the line”? overall bilateral relations, cooperation create? And shouldn’t the true value of On the military front, ethical in setting norms on permissible knowledge be founded on its social questions regarding appropriate cyberspace behavior can help ease impact and not a financial measure? responses to incidents of cyber tensions between the two countries. These ethical considerations make the espionage and cyber attack also stand Moreover, U.S.-China bilateral U.S. accusation that China is a thief prominent. Here, the consequences of collaboration in addressing the issue problematic, not only from the an unclear ethical framework for can serve as a critical step towards perspective of “right” versus “wrong,” response entail huge risks. Cyber promoting multilateral efforts aimed at but also in terms of finding common warfare is an extremely new tactic. ensuring a more secure cyber realm. ground from which to address the Thus, the issue of appropriate and The task of bridging the divide cybersecurity issue. Both sides, then, proportional response remains an between Chinese and American could benefit from taking a step back to important and uncharted territory. If understandings of cybersecurity is not look at core ethical questions about U.S. intelligence operatives hack into a an easy one. Tensions are high and the economically motivated cyberespionage: Chinese military network and destroy stakes—the health of the bilateral a) What are the international norms in plans that are integral to China’s relationship and the safety of the cyber this area and what should they be? And construction of its new aircraft carrier, realm—are even higher. Nevertheless, b) how should intellectual property be what is an ethical response? Can there is a path forward for the two conceptualized and how should its Chinese intelligence agents respond countries and it can be found in a protection be encouraged? by launching a cyber attack on an consideration of the fundamental ethical American bank that wreaks widespread questions that constitute the issue of cybersecurity and ethics: havoc, thereby hurting the U.S. cybersecurity itself. By clarifying their the Politico-Military aspect government’s economic position? respective views on a series of simple More alarmingly, what happens if a ethical questions, the United States Ethics also stand at the core of cyber attack by one side on the other and China will increase mutual considerations regarding cybersecurity’s is deemed so damaging that a understanding, creating a more politico-military dimensions. Important conventional military response is taken conducive environment for dialogue. ethical questions in this realm include: into consideration? This dialogue, in turn, will make What type of interstate cyber espionage Here, again, the dialogue between the possible agreements on certain new is acceptable? And what are ethical United States and China would benefit norms in the cyber realm. forms of response to incidences of from a clear focus on a series of ethical Ultimately, the United States and cyber espionage and cyber attack? questions. Without ethical guidelines on China are only two countries in a At a fundamental level, espionage of interstate espionage and emergency complex international system. They any type stands on questionable ethical response mechanisms, bilateral mutual alone cannot solve problems involving footing. That being said, in practice distrust stands to grow and the potential multiple stakeholders. By working to states both acknowledge and allow for a major military conflict, in the create new norms, however, they can espionage to occur. Such espionage, cyber or conventional realm, remains mature the multilateral dialogue on however, is not without its own set of perilously high. issues like cybersecurity, helping to ethical guidelines. One prominent make possible global solutions to example of this was the so-called china, the united states, and important global problems. “Moscow Rules”—the tacitly agreed-to cybersecurity: the opportunity set of regulations for interstate April 30, 2013 espionage between the United States By focusing on the ethical and Soviet Union during the Cold War. underpinnings of the cybersecurity Defense Group International Vice issue, the United States and China can President James Mulvenon, among chart a path forward in addressing the others, has noted that these rules simply bilateral dispute. As the two most do not exist in the cyber realm. Without significant players in international these mutually constituted social cyberspace, the two sides can expect guidelines on ethics in the practice of dividends from cooperating in espionage, how are state cyber establishing norms in the cyber realm. intelligence agents supposed to Since strategic mistrust regarding

7 geoPoLitics and security A Pivot and a Promise: The Future of U.S.-Myanmar Relations The United States needs to move beyond a “wait and see” approach towards Myanmar and encourage broader reforms by boosting state capacity in three essential areas: the economic, political, and cultural. By thaw Zin Aung GYI (myanmar) and reid LIdOW (United States) U.S. Government Works / Pete Souza www.flickr.com/photos/whitehouse/ (CC) / Pete Souza www.flickr.com/photos/whitehouse/ U.S. Government Works Barack Obama strikes bell at Shwedagon Pagoda, Yangon.

peaking at the University of reviled military junta. Operating on a Evan Osnos entitled “The Burmese Yangon last November, President geologic timescale in foreign policy terms, Spring,” Osnos observed that unlike SObama declared the United Myanmar seemed to make an about-face what was seen during the Arab Spring, States “a Pacific nation,” with a future overnight as political prisoners were “Burma’s opening has so far defied the “bound to those nations and peoples to released, Aung San Suu Kyi was elected narrative logic we’ve come to associate our West.” The visit to Myanmar, the to parliament in free and fair elections, and with political transformation: there is, as first ever by a sitting U.S. president, was a nominally civilian government worked yet, no crowd picking through a ruined the culmination of nearly two years of to broker ceasefire agreements with ethnic palace, no dictator in the dock.” That policy reforms and reengagement directed groups. Simultaneously, the United States was then. And while the homes (palaces toward the long ignored state. What made normalized diplomatic relations with by Burmese standards) of former this reengagement possible was a Myanmar, installing a new ambassador military generals and crony businessmen combination of a new foreign policy and easing toward a sanctions drawdown. still remain standing, the homes of rulebook adopted by the Obama Several months after President minorities are smoldering. In Rakhine administration advocating a rebalancing— Obama’s visit, it is clear that U.S. policy state, the persecution of stateless or pivot—into the Asia-Pacific, along with towards Myanmar needs an adjustment. Rohingya Muslims persists. In Kachin a democratization effort by Myanmar’s In an August 2012 New Yorker story by state, the Kachin Independence Army

8 continues to wage a bloody war against internal cultural issues relating to ethnic With so many suitors rushing the the military, and other decades-old groups must be peacefully resolved. If Myanmar market, it is easy to see why ceasefire agreements have broken down the United States is serious about the GDP growth for 2012 was 6.5 percent amidst the reforms. And throughout the pivot, and recognizes its ethic of and U.S. FDI topped US$ 1 billion, and country, a recent wave of violence responsibility to Myanmar, then it will both metrics show no sign of losing between Buddhists and Muslims has work to build state capacity by shifting momentum. Myanmar stands as a rare resulted in a series of protests and deaths from a wait-and-see approach to a monetary howitzer when compared that has spread to neighboring countries. proactive “Three Pillar” engagement alongside the sagging global economy, It may be business as usual in model. so what is the problem? As U.S. Naypyitaw, but it is clear that the new business interests enter Myanmar, there Myanmar is being born in blood. the First Pillar: economic is a real risk that they will follow in the The United States has made an engagement same footsteps as China. That is good impressive effort to step up engagement for the balance sheets and the bottom with Myanmar in line with the rest of the In the September 2012 Center for line, but bad in just about every other world, but it’s time for a change. In what Strategic and International Studies imaginable way. China uses Myanmar has become known as the “wait-and- Myanmar Trip Report, the investigative as an extractive resource pit where see” approach, all policy movements by team, composed of several leading upstream industries ravage the Burmese the U.S. come in a graduated fashion Myanmar observers, concluded that the land and people with no regard for only after the Burmese government U.S. government must “support sustainability. In November of last year, pushes past key reform metrics. To help substantial levels of assistance for hundreds of monks and local nudge the government, the U.S. uses an capacity building at all levels,” community members protested the additional tool: the two prongs of beginning with investment. Thus far, the unsustainable business practices at the engagement and pressure. Early in the most visible signposts of the U.S. Letpadaung Copper Mine, which is reform process, this approach worked as reengagement effort with Myanmar owned by a Chinese military-backed designed—as Myanmar plucked the have been the many economic markers company, Wanbao Mining Co. In what low-hanging fruit of political prisoners of American firms rushing into what was widely perceived as Beijing and rigged elections off the poison tree, they perceive to be one of the last nudging Naypyitaw and President Thein the U.S. was ready to both take partial untapped markets on the planet—a Sein to solve the problem, the Burmese credit for the reforms and roll out new “Wild West” of sorts. General Electric police moved to suppress the engagement policies. This tit-for-tat was one of the first major companies to demonstration by cracking down on the approach can only go on for so long, and make a bet on Myanmar, signing a deal protesters, burning many homes, and it has run its course. in July 2012 for a US$ 2 million contract wounding hundreds. Whether the Now, the United States needs to be with Yangon hospitals. Soft beverage dispute is over a copper mine, even more patient with Myanmar and giant Coca-Cola reentered the Myanmar hydroelectric dam, or oil and gas encourage broader, more comprehensive market last year (2012) after a sixty-year pipeline, the people of Myanmar tend to reforms over smaller, transient victories, absence and announced the construction view China as a “taker” and not a and this can be accomplished by of a domestic bottling plant through a “giver.” Moreover, the United States boosting state capacity in three essential local partner. PepsiCo followed in tow should scrutinize both its own business areas: the economic, political, and leaving North Korea and Cuba the only intentions as well as those of its new cultural sectors. First, economic U.S.-soft drink-free states in the Myanmar partners. cooperation with Myanmar must be world—a club Myanmar no doubt Speaking with one of the authors of deepened as American firms enter the sought to exit. MasterCard is working this piece in an interview, Myanmar state, and all ventures must be defined with Myanmar’s CB Bank helping to journalist, dissident, and national icon U by socially responsible practices. build an electronic banking Win Tin acknowledged that the “U.S. Second, political capacity must be infrastructure beginning with ATMs, and presence in Asia is very tangible and expanded, especially with respect to a soon tourists and businessmen entering rather great.” He went on to say that in virtually nonexistent judiciary and a the country won’t have to come with terms of development “the U.S. can highly flawed constitutional document wads of crisp U.S. dollars or Chinese help, [however] the U.S. is not the great that continues to undermine real reform renminbi. Most notably, Google CEO industrial nation” it once was, so in the parliament, and this can be Eric Schmidt toured Myanmar in March perhaps it can focus on building achieved through heightened “soft of this year and shortly thereafter democratic capacity. To a degree, U Win power” type exchanges. And third, announced a Burmese version of Google. Tin is right. So far, U.S. economic

9 geoPoLitics and security engagement with Myanmar has stayed the national reconciliation process.” And positive impact with Myanmar with away from the highly extractive while this level of awareness on the part respect to constitutional and judicial industrial and resource sectors; Coca- of the government is heartening, there issues by starting a dialogue, a Cola is hardly the banality of evil. This remain real fissures in Myanmar’s conversation that is presently being is bound to change in the coming years political system leading to fits and starts ignored in favor of more politically as U.S. firms seek to tap into some of the in the reform process. savvy discussions such as prisoner largest natural gas and offshore oil President Thein Sein has made an releases and foreign investment laws. reserves in the world. Myanmar would effort to confront corruption within The United States can begin this be wrong not to capitalize on its Myanmar’s political system head on, conversation by opening up “soft resources, and the United States would going so far as to make an internal power” dialogue channels, the Fulbright be foolish not to compete for contracts speech “rebuking” political cronyism Program being a prime example. While in a free, fair and open marketplace, but and arguing, “good governance is still the present Fulbright Program in all of this must be done sustainably. In very weak in Myanmar and still falls Myanmar is in its infancy, the United the words of U Win Tin, “China is a shorts of international norms.” The States would be wise to create two new menace” because of their actions, and United States has an opportunity to help programs. The first program would the United States must work with local strengthen Myanmar’s political system, extend the opportunity to Burmese communities to minimize industry’s but in doing so it must be careful not to academics to come to the United States footprint. Rather than working to send the message that it wants to make for one year of study or work at an suppress protests as seen at the copper Myanmar in its image—a neocolonial academic institution or policy mine, the United States would be wise undertaking of sorts. Perhaps the organization in Washington, D.C. This to learn from China’s mistakes and greatest structural political hurdle facing “Capital Scholar Exchange Program” instead sit down with those who Myanmar can be found with the will allow some of Myanmar’s leading question the development motives of Constitution, a document which became thinkers to come to the United States, others. In short, if Myanmar is the “Wild law in 2008 and lacks the current study and work on their own terms, and West,” then the United States must be democratic values the new quasi- return to Myanmar with ideas of their the cowboy in the “white hat.” democratic government is trying to own. Additionally, the other side of the espouse. The document’s mere inception soft power highway should be opened the second Pillar: is a blight on Myanmar’s history, as it up and enthusiastic Americans should be Building Political capacity was rushed into law by the military in able to apply to undertake research in the days after Cyclone Nargis made Myanmar in the same way they can in If the party line emanating from the landfall, claiming over 130,000 lives. over 100 other states worldwide. While Myanmar Ministry of Foreign Affairs Written and tailored to serve the the availability of this opportunity in (MOFA) is any indication of current interests of the former military junta, the Myanmar is not a question of if but policy attitudes toward the United 2008 Constitution allocates one quarter rather when, the United States would be States, then America must adjust its of the seats in Parliament to military wise to move swiftly before hot topics, Myanmar policy approach. Speaking officials. Designed to create a such as the flawed constitution and with the authors of this piece in a closed dichotomy between civilian and military corrupt judiciary, go cold. meeting in Naypyitaw, two MOFA affairs, constitutional divisions between If the United States decides that soft directors-general revealed that Myanmar these two groups have worked so well power engagement should be employed is tired of the U.S. two-pronged that Thein Sein is having trouble in Myanmar, namely through academic approach and that “we [Myanmar] take enforcing ceasefire agreements the exchanges, then caution should be the engagement, but not the pressure military seeks to void. The most recent exercised. Critiquing the soft power part.” During the interview, the example of this power division came concept, United Nations Special comment came off like a child at the with the military reneging on a 1989 Rapporteur Richard Falk makes the dinner table not wanting to eat the ceasefire agreement with the Shan State convincing argument that “the idea of vegetables, but upon closer evaluation Army-North, brokered by the State Law using power of any kind to democratize there is real promise in this rebuke of and Order Restoration Council other sovereign states is an imperial U.S. foreign policy. The directors- (SLORC), resulting in displacements undertaking at its core.” The United general went on to say that reforms are and deaths. Additionally, Myanmar’s States must not fall into the trap that being undertaken at a breakneck pace, judiciary is limited and highly corrupt. American democracy is the only kind of “not because of U.S. pressure, but The opening for the United States is democracy, and that is why two way because we feel we have to do this—for obvious. First, America can make a cultural exchanges—defined by

10 curiosity and a lack of prejudice—are statewide protests—which have turned and will remain one of Myanmar’s largest key to forging a healthy, sustainable violent—against Muslims. The U.S. trading partners for some time to come. political future in Myanmar. Embassy in Yangon, and Ambassador Furthermore, Myanmar is unlikely to fall Mitchell, have done an excellent job into any “bloc” due to its history as a the third Pillar: Finding a applauding the good reforms and nonaligned state that prefers to hedge its cultural common ground challenging the bad developments, but bets rather than become over-reliant on these core violent ethnic clashes cannot any one state. Going forward, the United As the saying goes, it is important not be allowed to persist. States needs to prove that the pivot is just to throw stones in a glass house. When The tools in the U.S. toolbox available as much about building cooperative, it comes to diversity, and cultures to help guide Myanmar out of a series of mutually beneficial relationships with clashing, the United States’ history is not ethnic crises are strictly words; America long ignored states—such as Myanmar— as proud as many would like it to be: can get away with playing “Scrabble,” as it is about balancing against China. Native Americans have been forcibly but a game such as “Risk” is off the And this commitment begins with the removed from their land; African- table. The solution to these conflicts can, “Three Pillars” of engagement: an Americans have been subject to racist in part, be found in the first and second economic deepening, political capacity laws; and Muslims have been treated as pillars of engagement. Economically, the building, and a commitment to a a suspect class following the 9/11 Burmese government should make an diversity of cultures. attacks. The shameful list goes on, but effort to give minority groups, whose Returning again to Evan Osnos’ for every failure the United States land is affected by extractive business words, Obama’s actions in Myanmar makes, an effort to repair wounds and ventures, an economic stake in the have been nothing less than “a high engage in a national reconciliation success of the company. This could mean profile bet on men of immense moral process ensues. This is a story that must giving minority groups actual shares—a flexibility.” It’s time for the United be shared with Myanmar. literal stake—or setting up a revenue States to double-down on the bet. It’s Increasingly, when Myanmar makes distribution fund that provides a monthly time for America to acknowledge its news the topic now is clashes with or annual check to these groups that can ethic of responsibility and for the United minority groups, and the severity of this then be reinvested in community States and Myanmar to move forward, problem cannot be overstated. In development programs. It is a reality that working together. Rakhine state, a rape and killing of a economics set the agenda, whether at the Buddhist woman last May spurred a household or national political level, and April 29, 2013 series of protests against Muslims, and in more needs to be done to give minority an old junta-style action, martial law was groups a stake in the success of declared in the state. Subsequently, Myanmar. With respect to the second police were deployed to the area to pillar, the political system must be maintain the rule of law and suppress reformed in such a way that Myanmar protests. However, it appears from news becomes more of a federal state where footage that their presence was largely minority groups—the Shan, the Karen, ornamental. In the process, there began the Kachin—hold allocated elected seats what has been described as a “pogrom” both at the local level and in the national against Rohingyas. Speaking with a parliament. Most importantly, the United reporter who covered the Rakhine state States, through formal diplomatic crisis, under the condition of anonymity, engagement, must share the stories of its the individual commented, “There is a cultural failures. The truth is not always real feeling of potential ethnic cleansing. flattering, but being honest with The uprising [in Rakhine] has shades of Myanmar will help to avoid repeating Darfur.” Additionally, over the course of the painful ethical lapses of the past. the last year, tensions between the Kachin Independence Army (KIA) and the united states and Myanmar: the Burmese military have been ratcheted Moving Forward, working together up resulting in frequent skirmishes and a series of deaths in the northern regions of The United States reengaging the country. This has been against the Myanmar does not have to be all about backdrop of a more recent phenomenon: the pivot. China is not going anywhere

11 geoPoLitics and security The Ethical Challenge in Sino-U.S. Relations: The Threat of War The United States’ predilection to find military solutions to political problems, and China’s failing search to legitimize an ailing political system are paradoxically different and yet two heads of the same coin. By tONG Zhichao (China) and William YALE (United States) U.S. Pacific Fleet www.flickr.com/photos/compacflt/ (CC) U.S. Pacific Fleet www.flickr.com/photos/compacflt/ Chinese sailors render honors to Secretary of the Navy, the Honorable Ray Mabus, during a visit to the People’s Liberation Army Navy hospital ship Peace Ark.

he greatest ethical challenge buffeted every day by internal pressures, It didn’t used to be this way. Forty confronting the United States and is thus coming up with new foreign years ago, the United States and China T and China is that in both policies that it thinks can legitimize reconciled their vast ideological countries, decision-makers are increasingly itself and distract the people from differences and previous hostility scoping out foreign policy strategies that domestic problems. But in reality these towards each other because of a very will inevitably lead to military conflict. policies have the side effect of practical challenge: the threat of the On the U.S. side, decision-makers often rationalizing hyper-nationalism, which Soviet Union. The decision-making look for military solutions to what are could push the CCP into being more calculus on both sides was really political problems. They consider antagonistic towards the United States. predominately realist—by joining geopolitics, and in fact fall back on Taken together, problems in both forces, the United States and China geopolitical fatalism in thinking about countries could create a security could rebalance international relations China as an inevitable enemy. In China, dilemma, or put in more colloquial and put the Soviet Union in a weaker the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) is terms, a death spiral into conflict. position. After the fall of the Soviet

12 Union, the United States and China had concept, intended especially for use in B), both of which are designed primarily to come up with a new paradigm for the the Asia Pacific. This new operational to hit targets deep within mainland relationship. Although this rationale for concept is called AirSea Battle. It is a China. PGS consists of a hypersonic the relationship has never been concept that combines the strengths of glider launched on top of a ballistic completely settled, for the most part, the Navy and the Air Force to combat missile, delivering a conventional good relations have been realized what is known in military jargon as warhead anywhere in the world in under through mutual economic benefit—the A2/AD (anti-access/area-denial). A2/AD, an hour. But there is a catch—it is United States has invested billions of in turn, refers to a combination of possible that the launch of such a missile dollars into the Chinese economy and asymmetric threats that are intended to could be confused by Russia or China helped it develop, while the Chinese thwart a conventional military (like the as a nuclear launch. The LRS-B, have, in time, sold the United States U.S. military) as it approaches the coast meanwhile, completes similar missions cheap goods and offered the country of a foreign country. Such technologies without quite the destabilizing factor. cheap credit. In fact, economics has been could include ballistic and cruise But still, given how expensive it is likely the brightest part of the relationship, and missiles, diesel and nuclear submarines, to be (at least $500 million each, but indeed what has kept the relationship land-based attack aircraft, anti-satellite likely much more given cost overruns), going along as well as it has. technology, and cyber warfare in order we must always ask the question: Is But today, mutual economic benefit is to cripple the U.S. military. While the there a strategic reason for developing widely perceived as inadequate to DoD and outside think tanks have this weapons system? indefinitely sustain good relations. On strenuously denied that the Pivot to Asia These developments are ethically the U.S. side, the military plays an or AirSea Battle is intended to combat troubling in and of themselves, but in outsized role in determining the China, it is clear that China is the target, reality they are only a small part of a character of the Sino-U.S. relationship. because it is developing precisely this larger system. The DoD and others Overwhelmingly, the U.S. Department A2/AD strategy (Iran is to a lesser extent believe that AirSea Battle will prevent of Defense (DoD) relies on geopolitics developing it as well). a future Sino-U.S. conflict. And to to predict a powerful, antagonistic AirSea Battle proposes many ways to some degree, they are right. It is China; after that, it simply plans based negate the Chinese asymmetric threat important to have a credible deterrent on that assumption. Starting in late in the event of a conflict: hardening in order to avert war. But is AirSea 2011 and early 2012, the Obama forward operating bases from attack Battle, especially weapon systems like administration rolled out a new Asia- (such as in Guam or eastern Japan); PGS, the right kind of deterrent? Pacific strategy: the Pivot (or Rebalance) incapacitating Chinese ground and space- Under the geopolitical logic that the to Asia. The Pivot was supposed to be based ISR (intelligence, surveillance, and DoD has adopted (well represented by comprehensive, striking a balance reconnaissance) capabilities; conducting the book A Contest for Supremacy by between engagement and hedging; strikes on ballistic and cruise missile Aaron Friedberg), war is seen as almost between soft and hard power; and launch and production sites in Chinese inevitable, as if the United States and between the diplomatic, international territory; and eventually enforcing China were the British Empire and development, and military components blockades against Chinese commerce Germany on the eve of World War I. If of the U.S.’s foreign policy apparatus. and energy shipments. left unchecked, this kind of thinking And to some extent, the economic and Of all these potential missions, will result in ever-greater tit for tat as diplomatic sides have materialized: for striking targets deep within Chinese both sides attempt to achieve virtually example, with the Trans-Pacific territory would be the most difficult, the impossible levels of security. It is the Partnership, a free trade agreement most expensive, and the most contentious. sad truth that the current Sino-U.S. currently being negotiated with Official publications emphasize that military situation has the makings of a countries spanning both sides of the “attacking in depth” (more jargon security dilemma. If we let geopolitics Pacific (although it excludes China, meaning attacking deep within enemy determine U.S. relations with China, partially by China’s choice). territory) is essential to the success of we are going to end up with World However, what has mainly appeared the AirSea Battle concept and that War III. instead of diplomatic and economic current DoD assets will be less useful to In reality, a Sino-U.S. war would be engagement is an overemphasis on conduct this mission into the future. overwhelmingly against the national military hedging. Starting shortly before For this reason, the DoD is currently interest on both sides. Actual conflict the official unveiling of the “Pivot to developing new weapons systems, such would represent the complete failure of Asia,” it was made public that the DoD as Prompt Global Strike (PGS) and the both U.S. and Chinese foreign policy. was designing a new operational new Long-Range Strike Bomber (LRS- Both sides would be economically

13 geoPoLitics and security crippled by war, but China would suffer problems loom large, corruption seems international stage. Tianxia can also be more. Blockade operations alone would intractable, and citizen discontent boils seen as the philosophical foundation for immediately cut off seaborne trade and upwards in the form of mass protests. the “Harmonious World” promoted by energy conduits, slowly suffocating and But the largest problem is currently the the CCP’s ex-party chief Hu Jintao. circumscribing Chinese action. The lack of legitimization of the CCP. The The CCP itself will actually be too economic consequences of war would CCP, of course, previously relied on happy to encourage such an intellectual be received highly unfavorably by the revolutionary Marxist-Leninist-Maoist development. Being assertive in foreign Chinese public, and could even threaten thought. But in the last thirty years, this affairs provides them the cover that the the CCP’s hold on power. Finally, the has been insufficient since China moved party desperately needs so as to distract DoD assumes that China would start this towards a capitalist market. So China the Chinese people from domestic hypothetical war; this however has now emphasizes nationalism and a conflicts. In addition, Chinese serious logical flaws, given that China historical narrative of “national exceptionalism based on Tianxia also could not support such a war if it started humiliation” perpetrated upon China by responds to the party’s need to label it. China does not have the ability to the Western imperial powers in the everything as “having Chinese project power that the U.S. does; A2/AD century before China’s unification under characteristics.” It could justify the as a strategy is not geared to projecting Mao. Taken together, these are not just party’s refusal to adopt liberal power, but rather defending and ideologies to legitimize the CCP, but democratic political reforms. After all, controlling the maritime area around also methods to quell internal dissent, by if China could refuse Western modes China. In a potential conflict, China encouraging average people to take their of thinking in international relations, would be limited close to home. This is discontent and latch it onto foreign why could it not refuse Western political contradictory to an offensive, power- countries. systems? In other words, Tianxia may projection strategy. In recent years, nationalist figures in give the CCP additional legitimacy and As it stands, AirSea Battle is a Chinese foreign policy have sought to staying power. strategy that will largely exacerbate the systematize this thought and make it What ethical challenge does this pose latent Sino-U.S. security dilemma, not more coherent. There is a dangerous for Sino-U.S relations? There are two prevent war. The failure to craft an possibility that they will succeed in types of the Tianxia system that will appropriately comprehensive strategy adopting an ancient Chinese concept, pose problems. The “hard” version, if lies as much with the U.S.’s civilian Tianxia, meaning “all under heaven,” implemented, will be a total disaster for leaders as its military leaders. The Sino- which places China at the center of a Sino-U.S relations. There is no doubt U.S. relationship is at its heart a hierarchical world order. Tianxia at its that the hard version of Tianxia is a political problem, not a military one. heart is a way to provide justification for hierarchical order with China in the And yet the current administration has Chinese exceptionalism. During recent dominant position. Ancient China, let the military largely define the Pivot years there have been Chinese scholars under the influence of Tianxia, never to Asia. This is a mistake. The president like Zhao Tingyang, Qin Yaqing, and viewed its neighbors as sovereign has an ethical obligation to craft Yan Xuetong who advocate a Chinese nations equal to itself. Instead it always national strategies that explicitly attach model of international relations theory treated them as inferior partners or political purposes to the use of military based on Tianxia. According to them, vassal states. The massive naval power force. Historically, the U.S. military has Tianxia embraces a universal ethical of the fleet of 27,000 soldiers on 250 been a force for good in the Asia Pacific, system that is superior to the ships led by Zheng He during the Ming by upholding stable governments, free Westphalian system, which allows for Dynasty, after all, did “shock and awe” markets, and a just international order. too much conflict among nation-states. foreigners into submission. Moreover, But this too was as much about good They urge Beijing to use its increasing the supposedly peaceful Zheng He used diplomacy as it was about smart power to reassert China’s traditional military force at least three times; he military deployments; the U.S.’s moral world order. As Zhao Tingyang, even captured the king of modern-day modern Asia Pacific strategy must be a well-known intellectual in the Sri Lanka and delivered him to China also. Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, for disobeying Ming authority. So if the On the other side, China is marching wrote on the back of his book Tianxia CCP chose to enforce this hard version towards a security dilemma, but from Tixi, “the real problem facing the world of the Tianxia system, whether because a different angle. Domestically, China is not the existence of failed States, but they truly believe it or they merely want suffers from stark insecurities. The the presence of a failed world.” Some to distract people’s attention from economy is unbalanced, social and Chinese scholars tend to believe that domestic unrest, China will increasingly economic inequality is stark, environmental Tianxia will create a great utopia on the be in conflict with its neighbors. And

14 with America’s return to the Asia codes on a global scale, tries to Chinese nationalism and Tianxia into Pacific, this will definitely result in accomplish something impossible. overdrive, then the United States would military conflict with the United States. How do we handle this great ethical be forced to conclude that its military The “soft” version of Tianxia, challenge? There is no doubt that buildup is rational and well-reasoned. however more peaceful and open- political reforms will be necessary in And if the United States continues to minded than the hard version, could still China. Otherwise the CCP will continue give China the impression that it seeks create problems for Sino-U.S. relations. to manipulate this Tianxia concept so as to “contain” China with the Pivot to It reflects a more cultural missionary to stay in power. After all, nationalism Asia, then to China, Tianxia only makes attitude of Tianxia. The construction of through revival of one’s national more sense as a strategy to combat an Confucius Academies around the globe traditions has been used by all antagonistic United States. But if both is a good example. It advocates authoritarian regimes around the globe. can exacerbate each other, then the Chinese exceptionalism by spreading And the discussions above show that the amelioration of either strategy can also exceptional Chinese ethics around the CCP will try to use the hard side of improve outcomes in the other country. globe. After all, under the ancient Tianxia as much as they can. Communism This will require strategic trust, which in Tianxia system, China did not colonize has few true believers in China now; turn will require solid, practical moves neighboring states like the Roman thus nationalism is the best chance for by both sides to clarify their long-term Empire did. The neighboring states the CCP to keep its legitimacy. intentions and strategies. submitted to China because of its Chinese citizens, intellectuals, and cultural dominance. With China’s especially the Chinese government need April 30, 2013 revival, many Chinese intellectuals are to face the fact that this is a pluralistic reviving the great traditions of Chinese world. The utopian dream based on culture. There is no doubt that China Tianxia may have little appeal to people now is going through a great cultural believing in different comprehensive renaissance. Traditional Chinese clothes doctrines. The United States, with its are increasingly popular and the tradition of liberalism, will never be government directly promotes the converted to this traditional style of celebration of traditional Chinese Chinese thinking. The ideological festivals. There are even markets for conflict between communism and traditional Chinese schooling based on capitalism resulted in a Cold War the Confucius style. between the Soviet Union and the The problem is that no matter how United States. The same scenario may hard China tries to advertise Tianxia as happen again if we let Tianxia define being benign (for example, they may Chinese foreign policy. In order to deal claim that “harmony with difference” with insuperable ideological differences, has a great place in traditional Chinese a real strategy would be to focus on culture), the soft version of Tianxia is practical measures to improve Sino-U.S still a comprehensive ethical doctrine relations. The same applies to the United that is only accepted in China. It will States as well. Both sides desperately definitely result in ideological need to compromise, and have a more conflicts with the ethical code based on nuanced historical perspective of the Western liberalism shared by most other. Americans, and indeed, the entire In the end, these two massive modern international order. Under the problems—the United States’ predilection geopolitically fatalistic assumptions to find military solutions to political being made by many decision-makers in problems, and China’s failing search to the United States, it is entirely possible legitimize an ailing political system— that the U.S. could mistake attempts to are paradoxically different and yet two implement “soft Tianxia” as actually heads of the same coin. The two can be “hard Tianxia,” thus provoking even seen to be one unity because they more serious conflict. The soft version exacerbate the dangers of the other—if of Tianxia, through advocating the China were to descend into an economic application of traditional Chinese ethical slump and decide it had to pump

15 geoPoLitics and security Senkaku/Diaoyu Conflict Endangers U.S. Rebalance to the Asia-Pacific It may be a moral duty for the United States to comply with its security treaty with Japan, but is it worth jeopardizing its relationship with China? By Ana mArtINOvIC (United States) and Iris SOrIANO (philippines) relationship with China. Though it appears to be a moral duty for the United States to follow through with its written obligations, it would be in the best interest of the United States to remain out of the conflict to most successfully secure a prosperous economic future. In recent years, the Obama administration decided to shift the focus of the U.S. Department of Defense from the Middle East to the Asia-Pacific region. This strategic shift, known as rebalancing, is welcomed by the Asia- Pacific region. The United States will be emphasizing defense and security cooperation in the region. Besides military service, the United States also hopes to provide allies with assistance in developing human rights. It can be assumed that the United States carried out this strategy in response to growing tensions with North Korea, wanting to show its commitment to its strongest allies: Japan and South Korea. Joseph

National Land Image Information, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism, Japan Tourism, and Transport Infrastructure, Land, of Ministry Information, Image Land National Yun, an assistant secretary in the State Aerial photo of contested islands. Department Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs, recognizes that “the n the international level, the Due to the recent downfall of the U.S future prosperity and security of our significance of the relationship economy, hospitable relations with nation will be defined by events and Obetween the United States and China must be maintained. China could developments in the region.” Not only China is twofold. First, these two serve as a key factor in the rebuilding will this rebalancing allow the United nations stand alone as social and and stabilization of the future in States to cultivate amicable relationships political powerhouses, and second, they America. The current territorial conflict with Asian nations, but it will heavily depend on each other in the East China Sea between China subsequently help the U.S. economy for economically. The United States may and Japan, however, threatens this the following reasons. have the largest military and economy, relationship and its potential to aid the The United States increased investments but China’s economy continues to grow U.S. economy. A preexisting security in the Asia-Pacific over the past few at an unprecedented rate, most notably treaty from 1951 obligates the United years, with considerable benefit to its serving as the world’s greatest exporter States to get involved and defend Japan economy. Investments increased by $20 of goods such as electrical machinery if armed conflict occurs. If a conflict did billion from 2009 to 2011. The increase and equipment. China exported over in fact break out between Japan and in exports links directly with increasing US$ 300 billion worth of goods in this China, by the treaty, the United States jobs for Americans, which is beneficial category during 2009, and $71 billion would have to support Japan. This for economic welfare. Because of its worth was exported to the United States. would clearly hinder the U.S. status as a top exporter not only in the

16 region, but also globally, China has dispute was avoided. Regardless, serious to both Japan and the United States. become the main focus of the United tensions between Japan and China began Though China has not attacked Japan States in the Asia Pacific. China will, in to spark in fall 2012. militarily, it has been sending ships and upcoming years, become the world’s In September 2012, Japan’s cabinet aircraft to scout the region as a symbol most powerful nation due to the rate at announced that it would purchase three of confrontation toward Japan. China which it is developing infrastructure and of the five islets from a private owner. has also taken the extra step and increasing its manufacturing processes. China became enraged over the escalated to the point of locking targets Though the nation does not pose any proposition and warned Japan against onto Japanese aircraft and ships. China’s threats to the United States or rest of the the purchase, stating that doing so would provocative actions seem troubling to world due to its high status, it is lead to serious consequences. The the rest of the world, so the question important for countries to take China United States joined China and advised becomes whether or not the competition seriously and to try to be in good Japan against the purchase. Kurt will lead to armed conflict if Japan does standing with it. As such, it is important Campbell, a U.S. assistant secretary of not relinquish the islets to China. for the United States to keep a positive state for East Asian and Pacific Affairs, The United States has repeatedly relationship with China because the stated that “even though we warned declared that it does not want to get United States depends on Asia for its Japan, Japan decided to go in a different involved in the territorial conflict in the successes just as Asia depends on the direction.” It was clear to the United East China Sea and hopes that the two United States for its international States that Japan’s purchase could nations will settle the dispute among market. Unfortunately, the current threat trigger a big conflict with China, but themselves by coming to a peaceful to the U.S. association with China is the Japan went ahead with it anyway. Now agreement. Nonetheless, the United conflict in the East China Sea between in 2013, we find both nations defending States also mentioned that if armed China and Japan. The United States may their sovereignty rights over the islets. conflict does occur between Japan end up in a position to get involved in China continues to stand firm in its and China that it will intervene to the conflict and if the United States belief that the islets are under its defend Japan. The obligation of U.S. makes the wrong decision, it could authority and has expressed this clearly intervention is due to the U.S.-Japan destroy the U.S. plan to rebalance in the Asia-Pacific. To expand on the issue, China and Japan are engaged in a territorial conflict with regard to islets in the East China Sea, known as the Diaoyu by the Chinese and the Senkaku by the Japanese. Historically, Japan’s government annexed these islands in 1895. A Japanese man started a business on one of the islets that failed in the 1940s. Since the failure of his business, no one has inhabited the islets. Since the islands were essentially empty, the United States used these islets for military occupation after World War II, but in the early 1970s the United States returned them to Japan, excluding sovereignty rights. During this same period, the United Nations declared that there was a possibility of oil and gas reserves surrounding the islets. Not surprisingly, this news brought a heightened interest in the islets for both Japan and China. Throughout the twentieth century, China claimed ownership of the islets, but no vital action www.wikipedia.org (wikimedia creative commoms) www.wikipedia.org to obtain the islets occurred, therefore Senkaku/Diaoyu/Tiaoyutai Islands.

17 geoPoLitics and security

Security Treaty written after World War cooperation with China on a wide range strengthen its relationship with China II. Article I of the Security Treaty states of bilateral, regional, and global issues.” because of the nation’s growing power that American forces “may be utilized Yun aims to console China by assuring rather than to commit itself to a security to contribute to the maintenance of it that the new U.S. role in the Asia- treaty with Japan written in the past. international peace and security in the Pacific will be mutually beneficial. Let us reiterate that the U.S. shift to Far East and to the security of Japan Unfortunately, his words may not be the Asia-Pacific region is an important against armed attack.” It directly states satisfying enough for China because of defensive move. This region provides that the United States must support regular meetings held between Japan and many opportunities for Asian nations to Japan as an ally in the event that a the United States about updating defense form alliances with the United States foreign nation attacks them. This implies plans over the East China Sea islets. which benefit each nation's security that the United States will necessarily To avoid potential conflict between the and development. The U.S. plan to have a role in supporting Japan United States and China, the United further increase its investments in the militarily if armed conflict occurs States should continue to remain neutral Asia-Pacific should alleviate any between China and Japan. and uninvolved in the territorial conflict. hostility between the Unites States and The United States, however, cannot It may be a moral duty for the United other Asian countries if the United afford to get involved in this situation. States to comply with its security treaty States chooses to develop a powerful It would immediately jeopardize the with Japan, but is it worth jeopardizing defense strategy. Therefore, the United U.S. relationship with China, which in its relationship with China? This is an States should remain out of the turn damages the entire defense ethical challenge that the United States Diaoyu/Senkaku conflict completely. strategy of rebalancing to the Asia- needs to confront. It would be in the best Supporting Japan will hinder the U.S. Pacific. Ultimately, the strong alliances interest of the United States to let Japan relationship with China, whereas formed with Asian nations such as Japan know immediately that it will not support leaving Japan and China to settle it draw the United States into regional them militarily in case of armed conflict themselves enhances the independence conflicts that the United States simply with China. The United States needs to of the Asia-Pacific. It is ethically cannot afford. The United States and disregard the language in the security important for the United States to let the China have a complex, interdependent treaty and leave territorial conflicts to be security treaty go and to reassure Japan relationship. Even though both nations handled solely by the region. It is a that it has no negative intentions because have different ideologies, they both disagreement between China and Japan of the withdrawal, but rather it should depend on each other economically. which should be left entirely alone by not be engaged in other nations’ Despite this relationship, China has the United States. Announcing this territorial conflicts. This decision will stated that the presence of both the reinforcement to China will strengthen help make the rebalancing policy more Japanese and Americans around the the relationship between these two successful by preserving its relationship islets is seen as “provocative.” China countries by eradicating any possible with China because it is the key country knows that the United States has ulterior motive that China believes the making this shift possible. obligations to Japan and this causes United States holds against them. It is doubt in China as to whether the United more important for the United States to May 1, 2013 States is truly aiming to strengthen its relationship with China. China has also indicated that U.S. support is another form of containment. The Chinese government assumes that the United States and its allies want to restrict China’s power because it is such a rapidly growing nation. The powerful nations in the West, such as America, must therefore feel threatened by this growth and want to suppress it. Joseph Yun, acting assistant secretary in the Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs, said, “Let me be clear that we have no interest in containing China, but rather Al Jazeera English www.flickr.com/photos/aljazeeraenglish/ (CC) Al Jazeera English www.flickr.com/photos/aljazeeraenglish/ our policy is designed to increase Patrolling troubled waters.

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19 geoPoLitics and security This Is How You Lose: Against Political Pressure by Militarism Militarization has hurt bilateral and multilateral U.S.-Asian relations more often than it has helped. By Alexandra Nicolette kHOO (Singapore) and Sean LAGUNA (United States) Official U.S. Navy Imagery www.flickr.com/photos/usnavy/ (CC) U.S. Navy Imagery www.flickr.com/photos/usnavy/ Official Sailors aboard the guided-missile destroyer USS Mustin (DDG 89) direct an SH-60B Seahawk helicopter.

he story is familiar: The United militarization is left unquestioned as the breathing space. In some cases, States sees Asia as a strategic preponderant policy tool, although it hypersensitivity to military strength has T region for reinforcing its underlies all these critical issues. U.S.- dissolved and replaced practical military hegemony, prompting its “Pivot Asia relations have become increasingly negotiations about real issues with to Asia” policy. China views the United characterized by the military dimension, wasteful defense spending. For instance, States as a competitor for regional as if countries have become accustomed at the April 2013 symposium on Japan- dominance. Long-time American allies to finding security in their respective China relations held by the Keizai Koho Japan and South Korea see the United destructive capacities. Center, Japanese experts on China issues States as a deterrent to possible Chinese A critique of militarism is not a critique voiced how an excessive policy focus on coercion. Southeast Asian nations do not of the military. Rather, it is a protest Sino-Japan military tension has led to a take explicit sides but opt to use the against the knee-jerk recourse to military decline in Japanese exports to and great power rivalry as a hedge against power as a state’s means of securing investments in China that undercuts dominance by either power. We hear autonomy and influence. In a region Japan’s global competitiveness. debates about the responsibilities of the fraught with tension, U.S. military Militarism has destabilized the region and United States to its allies, and China’s engagement and Asian arms competition threatens to destabilize it further, while need to reassure neighbors and be likely do more to stunt the development distracting from critical issues like trade, reassured in turn. Yet, in all this, of security institutions than give them national debt, underemployment,

20 environmental protection, and human on particular sets of states, rather than Power through violence has rights. It reduces foreign policy to the being widely open to those actors found irrevocable drawbacks that invalidate hollow, never-to-be-fulfilled threat of war. within the region. This environment has it from being an ideal system. induced those countries to militarize to Currently, the United States and Asian an ethical Look at Power guarantee their autonomy and influence. countries use militarism to garner The use of military force has become a power—not “absolute power” but The devotion to military primacy has means of exerting pressure best met by relative power—and similar drawbacks a fundamentally ethical undercurrent reciprocal military force. are manifesting themselves. Locke because it involves the metric by which Focusing on this particular type of goes on to suggest that “to avoid this countries relate to each other. Any given power acquisition has led to a limited state of war...is one great reason of country in the U.S.-Asia interaction normative perspective of it; to attain men’s putting themselves into society, judges the relative power of any other power, primarily one route exists: and quitting the state of nature: for country primarily based on their defense militarization. This imposes a certain where there is an authority, a power on capabilities and military presence in the ethical constraint. Reducing the earth, from which relief can be had by region. Smaller Asian countries are domination of military force in foreign appeal.” responding to Chinese maritime policy involves loosening this constraint Locke suggests an institutional assertiveness with defense spending, and favoring a more useful metric for approach to avoiding a state of war, especially on offshore patrol vessels power, one that will mutually benefit the namely by establishing an authority that (OPVs). Japan’s politics have revolved United States and Asia, one that will protects and enforces an ethical metric almost solely around securing maritime efficiently use resources and encourage of power. But this does not prescribe a access, a largely political and economic progress from Asian countries, as means for doing so. While it may sound issue they are addressing through opposed to wasting resources and like it, this does not suggest an military spending. While this course of derailing progress. Nations need to institutionalist approach to international action has obvious drawbacks, Japan reestablish normative metrics for power policy over a realist approach. Instead, faces clear pressure from China to that yield autonomy and influence to note that this is in itself the challenge ensure “regular access to sea lanes,” countries that deserve it. They need to faced in U.S.-Asia relations, and that, claims Japanese naval expert Alessio develop a new language for their more generally, it should be addressed Patalano of King’s College, London. international discourse that involves in a “limited and conditional” way Naturally, countries can uphold more than just the implication of (invoking Occam’s Razor alongside security through force, and countries military force as control. numerous Lockean ideals). Some totally with that force, with the capability to The ethical notion of power in laissez-faire method may exist for exercise force, will do so in a way that political arenas goes far back to the establishing a new metric, such as reflects their own best interest. seventeenth century with Locke’s through nations identifying and adopting Countries, particularly the United States, Second Treatise of Government (and policies that are otherwise in their favor that actively pursue a security role before), distantly predating the current as well, with no need for the overhead guarantee that they have priority in arena of international politics. To of some centralized authority. These doing this, and thus can use it as a means compare persons in national politics to policies might produce means of of control. Other countries that do not states in international politics: establishing power that naturally have such capabilities have to concede supersede military power. to those that do, and cannot ensure that “He who attempts to get another man It is frankly embarrassing that the the exact details by which the powerful into his absolute power, does thereby put current international political arena has countries uphold security align with himself into a state of war with him....for degenerated into a macroscopic yet their beliefs and goals. In a system where-ever violence is used, and injury impotent version of this state of war: where the powerful countries helped done, though by hands appointed to functionally unable to fulfill itself form a security community this would administer justice, it is still violence and through all-out war, yet still, for some pose less of a problem, but the United injury, however coloured with the name, reason, valued, and wielded as if it were States has not fostered such a pretences, or forms of law, the end effective. A new system needs to relationship with Asia, leading to a whereof being to protect and redress the develop that will replace this and deficit of trust. This ethical challenge innocent, by an unbiassed application refocus the progress of humanity, as has been exacerbated by the exclusionary of it, to all who are under it; where-ever contributed to by the United States and tendency of U.S. regionalist initiatives; that is not bona fide done, war is made the many Asian nations, among the most security arrangements that usually focus upon the sufferers.” influential in history.

21 geoPoLitics and security

the Limited coercive utility of commitments. Multilateral support also impending alternative was hostile UN Brute Force plays a crucial role, but it is the sanctions. However, the Clinton credibility of reassurances that the administration’s persistent failure to Proponents of militarization may desired change is in policy, not regime, compel or coerce North Korea to refrain argue that the political stakes in Asia that makes or breaks deals involving a from collecting more spent fuel rods that necessitate having military potency. mutual interest. A threat-issuer’s could be weaponized shows the Indeed, brute force is the surest way to military primacy heightens the target necessity of conciliatory diplomacy that secure a number of political objectives. country’s anxiety that the former will signaled benign intent. Either way, This includes acquiring territories, be emboldened to make additional interstate bargaining requires a nuanced seizing resources, and overthrowing demands in the future if an agreement is approach that militarism is more likely regimes, reminiscent of the colonization reached, precisely because of the to undercut than help. of Asia. However, times have changed. backdrop of military force as a means In view of the riskiness, costliness, and The legal equality of nation-states and to induce acquiescence. According to unlikelihood of invoking a military with it, the principles of sovereignty a game-theoretic interpretation of response, militarization is a skewing of and noninterference form the cornerstone reputation-building, hoisting military national priorities that may of modern international relations, power can prevent the threat-issuer unnecessarily divert resources away codified in the United Nations (UN) from correctly evaluating the incentives from the people. This is most pertinent Charter. This has fundamentally persisted of a target. Threats that are not in Asia where arms spending has been even with the onset of the Responsibility designed to procure information about on the rise even when worldwide to Protect doctrine. Might no longer the goals of a target instead obscure spending has declined. According to the justifies action. those goals. As such, relying on Stockholm International Peace Research Further, upon closer inspection, many military power as a means of coercing Institute, (“Trends in World Military political objectives require the targets drives a stake between the Expenditure, 2012”), China’s military compliance of the target country in order future as perceived by both parties. The spending rose by 175 percent in real to be achieved. No regime can be threat-issuer hopes to seal a path terms from 2003 to 2012 while physically forced to change its foreign toward its own goals, while the target Indonesia saw an increase by 73 percent or domestic policies. The U.S. failure to country is encouraged to develop a and Vietnam’s spending escalated by coerce North Vietnam and create a cost-tolerance to war and to avoid 130 percent over the same period. viable, independent, non-communist acquiescence, concerned about the Specifically, Southeast Asian military South Vietnam, despite having military slippery slope to full submission and purchases include “fourth-generation” superiority, is a case in point. Military “future exploitation.” In an article or “fourth-generation-plus” fighters, strategic interaction aside, the actual entitled “Goliath’s Curse: Coercive submarines, and main battle tanks; air- human and material cost of forcing a Threats and Asymmetric Power,” Todd to-air and air-to-ground weapons; change through artillery attacks is often S. Sechser sums up the policy anti-ship cruise missiles; and underestimated by political leaders and implication nicely by noting that reconnaissance systems. One strains to is likely to exceed their cost tolerance. “successful coercive diplomacy identify actual use cases for the This yields an end result where political requires not only a sharp sword, but the purchased equipment, especially in light vulnerability such as domestic public ability to sheathe it.” of the pacifist, noninterference, and backlash imposes a withdrawal prior to At the very least, North Korea’s overall friendly discourse within ultimate military victory. recalcitrance demonstrates the futility of ASEAN. Uses do exist but mostly lie on A country’s ability to extensively straight-on intimidating a lesser power traditionally political and economic turf, project military power could even be into compliance. More specifically, a such as the use “of new naval vessels to counter-productive to international reexamination of the first North Korean patrol territorial waters and enforce bargaining or cooperation. At first, this nuclear crisis of 1993–94 reveals that exclusive economic zone (EEZ) rights.” notion may seem contrary to the the only partial coercive successes Richard Bitzinger, an Asian defense conventional wisdom that coercive occurred in conjunction with specialist, suggested that the purchases threats are more effective when coming conciliatory diplomacy. Jimmy Carter might “reinforce mutual insecurities and from a great military power. However, might have been able to reach an suspicions,” and that they can “be very coercive diplomacy extends beyond the agreement with Kim Il-Sung to allow expensive and ultimately even use of threats to secure interstate the International Atomic Energy Agency imprudent...siphoning scarce government agreements and is a complex balancing (IAEA) inspectors to stay at Yongbyon funding away from more urgent social of concessions, sanctions, and credible among other terms because the needs.” Many of these arms purchases

22 spanned long periods of time or were Taiwan, and North and South Korea. As 1,000 tactical ballistic missiles. This delayed because of insufficient funding, weapon sophistication increases and showcases the perils of thinking of suggesting that when funds did exist, new capabilities present the potential to security in predominantly military they were, for some reason, prioritized change the nature of warfare, even terms. Yet, U.S. Gen. Martin Dempsey for defense spending. Undeniably, if acquisition as part of arms modernization recently told American troops at Yokota such spending does nothing more than could upset military balance and add to Air Base in Japan that “the best way to uphold the status quo, it is unnecessary; greater insecurity. avoid war is to prepare for it.” if the spending is put to use, it can have The arms race between China and It is unclear why an open-ended arms a range of impacts on security dynamics, Taiwan in particular demonstrates how buildup is often advocated as if it were likely destabilizing in nature. as militaries become more capable in a the cheaper way to achieve security and precarious situation, tension is likely to reduce uncertainty than other means of a regional order destabilized escalate as each side tests the other’s institutionalizing the status quo. What is strengths and weaknesses. Just about clear, however, is that the pervasiveness The current militaristic shade of U.S.- two weeks ago in mid-April, Taiwan’s of militarization has hurt more often Asian security relations encourages five-day Han Kuang exercises sought to than it has helped bilateral and regional rearmament, which triggers test 145 different types of equipment multilateral U.S.-Asian relations. A uncertainty about neighboring countries’ such as navy frigates and anti-ship and world without military force may be a intentions and worsens the regional trust anti-air missiles, while hundreds of utopia but to obsess about force is to deficit. Asia is the locus of numerous thousands of Chinese troops were lose sight of true interests. fault lines prone to conflict eruption stationed along the Taiwan Strait, with tensions between China and together with hundreds of warplanes and May 1, 2013 Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff www.flickr.com (CC) www.flickr.com Staff of Chiefs Joint the of Chairman Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Adm. Mike Mullen with Chinese Gen. Chen Bingde, Chief of the People’s Liberation Army during a ceremony welcoming Mullen to Beijing, China, 2011.

23 geoPoLitics and security In Case of Intervention, Break Glass: How the China-U.S. Impasse on Syria Could Be Used to Move the G2 toward a Unified Global Ethic As exemplified by the dispute over intervention in Syria, China and the United States have different values. Can we build a bridge to work toward a universal ethical code? By Gage demont HANSEN (United States) and Jasper WONG Yun Guang (Singapore) Voice of America / Elizabeth Arrott commons.wikimedia.org/ (CC) America / Elizabeth of Voice A poster of Syria’s president at a checkpoint on the outskirts of Damascus.

he idea of a G2 strategic global and be akin to the “comprehensive two economic powerhouses. partnership between the United partnership” the United States maintains The divergent interests and values TStates and China was proposed with Japan and Europe. There was even became unavoidably clear when China by Fred Bergsten of the Peterson a minor resemblance between the G2 and the United States reached an Institute for International Economics in and the bilateral relations policy impasse during the UN Security Council 2005. That proposal was advocated by anticipated by President Obama’s (UNSC) resolution on Syria. The the former U.S. national security adviser speech before the first Strategic and impasse was accentuated in comments Zbigniew Brzezinski after Bergsten’s Economic Dialogue in April of 2009. by U.S. Ambassador Susan Rice on the testimony before the Committee on However, the concept of a G2 received escalating death toll when she said, “any Foreign Affairs’ Subcommittee on Asia, a serious setback in a May/June 2009 further bloodshed that flows will be on the Pacific and the Global Environment article in Foreign Affairs, arguing that their [Russia’s and China’s] hands.” in the U.S. House of Representatives in formally upgrading the relationship Were the Responsibility to Protect 2009. The G2 would be a symbol to would ignore, or at least fail to accept, doctrine (R2P) considered customary the world that China and the United the glaring “mismatched interests, international law, rather than remaining States share an interest in global security values, and capabilities” between these in a state of scholarly limbo, the

24 conviction to R2P principles would have international order, in a twenty-first provides a competing ideology to given impetus to the U.S.’s lead in the century context. Liberalism. Given Confucianism’s intervention of Syria, with its normative When attempting to devise a global emphasis on an individual’s terms couched in liberal values. The ethic for the world, the choice between socialization of unequal relations, it March 28, 2011 speech Obama gave at a liberal perspective and a communitarian justifies paternalism through the the National Defense University, replete interest is often juxtaposed in an artificial prioritizing of a strong nation-state and with the inevitability of ‘liberal values,’ dichotomy, but is it possible that they are the limiting of individual demands. was significant in its justifications, simply two sides of the same coin? Confucians’ concept of the individual in couched in normative terms, to Given the wording of the Five Principles society is an ethical perspective that intervene in Iraq and Libya. This of Peaceful Coexistence, a more altruistic entitles the individual to self-realization conception of liberal values is often restatement of state sovereignty, it can be through the cultivation of their associated with the individualism of discerned that China’s willingness to individual virtue. For the Western Western culture and, in international allow for the plurality of political philosopher, what may appear as a law, is espoused in the International systems as opposed to a monolithic denial of individual rights should rather, Convention on Civil and Political Rights conception of governance can be in a true amalgamation, be seen as an (ICCPR), which protects the civil and understood as something other than an acceptance of individual responsibility political liberties of citizens of its aversion to democratic principles. It toward not just the greater good, but also signatories. The ICCPR is ratified by the may be seen as allowing a more the continuation of the greater good. United States, but, despite having signed “organic” mapping of social relations That debate, between individualism it in 1998, China’s only official statement into political structures. In modern day and a continuation of the greater good, on the ICCPR has been that, “The China, it appears that Deng Xiaoping’s is happening in U.S. domestic politics signature that the Taiwan authorities pragmatic aphorism “It doesn’t matter right now; more specifically, in the areas affixed, by usurping the name of ‘China,’ whether a cat is white or black, as long as of health care, social security, and to the [Convention] on 5 October 1967, it catches mice,” has guided China, taxation. The proponents of is illegal and null and void.” On the other previously wedded to Maoism, to adopt a individualism in the United States are hand, it is notable that this position is more utilitarian and pragmatic world view. wedded to the natural rights paradigm of reversed in the case of the International This is significant in the sense that pure Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau, which Covenant of Economic, Social and pursuit of ideological principles, no matter first establishes the individual’s rights Cultural Rights (ICESCR). how perfectly conceived in the theoretical through a veil and in an abstract or Despite the progress and benefits that realm, will be judged through history by its vacuum. Only after they determine what liberal values have provided Western consequences and outcome. As anecdotal the ethical decision would be within the democracies, it is often stated that the evidence goes, new global poverty abstract do they remove the individual universality of the rights found in the estimates confirm China’s leading role in and allow them to interact with society. Universal Declaration of Human Rights meeting Millennium Development Goals. The proponents of the greater good in (UDHR), and especially those found in This new pragmatic perspective works the United States build on the the ICCPR, is merely another imposition from a big picture, addressing problem- communitarian critique of rights- of Western ideals on the rest of the solving at a macro-level; working from a oriented liberalism from Rawls, world. Now the world has seen China, consequentialist reasoning, its ethical MacIntyre, and Mills, which an illiberal behemoth, championing the perspective has been anathema to the presupposes the conception of a good rights of the community, consistent with deontological logic of U.S. foreign policy. life within a community and establishes their adherence to the ICESCR, and However, if China continues to succeed the rights of individuals as a means to succeeding economically and politically using this approach, then liberal values accomplish that ideal. This raises two in ways that Francis Fukuyama told us may face a legitimacy problem. questions: (1) Ignoring any conflict were consigned to the rubbish bin of Accepting the concept of an between individual and communal history. By suppressing the rights of the amalgamation of the—now competing— rights paradigms, should any system’s individual in the name of the nation- value systems, the Chinese influence on structural ethos be neutral to competing state, China is not just posing new a global ethos may then pose a challenge moral questions? (2) If U.S. domestic challenges to the values held in esteem to those established tenets of human policies cannot reach a compromise on by the United States, it is simultaneously rights based on individualism. It is the these competing values within one reinvigorating the concept of traditional Chinese conception of “Li” paradigm, how can China and the United Westphalian Sovereignty, which was and “Fa,” translated to English as States hope to reach a compromise in a prevalent in the nineteenth century Confucianism and Legalism, and it cross-cultural paradigm?

25 geoPoLitics and security

the case of syria red line for the United States, but that would result in a lower casualty rate is begs the question as to whether it should what has driven China’s approach. Often When these questions are directed preempt the formation of a solution to the the casualty rate is determined by the toward the G2 impasse on Syria, the conflict. It may be universally appalling, considerations of “hard” power at play. artificial dichotomy is placed front and but as counterintuitive as it sounds, moral When instruments of violence are removed center. China regards the right to questions about impunity may not be the from contending parties, nonviolent action political stability as achievable through most important factor when determining produces “lower casualty rates” even as it a political settlement between the the ethical solution to a crisis. The United pushes aggressively for its political goals. incumbent government and opposition. States may have become hypersensitive China’s logic may be more relevant That right is reinforced by their to the suffering of those nations in its because of the evolving sectarian nature of interpretation of Article 1, paragraph 1 purview, but the old adage of Benjamin the conflict that, besides being waged of the UN Charter, which relies on an Franklin, “They that can give up essential between a pro- and anti-Assad faction, is emphasis on Article 2, paragraph 7. liberty to obtain a little temporary safety also described by commentators such as However, that begs the question as to deserve neither liberty nor safety,” Josef Olmert (University of South whether political stability is more implied a certain acceptance of suffering Carolina) as part of a larger conflict important than the case for regime- as a necessary element in the quest for involving the Sunni community and the change that claims to draw a linkage self-determination. Current U.S. policy Alawite community. Becoming a sectarian between the latter and the cessation of simply suggests that the international conflict opens up the possibility that a post- “atrocities.” As Qu Xing, president of community has a responsibility to limit Assad Syria could fracture like Yugoslavia. China Institute of International Studies, that suffering when sufficient evidence is The United States and its NATO allies has pointed out, China believes that the presented that a threshold has been relied on their interpretation of Article 1, basic principles that govern state-state reached and the incumbent power has paragraph 2 of the UN Charter, as well as relations in an international system (i.e. failed, leaving the opposition with the R2P doctrine, to justify intervention in non-intervention) as laid out in the UN only legitimate claim. Libya and would do so in Syria if given Charter cannot be undermined by In vetoing the UNSC resolution on the opportunity. China and Russia “selective” normative considerations. To Syria, which would have resulted in abstained from the vote on Libya after do so would open up a Pandora’s Box in sanctions directed at the government, a receiving requests from the Arab League which intervention becomes a viable flurry of passionate outcries have and the African Union for UN policy option, as opposed to a measure of condemned China and Russia for the involvement but have repeatedly vetoed last resort. Strategically speaking, China’s decision “to veto this resolution aimed at the vote on intervention in Syria. This is approach is fashioning foreign policies ending the bloodshed in Syria,” including possibly because Libya’s homogeneous that are conscious of long-term unintended Susan Rice, the American ambassador to population has geographic divides but did consequences over highly-charged the UN, calling it a “dark day.” The not represent a fracturing threat to the “populism” in the international community. resolution’s direct effect was to cripple current sovereign territory of the state. On the other hand, the United States the government on the basis of its acts of China’s own claims to a sovereign right accepts the idea of political renewal as violence against civilians, an application over its territory and fractured populations the answer to those atrocities committed of R2P doctrine that would essentially often rely heavily on a domestic right to by governments against their civilians. grant the revolutionaries equal claim to non-intervention under Article 2, The defense of an individual’s right to the legal personality of the state of Syria. paragraph 7 of the UN Charter. China’s self-determination, which the United However, critics reasonably contend that claim is dependent on a communitarian States supports by echoing the Arab expecting that the ouster of the interpretation of history and on the right League’s declaration to grant Syria’s UN incumbent government will lead to the of the collective to determine the identity seat to representatives of the end of bloodshed at the same time, is of the collective, which is supported by opposition—thus granting the opposition wishful thinking. They need only point to the holding of Reference re Secession of the ability to seek assistance with their Egypt or Libya to show that the Quebec that defines the principle of self- right to self-defense in accordance with revolutionaries are not likely to have a determination as possible within the Article 51 of the UN Charter—is unified plan for the post-bellum period, confines of an existing state. China’s reinforced by their interpretation of given that in an unstable environment claim is contrary to that of the Tibetan Article 1, paragraph 2 of the UN Charter. political tussles are more likely to Government in Exile, which claims they Recent revelations that the Syrian happen. The idea that a domestic, possessed status as an independent people government may have used chemical political settlement free from foreign between 1912 and 1950; and again, to the weapons on its people could represent a interference is more sustainable and reality of the de facto independence that

26 the Government in Taiwan has had over the search for a unified ethical paradigm on the atrocities committed by the its territory and would thus be a violation that the G2 can support. However, they government of Assad, invoking the of the UN Charter Article 2, paragraph 4, do not negate the reality that, in practice, language of R2P. China has focused on Right to Political Independence, if states share similar problems, goals, and the domestic nature of the conflict, interpreted in accordance with the right of interests, which leaves a distinct invoking the language of sovereignty. individual self-determination. possibility that they also share the desire Each subsequently prescribes the At the very least, the invasion of—the for a unified ethical paradigm that solution that addresses the conflict that autonomous, or independent territory, provides sufficient expected outcomes. their language has described. As a of—Tibet violated the right of the unified voice, the G2 should seek to find Tibetans to self-determination in conclusion a solution that applies the principle of accordance with Article 1, paragraph 2 R2P, but in a manner that emphasizes the of the UN Charter as interpreted by the While academic analysis of the issue positive steps the opposition has taken to United States in the intervention of may seem to suggest one state’s paradigm claim the legitimate right to sovereignty. Kosovo. The United States claimed that for intervention over the other, in reality It would mean China’s acceptance of Kosovo’s declaration of independence ethical dilemmas are often more complex intervention in Syria, and the ouster of did not violate any principle of territorial than can be described in one paper, and Assad, but it would require an integrity, because under international certainly more complex than can be acceptance on the part of the United law, only states must comply with this explained in one blog. The current States that protection must first require principle, and not internal entities. Upon manifestation of the global ethic may preventative measures. This compromise a declaration the minority group, if a represent a manageable compromise would establish a responsibility for the legitimate representation of the people, today, but the dilemmas of a cross-cultural G2 to identify potential instability and becomes an independent state, the cold war of applied ethics will force the mandate their early “soft intervention” in territorial integrity of which is protected international community, most especially risk-prone regions, not through direct by Article 2, paragraph 4. The state from the G2, to review the means of interference in domestic matters, but which they seceded is thus restricted interpreting the UN Charter and why through an insistence on domestic from intervening. The U.S. interpretation certain authorities are valued over others. dialogue between opposing parties. This of Article 2, paragraph 4 relies on the Can we find a way to establish a cross- way China can ensure that their interest logic and suggestive authority of The cultural bridge or airlock that would allow in the Article 2, paragraph 4, Right to Declaration on the Recognition of New the two paradigms to work in tangent Territorial Integrity is reinforced through States in Eastern Europe and the Soviet toward the same goal of a Universal expected actions on the part of the UN Union, and was exemplified in the Ethical Code which is applicable in all and its member states. United States and NATO recognition and paradigms? Perhaps the abstract, or These types of obligations would intervention in Kosovo. This vacuum, used by the proponents of require diplomatic relations between interpretation is recognition of the individualism in the United States can be governments and opposition groups who individual’s right to self-determination used toward a better end, one where the have gained substantive control over which accumulates, one by one, into the entire community is looked at through a subsets of the state and work with the right of a recognizable social group of veil. The proponents of the greater good aim of improving the economic/social people to define themselves, which could then break the glass on the vacuum welfare of people in high-risk regions. stands at odds with the right of the seal, exposing the perfect community to They would also ensure more attention collective to define its membership. the rights of those individuals of which it is given to the unifying similarity of the In Syria, the Chinese have made the is comprised. The veil would allow for outlook of both Aristotle and Confucius, interpretation of the right to self- equity to be paramount, but the which argue that political rule should determination subordinate to the right to introduction of individual rights, after the bring benefits to the community and that sovereignty in order to reinforce lifting of the veil, would force the system the exact benefit is up to the polity to domestic stability and their growing to deal with them using a sort of reverent decide. This goal was not defined by a international influence; while in the pragmatism as a means to accomplish the narrow conception of what is “good,” recent past, the United States has ideals of both cultures. but by the acceptance of a system to repeatedly used drone strikes in ways The international community should which the achievement of an that have undermined, with frequency use the case of Syria to see that a division understanding of “good” that is dynamic and disregard, the sovereignty of, inter has arisen between China and the United and flexible could be achieved. alia, Pakistan, Sudan, and Somalia. States as to the exact nature of the Syrian These underlying issues further distort problem. The United States has focused April 29, 2013

27 LaBor rigHts and HuMan rigHts Sewing Dissension: The Struggle for Labor Rights in Cambodia’s Garment Industry The United States cannot take other nations to task for their lack of human rights and poor living conditions while U.S. companies are actively perpetuating these conditions. By Abigail GrEGG (United States) and Elita OUk (Cambodia) World Bank Photo Collection www.flickr.com/photos/worldbank/ (CC) Bank Photo Collection www.flickr.com/photos/worldbank/ World A garment factory in Phnom Penh, Cambodia.

f you are browsing around the latest need of work. Because of the cheap and industry began to flourish in Cambodia clothing lines from stores such as abundant workforce, companies from around the 1990s. Since then, hundreds IH&M, Nike, or Walmart, there’s a the United States are eager to invest, and and thousands of young Cambodians left good chance that you will notice some some businesses, the garment industry their homes and paddy fields on a journey items with a label saying “Made in especially, have taken off. The same to the outskirts of the city. Roughly a Cambodia.” Labels with origins in other workforce that fuels this growth, decade later, more than 500 factories have countries are not surprising; at present, however, is also easily taken advantage been established and almost 400,000 the majority of garments sold in the of, and with workers as abundant, and garment workers employed. Although the United States are manufactured in other regulations as lax as they are in developed world is now open to trading areas, mostly Asia. In 2011, Cambodia Cambodia, there is little to no incentive with Cambodia, many of the connections exported over 2,000 million dollars’ for the large manufacturers who hire are still established through China, on worth of products to the United States, them to care about the health and safety whom a large portion of the U.S. garment making it the sixth largest apparel of the individual worker. and manufacturing industry already relies supplier to the U.S. market. While in Since opening to the West, Cambodia’s for production. Some of this outside some ways this is good news for a economy has seen continuous production in China can be further country that until the early 1990s was improvement, with its GDP rising at outsourced to Cambodia, decreasing the closed off to most of the rest of the more than 6 percent annually from 2010 cost even more and allowing for greater world, this new economic growth has to 2012. This rapid economic growth is output over a given time period. However, created its own set of problems. largely attributed to the country’s garment this means that labor conditions are Cambodia is still developing, and many sector, which accounts for 70 percent of increasingly distant from those paying of its citizens are impoverished and in the country’s total export. The garment for and regulating the labor, and that

28 there is almost no direct interaction wages are also responsible—this poses occurred within the same week, at what between the two ends of production, and a serious threat to these women’s ability is considered one of Cambodia’s little incentive for those in power to care to earn a living anywhere, much less the “model” factories. These incidents are about the conditions in which their garment industry. This can keep them at possibly due to exhaustion, inhalation of products are manufactured. home, in the provinces, and increases toxic substances, and poor nutrition. The growing Cambodian garment the burden on other members of their With a minimum wage of seventy-five industry offers opportunity for both the family. To help their families, children dollars per month, a typical Cambodian U.S. corporations investing in them and as young as fourteen will lie about their garment worker can only afford to spend the jobs created for the growing age and leave school to start work in the around a dollar on food each day. Cambodian workforce. However, as these factories. With almost no regulation, and Although repeated incidents are opportunities increase, it is important to little enforcement of the age minimum indicative of poor health and can in some make sure that the jobs that are being for workers, factories readily accept cases lead to brain damage, fainting in created are ones that adhere to basic these girls as workers. and of itself is not generally fatal or ethical standards. This is difficult, For these young women, days can seriously damaging. However, losing because the reason why U.S. corporations begin as early as 4 AM. They are picked consciousness is always dangerous outsource jobs like garment work to up for work by a cattle truck and left to because of the risks associated with overseas is that labor in these other stand at the back. There are no seats, falling. In a crowded workplace full of countries is cheaper, even after increased windows, or doors. Packed together with large, powerful machines, even a costs of shipping are factored in. Since other workers, they have to cling to the momentary blackout or stumble in the many other countries have a lower cost rope on the car’s roof to stay on board, wrong direction can cause serious injury of living, and have much lower with hardly any room to move about. and jeopardize other workers as well. standards for treatment for their After a journey of roughly two hours, Even in a factory where everything was workers, there is ample opportunity for they arrive at the garment factory, swipe meeting the standards, fainting would put U.S. firms to cut costs. The motivations their cards at the security gates, go to the workers at risk. In unmonitored behind this are strictly monetary, so it is their assigned stations, and begin work factories that do not meet even basic difficult to convince corporations to in front of the machines. The majority of conditions, the risk increases. raise wages or invest in safer, healthier these workers are young rural women Although an abundance of cheap labor infrastructure, as there is always who can hardly read or write. They have can attract foreign jobs, it also makes that somewhere cheaper and poorer, with absolutely no idea about the brands and segment of the population susceptible to lower standards where they can relocate fashions to which their daily work the terrible labor conditions that this cheap their business to. Because of this, there contribute, they simply follow orders. At labor entails. U.S. corporations must ask is some compromise made between 5 PM, thousands of garment workers themselves ethical questions concerning cheap, efficient labor and the standards swarm out of the factories and return their labor practices overseas. If these to which a company is held. home in the same swinging truck they corporations were hiring workers at a Garment work, which takes up the took in the morning. For those who live factory in the United States, they would be entire day, six or seven days a week, is prohibitively far away from the factory, held to a set of minimum labor practices physically demanding, but pays very there are small, confined spaces in the that ensure they provide minimum wage little—barely enough to live on. city that they can rent for around twenty and regulated working conditions that do Because they need work, and lack the dollars a month, in addition to electricity not create hazardous situations for their training and education to do something and water costs. For those making employees. In Cambodia, they are not held more rewarding and stable, these minimum wage, however, the rent fee is to these same criteria. Additionally, since Cambodian workers—most of whom still quite steep, so even these cramped they are a U.S. company, it is hard for the are young women—take garment rooms must be shared with other girls. Cambodian government, or other internal factory jobs, and depend on them for as For the last several years, various forces to regulate their actions. It is also much support as possible. Under the reports on massive fainting cases, easy for U.S. corporations to renege on current conditions, however, this is not unpaid wages, and protests have made agreements for improved conditions, a sustainable employment opportunity headlines on local media channels in steady work, or even pay, as in the case of for many girls. It is so demanding, and Cambodia. In 2011 alone, the number of the garment workers who were denied the conditions are so harsh, that many garment workers who fainted in the their pay by Walmart. Although this girls have to stop working after several factories exceeded 2,000. Just earlier particular case was somewhat resolved, years due to health problems. Coupled this year, two separate fainting incidents, due in a large part to outside pressure, with malnutrition—for which low amounting to 175 fainting workers, situations like this are common, and often

29 LaBor rigHts and HuMan rigHts fly under the radar outside of the certain ethical standard of labor and living well-being of the low level workers, developing nations they affect. conditions, it is immoral to systematically whose voices often go unheard. Because it does not cause much deny these same rights to other people Labor disputes remain an ongoing trouble for them at home, or increase working for U.S. companies simply ethical challenge in the relationships cost significantly, the U.S. corporations because they do not live on U.S. soil. between the United States and Cambodia. involved in these human rights violations Another important aspect to consider Harsh working conditions coupled with have little incentive to work for change. is the increase in economic inequalities low wage and various forms of An underpaid, uneducated workforce that comes at the expense of this exploitation have led to hundreds of cannot stick up for itself, giving those with exploited workforce. While the garment protests over the years. While it is the power and money little reason to improve industry in the United States makes Cambodian government’s responsibility to their lives. Keeping these workers billions of dollars in revenue each year, consistently review minimum livable oppressed throughout their lives ensures the people working at the bottom line of wage and safe working environment a steady stream of desperate, the workforce remain very poor. standards, they can only do so much. disenfranchised families whose children Additionally the potential for corruption Corruption and fear of losing exports to will also work any job, under any increases when suppliers come into even poorer nations with lower cost and conditions. Whether or not there is a countries with weak implementation of fewer demands result in half-hearted financial advantage to this, there are, in law. Much of this is due simply to efforts to protect workers’ rights. most countries, labor rights. There are also laziness, a complete disregard for the Therefore, it is also the responsibility of generally acknowledged human rights, lives that are being affected when they big corporations to assert strict policies to which the United States claims to cut corners. Whatever it is, the business suppliers and regularly monitor their champion in other arenas. As with anything is not as “clean” as it should be. A World standard of practice. It is also very else, in the case of labor standards, change Bank report on business environment in important for the media to continue to begins at home. The United States cannot Cambodia reveals that more than half of expose sub-standard conditions. Buyers take other nations to task for their lack of the firms established in Cambodia have the right to know where their new T- human rights and poor living conditions admitted to having to provide “gifts” to shirt comes from, and at what cost. Only while U.S. companies are actively officials so that they can “get things then can they decide whether or not it is a perpetuating these conditions. Although the done.” Money that could otherwise be cause they stand for. If they choose to, they United States retains immense amounts of added to tax revenues or used to improve can play an important role in influencing power and wealth, its influence is the working standard in the factories goes the fashion industry to re-evaluate its shrinking, and many formerly powerless into the pockets of individuals. This not ethical practices abroad, which affect the countries like Brazil and China are only results in economic inequality lives of millions of people who are becoming stronger global forces. For a long between different countries, but also working in this sector—not only in time, the United States has gotten away within Cambodia itself. It is unethical to Cambodia, but around the world. with not respecting the needs of citizens in turn a blind eye to such practices that give Similar or even worse scenarios for developing countries. In a more equal unfair advantages to people who are garment workers exist in other developing global playing field, this will no longer be under more favorable circumstances. countries. If we allow companies to possible, should the United States want to Although inequality within a society is operate without a basis of conscience, maintain good international relations. Even common, drastic differences can create a these tragic denials of basic rights will if the current international dynamic remains sense of distrust and resentment among only be spread to other impoverished constant for the near future, it could only people. These same inequalities fueled parts of the world that the industry has yet help the United States to care about not the Khmer Rouge Regime in Cambodia to reach. The uneducated and only its own citizens’ rights, but the rights from 1975 to 1979, resulting in the killing underrepresented populations, who work of people all over the world. Since the of 1.7 million people, most of whom the longest hours, deserve at the very least United States is, at its essence, a capitalist were Cambodian elites and intellectuals, a living wage and an assurance of safety force, it is up to the government to make a tragedy from which the country is still from the economy they are contributing sure that their corporations are not recovering. To maintain a stable and just to. An ethical approach to trade and sabotaging other interests abroad. Any society, there needs to be compassion and business will do much more to empower investment, or even aid, that the United moral principles to abide by. Healthy these young Cambodian women and States contributes to Cambodia will be labor relations between the United States others like them than the aid that is meaningless if Cambodia’s problems are and Cambodia should be determined not supposedly provided for this purpose. also being caused by U.S. sources. If only by the overall positive economic workers in the United States are granted a development on both sides but also the April 29, 2013

30 GLOBAL ETHICS NETWORK Rethinking international relations. www.globalethicsnetwork.org

Carnegie Council’s social site provides a platform for educational institutions around the world to create and share interactive multimedia resources that explore the ethical dimensions of international affairs.

CARNEGIE COUNCIL The Voice for Ethics in International Affairs www.carnegiecouncil.org

POLICY INNOVATIONS

Policy Innovations, Carnegie Council’s critically acclaimed online magazine, is updated weekly with a rich mix of articles, multimedia, and analysis on how ethical innovations shape global society.

www.policyinnovations.org

Policy Innovations has the right tone—critical but not shrill. —David Callahan, Demos

Policy Innovations features some of the most cutting-edge ideas on shaping globalization in an accessible, hip, and tech-savvy format. —Steven C. Clemons, New America Foundation

31 LaBor rigHts and HuMan rigHts Two Faces of Economic Development: The Ethical Controversy Surrounding U.S.-Related Sweatshops in Developing Asian Countries Sweatshops must be eradicated, but not in isolation from the systemic conditions that gave rise to their pervasiveness in the first place. By Benjamin Adam SCHOrr (United States) and Annabelle WONG (Singapore) [Sir] Bali www.flickr.com/photos/sirbaleee/ (CC) [Sir] Bali www.flickr.com/photos/sirbaleee/ Mannequins in a shop window.

any aspects of the average foreign-manufactured goods are often of these business practices becomes American’s material lifestyle more than meets the eye, the sweatshop increasingly important. Mcan be attributed to trade debate is highly intricate. From a business perspective, sweatshops relations between the United States and The definition of a sweatshop remains are overwhelmingly lucrative since they Asia. A significant portion of the clothes broad, describing any factory which may capitalize on low-wage labor in they wear, the toys they grew up with, and have unreasonably authoritative overseers, developing countries and significantly even the technology they use, was dangerous and unhealthy (both physically reduce production costs. Many major produced somewhere in Asia. Commerce and psychologically) working conditions, clothing and footwear companies, for with major developing nations like China and which enforces long hours with low example, have been linked to sweatshops. and Indonesia is reportedly crucial for pay. The term is also frequently used to Brands such as Nike, GAP, Converse, and America’s own continued economic describe factories employing child labor. Levi’s, have all been guilty of numerous prosperity, since its overall manufacturing Many developed nations, including the violations of requirements for reasonable investments in developing nations are in United States, have at some point engaged working conditions in their production tens of billions of dollars and huge sweatshop production facilities on a large facilities. All of their headquarters and numbers of plants there operate on a scale, and a major segment of the world’s customer bases are located in the United contract basis with American companies. remaining sweatshops are located in Asia. States, while the manufacturing However, many Americans are unaware As the West continues its long-standing component of the production process is that their appetite for consumerism fuels tradition of fostering what many would carried out in Asia. Such companies have a deeply controversial industry, and just as liken to slave labor, an ethical examination been criticized as being complicit in the

32 exploitation of workers because they fail needs change, with little regard for their expressed concerns at the closing of even to correct the manufacturers’ malpractices, employees’ job security or welfare. the most dismal sweatshops, and the of which they are aware but often claim These workers have no financial security constant and ready supply of sweatshop are hard to correct. An internal report to speak of, and also reported they did not labor can be attributed to the fact that carried out by Nike, for instance, found get any sort of severance pay. In addition, developing Asian countries and their that nearly two thirds of the 168 factories these laborers are also subjected to peoples are in dire need of these economic making Converse (one of the company’s violence, another common aspect of opportunities, which outweighs their brands) products failed to meet Nike’s sweatshop operations in the developing aversion to exploitative working own standards for manufacturing. world. Workers at a Converse plant in conditions. Is the negative reaction in the Sukabumi, Indonesia, reported that their developed world to sweatshops and their sweatshops: the ugly Face of supervisors threw shoes at them, slapped, ethical violations essentially misinformed? industrialization kicked, and called them dogs and pigs. It Some of the world’s leading economists is hard to measure the frequency and have cited sweatshops as a necessary step One of the biggest hallmarks of severity of physical and verbal abuse in in modernization and development. sweatshop labor is that the workers are these settings, as fear deters workers from Jeffrey D. Sachs of Harvard and Paul simply underpaid, especially considering reporting such cases and there is a Krugman of the Massachusetts Institute of the kinds of working conditions they characteristic lack of supervision. Technology have asserted that sweatshop endure. Minimum wage levels in Furthermore, many sweatshop workers manufacturing for foreign markets— countries such as Thailand, the are children; roughly one in eight children especially in the production of goods like Philippines, and China, are significantly in the Asia-Pacific are between the ages clothing and shoes—is an essential lower than that of the United States. The of four and fifteen and work in a preliminary move toward economic federal minimum wage per hour in the sweatshop. India has the highest rates of prosperity in developing countries. Many United States is currently at US$ 7.25, child labor of any country in the world, credit these labor-intensive industries for while it is $1.48 in Thailand, 69 cents in employing over 55 million children, propelling the Asian “Tigers” (Hong the Philippines, and 67 cents in China. many of whom were sold into labor by Kong, South Korea, Singapore, and However, workers are frequently paid less their families. Taiwan) into the economically developed than these estimates suggest—amounts world. A study on poverty relief and barely enough to survive on, even a case for sweatshops? development by Spain’s University of considering the lower cost of living in Santiago de Compostela also suggests that these regions. Many developing Asian Despite the projected expansion of such sustainable international investment countries have official minimum wage sweatshop operations, the harsh working in low income countries is important to levels, but the lack of uniform and conditions associated with it are frowned economic progress. America’s sizeable comprehensive regulations with nationwide upon by the average person in the investments in developing Asian countries coverage across all labor groups and developed world. About a decade ago, a represent not only investments in industries remains a huge problem. For movement to boycott sweatshops became production facilities, but also add to the instance, minimum wage regulations in prominent in mainstream culture, with latter’s investible resources and capital Cambodia only apply to the garment and protests demanding that large U.S. formation, transfer production technology, shoe-sewing sectors, and in Sri Lanka only corporations stop buying and selling goods skills, innovative capacity, and organizational to thirty-five industrial trades. Furthermore, that came from extraneous, dangerous, and managerial practices, as well as the lack of institutional regulatory underage, and under-paid labor. Kathie provide access to international marketing effectiveness in enforcing compliance is an Lee Gifford’s clothing line for Wal-Mart networks, all of which are exceedingly even greater problem. is a prominent example; when it was helpful to these developing economies. Since turnover is extremely rapid, discovered to be produced by sweatshops, Are sweatshops a necessary evil, and sweatshop workers are not guaranteed activists in the United States expressed what should the governments of the these meager salaries over the long term. their disgust and Wal-Mart cut all ties with United States and developing Asian For example, the International Textile, the manufacturers, essentially closing countries do? Garment and Leather Workers’ down the factories supplying that line. It Federation (ITGLWF) investigated a appeared to be a victory for human rights, a conflict of interests factory in Indonesia and found that over yet the Chinese immigrant workers who 80 percent of their workers were on had been paid little or no wages for their Having personally witnessed the short term contracts. Such factories hire sixty-eighty hours of toil each week, were conditions in sweatshops and despite and fire workers as volatile production outraged. Workers have consistently opposing the exploitation of workers,

33 LaBor rigHts and HuMan rigHts

Harvard economist Jeffrey Sachs still the April 24 collapse of the Rana Plaza attention to these low-wage laborers and claims that many nations have no better factory building and 190 deaths [Editor’s work toward better working conditions in hope for economic progress than such note: As of May 13, 2013, the final death production facilities so as to eventually manufacturing facilities, which pay mere toll was 1,127]—Bangladesh’s garment eradicate their endemic exploitation. subsistence wages. He asserts that these industry is still thriving. Workers there On the other hand, the harsh realities of jobs were the stepping stone for were paid as little as thirty-seven dollars a the existing economic environment Singapore and Hong Kong, and are month, but Bangladesh’s garment suggest that the situation is more necessary to alleviate rural poverty in manufacturing sector generated 20 billion complicated. Despite the fact that workers places like Africa. Does this mean that dollars in exports in 2012 for the in the developing world are in great need the moral outrage at sweatshop labor is impoverished country. The practical of help, which sweatshops are well- unfounded? More importantly: What are problem revolves around the fact that positioned to provide, it cannot justify a the morally acceptable limits to the sweatshops are mutually beneficial, special obligation on the part of business various types of costs incurred by the making both employees and workers better corporations or sweatshops to suffer a pursuit of economic progress and off, even if the latter are not as much better shift of burdens in the provision of higher material well-being? There are no easy off as critics think they ought to be, thereby wages, better working conditions, et answers, but the first step to addressing making it more difficult to give force to the cetera. If U.S. companies had to incur these concerns involves identifying the normative arguments against sweatshops. greater production costs in this manner, relevant moral agents and their respective there would be fewer economic initiatives goals. Three key groups include: Moral decision-Making in the for them to set up manufacturing facilities 1. The governments of the United contemporary environment in developing Asian countries, whose States and developing Asian countries: comparative advantage is low-wage labor. They are responsible for protecting the The intuitive objection to sweatshops is For instance, the Bangladeshi government, interests of their peoples, including but based on notions of desert; clearly, according to Scott Nova from the Worker not limited to their fundamental human sweatshop laborers deserve better working Rights Consortium, understands that rights and material well-being. conditions, and it is unfair where they are strict labor rights regulations would raise 2. U.S. corporate businesses which deprived of just compensation for their manufacturing costs and cause retailers to employ sweatshop labor in developing labor. John Rawls’ concept of “the veil of place orders elsewhere. The projected rise Asian countries: ignorance” would suggest that it cannot be in minimum wage levels by up to 44 Their primary concern with profit fair for sweatshop workers to suffer under percent in Southeast Asia has left maximization is—in the case of such appalling working conditions, manufacturers in the region—who rely on sweatshop labor—in conflict with the precisely because even the very corporate hiring factory workers for less than 200 need to honor human rights such as those business owners who fuel the demand for dollars a month—concerned about the to fair and decent working conditions. sweatshop labor cannot condone this from possible exodus of investment that could 3. People in developing Asian countries: an objective and disinterested perspective. dampen the region’s continued The need to satisfy the basic conditions for Considering the inequalities between the competitiveness. Everyone suffers, but survival often motivates them to put up United States and developing Asian low-wage workers would be worst hit. with exploitative treatment. nations, which have become more Companies are not charity organizations Our aim in examining the ethical entrenched over the course of history, and are inevitably subjected to market challenges to U.S.-Asia relations is to people in developing Asian countries are mechanisms, but this does not mean that determine the best course of action for the relatively worse off than those in the they can maximize their profits without first group in its exercise of political United States, with or without regulations regard for the well-being of sweatshop authority to address affronts to the third against sweatshop labor. It therefore laborers. Immanuel Kant’s practical moral group’s human rights, in relation to the appears that sweatshop labor is an aspect imperative asserts that human beings must second group’s profit-motivated activities. of U.S.-Asia relations that is symptomatic be treated as ends in themselves and not We must consider that most in the third of a systemic disadvantaging of the latter. merely as a means, and so sweatshops are group would prefer the meager benefits Rawls would suggest that in circumstances inherently unacceptable from a that accrue from toiling in sweatshops to like these, the only morally acceptable deontological perspective since their the grim alternative of being without this course of action is one in which the net workers seem to be treated as mere means of subsistence which could, in benefits accruing to the least-advantaged instruments in the amassing of business many cases, consequently lead to people of developing Asian countries is profits. Yet, if sweatshop labor was simply starvation and death. Despite the ‘string of maximized. In practical terms, this means banned, people in developing Asian tragedies’—the latest of which involved that U.S.-Asia relations must pay special countries who are critically reliant on these

34 jobs for survival would suffer even more, a broader perspective, it seems that the moral value remains questionable at best. and this is all the worse for their Kantian biggest ethical challenge facing U.S.-Asia Sweatshops must be eradicated, but not right to self-determination. This suggests relations is that of negotiating between in isolation from the systemic conditions that in the real world—or at least in this different moral obligations amid which gave rise to their pervasiveness in the case—ideas of absolute right vs. wrong are circumstances which render them first place. Meenakshi Ganguly from at best inadequate, and cannot be conflated incompatibilities. The issue of sweatshop Human Rights Watch suggests that with ideas of better vs. worse, which labor is an instance of how the governments consumers could help pressure retailers to account, more importantly, for the relative of these nations are confronted with bring about change. She cites the example outcomes of decisions. tradeoffs between the short and long-term of blood diamonds, where the industry was The Kantian right to self-determination as well as other different aspects of their forced to change when consumers became has great intuitive force and cannot simply people’s interests. Developing Asian more aware and avoided purchasing be abandoned. Yet, if deontology alone is countries have a strong interest in attracting diamonds that were not properly sourced. an unsatisfactory approach to evaluating foreign investment from the United States The governments of the United States and the moral value of sweatshop labor, in a bid to accelerate economic growth and Asian countries need to take active steps to perhaps the existing conditions of the transformation and have, in the past decade, eliminate the underlying causal factors modern economic world call for a begun liberalizing governmental policies. supporting the demand for sweatshop labor supplementary utilitarian approach. Yet, this also encourages sweatshop without worsening the present condition of Utilitarianism—defined by the likes of labor, and the governments of sweatshop workers. Besides raising Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill— developing nations appear guilty of awareness, they could work towards considers how everyone’s collective condoning human rights violations. developing minimum wage regulations and welfare may be maximized. Sweatshop Alternatively, banning sweatshops leaves labor laws, having these enforced on both workers are relatively better off than if they all parties worse off, especially in the longer sides, while simultaneously developing had no such work, as are the companies run and more critically impacting people in closer economic and political ties and which benefit from lower production costs, these developing Asian countries. additional economic incentives (besides and the governments of the United States The broader ethical question is whether low-wage labor) and infrastructure to and Asia, which further benefit from the U.S. economy is progressing at the continue attracting U.S. companies to lucrative economic relations with each expense of its Asian counterparts, and engage in mutually beneficial business other. Normatively speaking, sweatshop what determines if this situation is partnerships. The materialization of positive labor is morally wrong and should be morally acceptable. So far, this article has developments could span decades, but these banned. Practically speaking, however, shown that given today’s circumstances, initiatives remain crucially important. there are shades of gray representing better sweatshop labor is at least morally In conclusion, the controversy and worse outcomes of moral decision- ambiguous and at best permissible, surrounding sweatshop labor is indicative making within the existing political and especially if one is purportedly concerned of the ethical challenges facing U.S.-Asia economic environment. Theoretically, the about the interests of Asian sweatshop relations, highlighted by the need to need to respect human rights is directly workers. Despite the fact that sweatshop negotiate incompatibilities between the associated with deontology and not workers are relatively better off with relative costs and advantages that result utilitarianism. Yet, the utilitarian rather than without this means of from their interactions, and more broadly, relativization of outcomes appears— employment, the fact remains that their between the practical and normative counter-intuitively—to support human present working conditions are affronts to perspectives on such issues. What must be rights in the case of sweatshop labor better human rights and can never under done is not always congruent with what than a strictly deontological approach any circumstances be encouraged. should be done, although we cannot afford which flatly denies that sweatshop labor Consequently, sweatshop labor—even in to lose sight of the latter. Human persons could ever be morally acceptable. the current context—may be practically are the essential units that constitute and but never normatively permissible. This give meaning to nations and economies. u.s.-asia relations and acute distinction between practical and Even as U.S.-Asia relations aim at boosting sweatshops: the normative Picture normative perspectives can never be overall economic progress, these countries overlooked; ethical issues operate at both cannot overlook the moral obligation of Relations between the governments of levels, while each may generate very respecting and defending fundamental the United States and Asia form the bedrock different recommendations as in the case human rights, and must continuously work of their economic dealings, and are of sweatshop labor. Even while at reconciling these divergent concerns. indispensable to addressing the ethical sweatshops are conceived in practical issues surrounding sweatshop labor. From terms as the lesser of two evils, their May 1, 2013

35 LaBor rigHts and HuMan rigHts Speaking Against the Silence: An Ethical Analysis of Censorship Practices within China Today The greatest ethical challenge facing U.S.-China relations is censorship, since the United States supplies the technology that enables the Chinese government to censor its citizens. By Qingchuan Lv (China) and Brian YU (United States) pierre pouliquin www.flickr.com/photos/pierre_pouliquin/ (CC) pierre pouliquin www.flickr.com/photos/pierre_pouliquin/ Demonstrators, 2008, Canberra, Australia.

introduction Internet. But even if you were somehow camp for ten years, all for writing this to get a hold of it, most of the words on essay. Our crime would not involve ad this essay been published in this screen would be blacked out. And murder, rape, embezzlement, or China, there is a strong chance had this essay been published in China, anything of a violent or harmful nature. Hyou would not be reading it these writers would go to sleep every Our only crime would be writing an right now, and an even stronger chance night with the thought that tomorrow essay that spoke out on a subject that that we would be in prison. Had this morning an official from the State many have been forced into silence essay been published in China, the Administration of Radio, Film, and about. And for this we would have gone writers would have needed to download Television would come to take one of us to jail, had this essay been published in special software in order to circumvent away to be questioned and arrested, if China. a virtual army of censors, 30,000 strong, not beaten. From there, we would be In writing this essay, then, these are in order to upload this essay to the interrogated and sent to a reeducation some of the challenges we have had to

36 circumvent and overcome. Our names artifacts of historical or sentimental censorship regulations while in China. are Qing and Brian, and we are college value have been destroyed for the sole Some could argue that governments students living in China and the United purpose of preventing ideas that should have the right to censor things States, respectively. We are publishing undermined the ruling party from taking that would harm people. The United these words from the safety of the United root. This is a practice that continues States does this to a degree when it States, a country whose founders set on today. restricts sexuality and violence. paper the right of its citizens to have Since the inception of the Internet in However, one must take into account freedom of expression 237 years ago. China in 1994, the Communist Party of that it does so with the intent that it We express the idea that the greatest China (CPC) has strongly regulated the does not traumatize or expose children ethical challenge facing the United flow of information that passes through to this negative imagery. But when an States and China is the Chinese the country. According to a Time American company sells products that government’s censorship of its citizens. magazine article on March 7, 2009, all aid censorship with the goal of simply This remains a problem for both the Internet traffic passing in and out of making more money, this greatly United States and China because the China is routed through a central damages the company’s reputation. United States supplies the technology databank of servers, at which According to a May 20, 2008 article in that allows China to continue its current approximately 30,000 members of Wired, Cisco sold approximately practices with censorship. It is impossible China’s Internet police sort through to $100,000 dollars worth of routers to to say how many have been imprisoned delete any material deemed subversive. China by marketing them as “tools of due to China’s censorship laws, primarily This massive filtering system has oppression” that could target Chinese because that information itself is been dubbed “The Great Firewall of religious minorities. Since then, Cisco censored. Various sources place the China.” It seems ironic then that has faced two lawsuits and has been number anywhere from 50 to 500 people. whereas the Great Wall of China was denounced by human rights groups This essay is dedicated to those who used to keep invaders out, the Great worldwide. believe that freedom of expression Firewall is used to keep Chinese citizens In light of the stiff punishments and should be a fundamental human right. . . . in the dark. This has become an harassment that come with speaking out It is dedicated to those who have been ethical quandary for both the United against the government, one is forced to harassed, beaten, and imprisoned for States and China because U.S. realize the notion that the motive behind this belief, and to those who still persist companies supply China with the censorship in China is simply to keep in believing in it despite these technology needed to build the Great the ruling party in power. There can be transgressions. We write this essay in the Firewall. Internet companies operating no moral basis for silencing and harming hopes that, while it may not free those within the United States have agreed to those who criticize the government for who have dissented against the censor themselves as they enter China, the sake of holding onto power. And by government, it will give voice to an with Google creating Google.cn in order extension, through providing the issue on which 1.3 billion people on this to conform to the Chinese government’s government with servers that stifle Earth remain voiceless. regulations. While these companies opinions, and websites that run within argue that supplying citizens with some the censorship framework, the United Background information is better than none at all, the States is also at fault. fact remains that the United States is In 2007, Wired reported that in 2002, The Merriam Webster Dictionary aiding the Chinese government in a pair of Chinese reporters named Shi defines censorship as “the act of censoring its people. Tao and Wang Xiaoning were censoring, or examining materials for sentenced to prison for simply emailing objectionable matter.” It seems that Morality a Chinese humanitarian group based in China has had a long history of New York. In 2012, Mr. Wang was censoring its opposition. During the But one must ask the question of released after being imprisoned for ten Cultural Revolution, China’s infamous whether Chinese censorship (and by years, while Mr. Shi still remains in Red Guards targeted items that were of default, American companies who prison today. What is alarming is the foreign or historical value because they knowingly obey censorship fact that it was the American thought that these objects represented regulations) is ethically justifiable. By corporation Yahoo! that voluntarily the old ways of thinking. They believed operating with the consent of the handed over information that led to the that any person that thought in a way Chinese government and doing arrest of these reporters. Had Yahoo! that undermined their power was simply business in China, these companies refused to hand over Mr. Shi and Mr. wrong. For this reason, countless have essentially agreed to follow Wang’s email accounts, these men

37 LaBor rigHts and HuMan rigHts would not have been subject to the Even foreign journalists who work in arrest. Those who tried to visit him were harassment and suffering that they China have to be wary. According to severely beaten and robbed. endured. David Barboza, a New York Times On April 22, 2012, the blind activist In 2009, after ethnic riots by people correspondent based in Shanghai, “in made a daring escape out of house arrest in the remote Xinjiang region left 140 areas where people are nervous about by climbing over his wall, and meeting people dead, China blocked Facebook, foreign journalists, you will be with activists at a rendezvous point who Twitter, and YouTube in an attempt to harassed and detained.” Internet users escorted him to the U.S. Embassy. The staunch the flow of information. in China are required to use their real night that Chen escaped, censors lost According to IDG News Service, on names when logging on, with all control over the topic, and comments on July 6, 2009, videos of police and keystrokes recorded and monitored by Chen rapidly blazed through Chinese paramilitary troopers in the area went government systems. What is social networking sites and blogs. On viral. Government censors immediately frightening is that with the weight of March 5, 2012, The Washington Post cut off Internet in the area, and began these punishments hanging above every reported that after local papers published blocking social networking sites. It is keystroke in China, people have begun editorials attacking Chen, Chinese worth noting that during the Arab to censor themselves. According to netizens swarmed to the comment section Spring movement in 2011, Egyptian James Fallows in a March 18, 2009 in defense. This reached such a frenzy that President Hosni Mubarak, in an attempt Atlantic article, “The idea is that if the Beijing Daily, a Chinese newspaper to quell protestors, also cut off all you’re never quite sure when, why and controlled by the government, became a Internet in his country. Twitter played how hard the boom might be lowered blocked search term. After being offered a huge role in this protest, by helping on you, you start controlling yourself, a position as a visiting scholar by New to organize protests that would rather than being limited strictly by York University, Chen was able to take his eventually overthrow Mubarak. what the government is able to control family to the United States. To this day, China has banned directly.” One other tale that emerges from the Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube with blacked-out print of Chinese media is a the fear that these social media defiance censor named Zeng Li. According to the platforms would be places to organize Chinese Media Project (a project by protests. Because of this, Chinese But as powerful as government Hong Kong University) on April 4, platforms have sprung up that mimic censorship within China is, the stories of 2013, Zeng worked as a media censor the functionality of Facebook and people who have defied these rules have for the newspaper Southern Weekly. Twitter, such as Weibo and Renren. The been equally as powerful. One of the His primary job was to act as a buffer downside is that these sites censor most inspiring stories came in 2005, between government propaganda themselves and have expressed little when a blind self-taught lawyer named censors and reporters. After an editorial intention of loosening these Chen Guangcheng began exposing tales at the Southern Weekly was rewritten to restrictions. But while the intention of of the 130,000 horrendous abortions advocate government propaganda, these sites regarding censorship is forced upon pregnant women by the writers at the paper held a strike for unclear, American companies, such as Chinese government. For daring to three days. Zeng’s anonymous post on a Google, have made it well-known that expose an issue that the government did blogging platform “Who revised the they intend to move towards a freer not want attention drawn to, he was New Year’s greeting at Southern China and bring uncensored sentenced to four years and three Weekly?” brought to light many information to everyone. months in prison. According to previously unknown censorship The penalties for posting content on www.indexoncensorship.org on October techniques that were being used. the Internet that makes the government 24, 2011, from there he was placed On March 28, 2013, his farewell letter look bad can be severe, inciting harsh under house arrest, and his daughter was detailed some of the regrets of his career punishments. People who post articles banned from going to school. Under saying, “in the end I woke up, I would that the government has deemed Chinese national law, by this time he rather not carry out my political message “subversive” could potentially face was supposedly a free man. However, than go against my conscience. I don’t fines of up to $1,800 and jail time. the local government ignored these rules want to be a sinner against history.” According to a Human Rights Watch and surrounded his house with guards. Zeng’s story is remarkable in that it report in 2007, Chinese journalists are According to an April 30, 2013 Reuters represents the idea that not even censors intimidated to write positive things report, more than 60 million yuan (US$ are comfortable in silencing the voice of about the government by thugs in the 9.5 million) was spent on security and the people, and that these people know pay of the government. web cams to keep Chen under house that what they are doing is not right.

38 Zeng died three days into his retirement human rights violations by censoring the States, he feared that his extended from intestinal bleeding. As one reporter media and oppressing its people. It is relatives in China would suffer severe at Southern Weekly put it, “Zeng died also undeniable that by selling the consequences. That same day, Chinese from overdrinking. You can only technology that makes up the Great officials ordered the official questioning imagine why he drank.” Firewall, the United States is also of his relatives under the charge of But even though it is the Chinese responsible for the oppression of the harboring a fugitive. The grim reality of people who are suffering from the Chinese people. In 2007, Representative this situation is that these family government’s crackdown on censorship, Chris Smith (R-NJ) attempted to members will be harassed and face it is important to remember that it is pass a bill that would force U.S. punishment for harboring someone who companies based in the United States Internet companies to follow American dared to seek the truth. who are responsible for this technology. laws regarding censorship even in other In 1949, Chairman Mao chose to When such companies defy the Chinese countries, or else not operate. isolate China from the rest of the world, government it sends a symbolic message Unfortunately, the Global Online turning it into an isolationist communist that American companies do not have to Freedom Act failed to pass in Congress country. During that time, many people be silent on an issue that silences and that year. But even if the United States suffered and starved, and the Great Wall, oppresses billions. stopped companies from operating once a symbol of what the Chinese On January 13, 2010, CNET News within China, China would still manage could build if they came together, reported that Google had been the to find other ways to censor its citizens became a prison to hold them in. In the victim of a sophisticated attack by into silence, presumably by purchasing past eighty years, China has gone from Chinese hackers who gained information technology from other countries, such as a completely closed country to one of and email addresses of human rights Japan and Germany. the largest and most prosperous activists within China. Google was According to an Atlantic article on economies in the world. But as understandably outraged, and announced April 22, 2013, Chinese Internet use has prosperous as China is, its people are that it would cease following Chinese gone up to 560 million people and will still starving for information, and government regulations and stop filtering continue to rise in the coming years. As suffering for it. The Great Firewall its own search engine. The Chinese the Great Firewall evolves, so has the serves no purpose but to keep the ruling government, in essence, had gone from technology to circumvent it. Today, a party in power, incinerating everything passively disallowing citizens to access quiet industry has sprung up that allows that says otherwise. the Internet to completely making an Chinese citizens to bypass the Great We live in a connected world, and the offensive against human rights activists. Firewall via proxies and other special simple matter is that by silencing its own Google then decided to move its programs. But as long as the Communist people, China is disconnecting itself Chinese headquarters to Hong Kong, Party of China continues to be the ruling from this world. In an age when the which carried special jurisdiction that party, and freedom of expression is Internet has brought ideas, information, allowed Google to enable unfiltered outlawed, the Chinese can never truly and people together from all corners of searches to everyone who accessed the speak their minds without fear of the globe onto a screen that can fit in the website without violating Chinese reprisal. Many governments that have palm of your hand, the Chinese government rule. These days, it is the censored the media of its people were government still has the ability to screen Chinese government that filters the eventually overthrown by people who and censor the Internet. It carries the search engines of its own people. While tired of having their voices silenced. power to harass, intimidate, and jail Google’s move to stop self-censoring This happened in the Soviet Union and anyone that it finds to be a dissident. The didn’t end censorship in China, it was a most recently in Egypt. But because it government would have censored this move in the right direction; and served would bring instability to 1.3 billion essay too, had it been written in China. as a precedent reminding companies people, overthrowing the Chinese But while the Chinese government that they did have the power to give government would not be the answer. carries the ability to censor words, there people a voice. The only viable solution would be for remains one thing that the government the government itself to decide to untie cannot censor: Hope. the Future of censorship the gags that bind China and get rid of its censorship laws of its own accord. April 29, 2013 The future of where Chinese Unfortunately, that day has not censorship will go from here is arrived yet. On April 24, 2013, The uncertain. The fact remains that China is New York Times reported that although committing what some would deem Chen Guangcheng was in the United

39 LaBor rigHts and HuMan rigHts Confronting Traditions and Contextualizing Modernity: The Challenges of Protecting Women’s Human Rights in Southeast Asia The greatest ethical and moral challenge facing U.S.–ASEAN relations is to address the fact that the ASEAN Human Rights Declaration is promoting cultural relativism regarding women's human rights. By Julio AmAdOr III (philippines) and michele CANtOS (United States) ChrisGoldNY www.flickr.com/photos/chrisgold/ (CC) www.flickr.com/photos/chrisgold/ ChrisGoldNY Hoi An, Vietnam.

The central moral challenge of this in the world, putting them at an ready-made justifications for its century is gender inequity. In the increased risk of poverty, ill health, and members not to comply with nineteenth century it was slavery, death. The Association of Southeast international standards of human rights. in the twentieth century it was Asian Nations (ASEAN) has taken As the United States seeks to elevate its totalitarianism, and in this century it is many strategic steps to address women’s relations with ASEAN to a strategic the oppression of women and girls human rights, always emphasizing level, the greatest ethical and moral throughout the world. regional and culturally sensitive challenge facing U.S.–ASEAN relations —Sheryl WuDunn, journalist approaches. However, the recent will be addressing the cultural relativism adoption of the ASEAN Human Rights regarding women’s human rights omen and girls in Southeast Declaration has provoked a wave of promoted by ASEAN. Asia face gender-based criticism from the international Sex trafficking has become a serious Wdiscrimination, harassment, community and the United States, as this public health and human rights concern and extortion, and are among the top approach is said to dilute, rather than in the region, as an estimated 200,000– victims of physical and sexual violence enhance, women’s rights and provides 250,000 women and girls in Southeast

40 Asia are trafficked each year. Women states have also signed and ratified Maputo Protocol nor other declarations who have been physically and sexually the Convention on All Forms of have included language that called for abused have higher rates of mental Discrimination against Women, the regional and national contexts to be health issues; they are at a higher risk of Beijing Platform for Action, and considered in human rights. contracting HIV/AIDS and other the Millennium Development Goals ASEAN is arguably one of the world’s sexually transmitted infections; and they (MDGs), of which Goal Three (promote most successful regional organizations. are also in danger of having unwanted gender equality and empower women) However, the “flaws” in its human rights pregnancies, miscarriages, and unsafe and Goal Five (improve maternal health) declaration have raised deep concerns abortions. Physical and sexual violence directly address issues pertaining to among senior UN officials, human rights not only deny women the most basic women and their human rights. advocates, and hundreds of civil society element of human dignity, but in many However, the adoption of the ASEAN groups at the national, regional, and instances create stigmas that stifle their Human Rights Declaration in 2012, in international level. The document is ability to engage in productive activities which leaders of member-states criticized for “falling short of such as education, income generation, reaffirmed their commitments to their international human rights and law,” and politics. They are systematically previous declarations on human rights, as well as dismissing international obstructed from entering formal markets has raised criticism from the humanitarian law, including the Geneva and are locked into a vicious cycle of international community and the United Convention of 1949. The document poverty that has a devastating ripple States. makes no particular commitment to effect on their households and The U.S. Department of State remains improve the lives of women and girls communities. The UN Economic and committed to partner with ASEAN on and it asks that human rights be Social Commission for Asia and the the protection of human rights, and “in considered within regional and national Pacific identified Southeast Asia as a principle supports the ASEAN contexts, “bearing in mind different region that is facing large gender Declaration on Human Rights.” political, economic, legal, social, disparity in male-female income However, it has made very clear that cultural, historical and religious inequality along with an asymmetric while the ASEAN Human Rights backgrounds,” which makes issues of representation of women in vulnerable Declaration follows the Universal gender, gender identity, and sexual employment, meaning that women are Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), orientation vulnerable to national still among the lowest wage earners in which Myanmar, the Philippines, and prejudices and, ultimately, does not jobs that endanger their well-being. Thailand supported at the United require countries to respect human Promoting women’s human rights is an Nations General Assembly, many of its rights. The declaration is seen as essential component of societal principles and articles are problematic. providing ready-made justifications for development, is a major indicator of a Articles 6 and 7 of the ASEAN Human human rights violations of the people country’s well-being, and should be of Rights Declaration, for example, use the within the jurisdiction of ASEAN the utmost importance for a thriving concept of “cultural relativism” and in member states, as the fulfillment of the region such as Southeast Asia. the view of the State Department, rights outlined in the document are made Almost from its inception in 1967, suggest that rights in “the UDHR do not subject to national laws rather than ASEAN member states have recognized apply everywhere; stipulating that institutionalizing commitment and the importance of promoting and domestic laws can trump universal respect for human rights. respecting women’s rights and have human rights; incomplete descriptions The ASEAN Human Rights undertaken a regional approach to the of rights that are memorialized Declaration should be considered a advancement of these rights. Member elsewhere; introducing novel limits to concrete first step that commits ASEAN states adopted the Declaration of the rights; and language that could be read to human rights protection and Advancement of Women in the ASEAN to suggest that individual rights are promotion. Nevertheless, it is difficult to Region (1988), the ASEAN Declaration subject to group veto.” Other regional ignore that it poses a threat to advancing on the Elimination of Violence Against organizations have drafted similar the human rights of women and girls, Women in the ASEAN Region (2004), declarations on human rights. The particularly those living in conflict areas and the ASEAN Commission on the African Union, for example, established such as Myanmar. ASEAN’s commitment Promotion and Protection of the Rights the Protocol to the African Charter on should be continuously evolving and of Women and Children (2010). Human and Peoples’ Rights on the improved upon so that a future Cementing its commitment to the Rights of Women in Africa (The Maputo document will be unhesitating in its promotion and protection of human Protocol), which most of its members commitment and full adherence to the rights across the globe, ASEAN member have ratified. However, neither the UDHR. To some extent, some regional

41 LaBor rigHts and HuMan rigHts contextualization of what are considered ties with ASEAN and has taken decisive top-down process; parallel efforts at the universal human rights can lead to a steps towards raising the U.S.–ASEAN community-level should be actively better understanding of what can and relations to a strategic level. During pursued. An analogy for this is the cannot be realized by countries that ASEAN’s fourth Annual Leaders making of a beloved Filipino rice cake adopt such top-down international Meeting, coinciding with the thirty-fifth called bibingka. Bibingka is prepared norms. However, while a respect and anniversary of U.S.–ASEAN relations, from glutinous rice by soaking it, then consideration for regional contexts is both parties agreed to institutionalize grinding it into flour to make into important and valuable to understanding U.S. presidential engagement by raising dough. This delicacy is prepared by the ability of nations to implement, this their meeting to the level of an annual putting hot coals on top of a special should not translate into a redefinition of leaders’ summit. That is, President bibingka stove to even out the cooking what a human right is. The preamble to Barack Obama and his successors will below; there is even heating so the rice the UDHR clearly states that gender have to attend this high-level meeting cake is cooked from above and below. equality is a basic human right and every year. And, indeed, this use of soft– This is how ASEAN and the United before the declaration was even finished power involvement is welcomed by States could move forward. Agreements the UN had already established the ASEAN. and policies at the regional level need to Commission on the Status of Women. The challenge for the United States be complemented with programs and This is indisputable and should not be will be to remain consistent in its “soft” projects at the community level to undermined by regional agreements. approach towards the region and to not ensure success in promoting and With this in mind, ASEAN’s attempts at overstep its bounds in the region. As it protecting women’s human rights. providing an “ASEAN way” in the boasts itself a leader in the promotion of ASEAN already has its regional implementation of human rights human rights and women’s rights agreements and some regional commitment can lead to avenues for throughout the world, the United States institutions. The United States could do further dialogue and cooperation will need to continue a dialogue with more, not only by engaging the ASEAN between itself and interested countries ASEAN on these issues. The at the leader’s level, but also by so that a full adherence to the UDHR Department of State’s Office of Global investing in programs and projects that will be possible in the future. It has been Women’s Issues is working ardently to empower women. a pattern in international relations that ensure that the rights of women and girls Among the concerns where ASEAN adopting international standards and are fully integrated into the formulation and the United States could work norms does not necessarily lead to their of conduct of U.S. foreign policy. together on concrete efforts is the implementation at the national level. Partnering with the White House, protection of women who are migrating The challenges that we have USAID, the Department of Defense, and to other countries in search of work. identified both at the regional and other agencies, as well as with civil Increasingly, women in the region, national levels in Southeast Asia lead us society and the private sector, the especially from the Philippines and to conclude that more efforts are needed Department of State has launched Indonesia, have become migrant to improve the status and welfare of “multiple and wide-ranging global workers, leading to the phenomena of women in this region and therein lies the initiatives” that seek to promote the feminization of migration. This is greatest ethical challenge for the United women’s social and economic changing social and familial structures States. If the situation of women in the development, integrate women into and an increasing number of children are region is to improve, how to promote peace and security building, address and growing up without the presence of their and protect the rights of women in prevent gender-based violence, and mothers, putting them at risk for abuse Southeast Asia, while tentatively ensure women’s full participation in and neglect. ASEAN and the United working with ASEAN to use its own civic and political life. One such States could pool resources to draft approach should therefore be among the initiative was the Asia Pacific Economic national policies and implement top policy considerations that ASEAN Cooperation (APEC) Women and the programs that seek to mitigate and and the United States must focus on. Economy Initiative, which provides a ultimately address the problems that The commitment to the protection and mechanism to integrate gender families and societies are facing when promotion of women’s human rights consideration into APEC activities and women leave their families to work presents many opportunities for provides policy advice on gender and elsewhere. Projects such as halfway cooperation and dialogue between equality issues. However, more can be houses for abused and trafficked women ASEAN and the United States. The done. could be done in ASEAN countries with Obama administration has so far shown Protecting and promoting Southeast U.S. support. Coupled with livelihood a resolve to the strengthening of U.S. Asian women’s rights cannot be just a projects that endeavor to empower

42 women, these sanctuaries could work to consensus among the international diluted strict patriarchal power. ensure that Southeast Asian women who community that women’s human rights Southeast Asian women had a unique have been victims of abuse can live on are at the forefront of any development sphere of power and influence in and move forward with dignity and scheme, as their well-being positively households and societies of the pre- pride. The ASEAN Socio-Cultural affects the rest of society as well. colonial era, with considerable Community (ASCC) Blueprint also Yet, their roles and their rights have autonomy in areas such as medicine, identifies several opportunities for not been fully recognized, protected, and healing, and mysticism, which was cooperation such as the 1) promotion of promoted. Sexual and gender-based considered their realm. The advent of equal access to education for women violence are increasingly prevalent in colonialism brought with it, among and girls; 2) promotion of skills conflict-torn regions, disproportionately other things, the degradation of development for women; 3) providing affecting women and children, and women’s roles in societies and the access and learning opportunities on further impacting women’s rights to diminishing of their influence in politics ICTs (information and communications reproductive health as well as all areas and public life, and placed enormous technologies); 4) prevention of of health and social welfare, particularly constraints on their fundamental exploitation of women and girls using in our developing nations. In conflict freedoms. It is only right and just, ICTs, such as internet pornography; and areas such as in certain places in therefore, that joint efforts in this area other such aspirations that could find Myanmar, women bear the brunt of the should intensify and deepen. The United expression in concrete programs and impact of the fighting. The stateless States could play a cooperative role with projects. The protection and promotion Rohingya women have also now been ASEAN. People-to-People exchanges, of the rights of women, however, need forced to board boats to escape the diplomacy, and concrete projects and to be a continuous and evolving affair violence directed against them. In programs could be instruments that will that ASEAN and strategic partners, such Southern Mindanao in the Philippines, help the two parties to work together to as the United States, should commit to women are the most affected by years of promote and protect women’s human without hesitation. insurgency and rebellion. rights. The future of ASEAN will be Women not only support the social Women have had to raise children shaped to a great extent by the fabrics of ASEAN member-states; they under extreme conditions, to deal with contribution of its women. The ethical are increasingly becoming their familial and kin conflicts, and to play the challenge therefore is to protect and economic backbones. Recalling the UN role of peacemakers. Historically, in promote their human rights as the Millennium Development Goals many Southeast Asian societies women community building process continues. Number Three goal (promote gender had privileged positions due to the equality and empower women) and Goal acceptance of tracing ancestry both from April 30, 2013 Five (improve maternal health), there is maternal and paternal lines, which

43 cLiMate cHange and deVeLoPMent The Ethical Challenges of Climate Change and Intergenerational Equity As the world’s two largest polluters, preserving intergenerational equity poses the greatest long-term ethical challenge for China and the United States. By tsering Jan vAN dEr kUIJp (United States) and LIN Lilin (taiwan) polluters, the United States and China face tremendous hurdles in overcoming the dilemma of pursuing economic growth while stemming the tides of climate change and environmental pollution. Accounting for over 40 percent of carbon dioxide pollution, the leading climate change-inducing chemical, the United States and China are in a unique position to protect future generations from the consequences of climate change. These two nations must therefore assume both responsibility for and leadership in solving this complex global problem.

ethical challenge and Moral responsibility

Since climate change is an enduring phenomenon, the liability placed on the welfare of future generations is of central importance. Most worrisome about climate change is not just how it will affect tomorrow’s weather but how

David www.flickr.com/photos//randomwire/ (CC) David www.flickr.com/photos//randomwire/ it will impact the children of the future. Crossing a bridge. Out of this dilemma between boosting We will respond to the threat of climate outbreak, facilitated largely by irregular industrial production and curbing change, knowing that the failure to do so weather patterns. Land desertification in climate change emerges the greatest would betray our children and future Sudan, water resource shortages in the ethical challenge for China and the generations. Middle East, abnormally strong United States: how to safeguard the —U.S. President Barack Obama, 2013 monsoons in South Asia, and record health and well-being of their people temperature highs in parts of North while guaranteeing the same for future introduction America have all been at least partly generations. attributed to climatic shifts. At issue is Consideration for the welfare of the here is an international scientific the notion that anthropogenic emission future drives the policy motivations of consensus that by the middle of of greenhouse gases is the major driving all actors, ranging from the state to the Tthis century, global climate force behind the changing climate. smallest family unit. Just as the United change will begin to inflict devastating The engines of industrial growth that States implemented a Social Security droughts, storms, and crop damage on propelled the United States to pension system to ensure the welfare of future generations. Some ecologically superpower status and lifted over 600 future citizens, so too the Chinese sensitive regions of the planet have million Chinese out of poverty have government established a grain quota already experienced increased potentially debilitating consequences for system to guarantee an adequate food incidences of famine and disease the planet. As the world’s two largest supply for its citizens. Every

44 environmental protection regulation is Following this model, the ostensible underlying causes of ethical accompanied by this regard for the divide between current vs. future challenge future as well. On the critical issue of interests ceases to exist because climate climate change, however, this same change does not have a beginning or an On the surface, the lack of action concern for future generations has been end. The effects of shifting weather between these two great nations appears to notably absent. This group faces greater patterns are being felt now, and climate stem from the need to pursue economic risks to the hazards of climate change change is a continuous, albeit gradual, growth and visible returns. After all, than the current one due to its lack of phenomenon. Adopting a prevailing theories of welfare economics representation and access to decision- consequentialist approach would stress present resource consumption over making processes. In both the United compel states to intervene on behalf of deferred consumption. Nevertheless, a States and China, there is no a priori all affected generations: it is thorough examination of the history, governing rule protecting this group. undoubtedly in the interests of society as dialogue, and actions surrounding Sino- The need and responsibility for a whole to live free from the devastating U.S. relations reveals a more deep-rooted intervention on behalf of future effects of climate change. According to reason for this inertia, stemming from a generations can be deduced from two this framework, therefore, the desirable legacy of mistrust brought about by an overarching and sometimes competing social goal of a secure and prosperous entrenched and obsolete Cold War moral paradigms that intrinsically guide citizenry encompasses all generations mentality. Both nations suffer from this all state actors and their decisions: and requires all nations to advance the obstructionist mindset, as they constantly deontological and consequential. The welfare of these groups. find themselves at odds over trade disputes, deontological model emphasizes That these moral paradigms implore human rights, industrial espionage, and individual rights, equitable process, and nations to take action to protect future more. moral accountability. Most paramount is generations demonstrates the ethical Mistrust and misperceptions of each what can be described by moral ramifications of climate change, in other’s motives have created a foreign philosopher Immanuel Kant’s addition to the overt practical reasons. policy gridlock or outright opposition on a categorical imperative—“Act only These ethical dimensions reflect the range of matters. China opposes sterner according to that maxim whereby you complexity of tackling global, lasting measures by the West to remove the Assad can, at the same time, will that it should issues like climate change, but they also regime from power, fearing more Western become a universal law.” In other words, provide an additional impetus for China intervention in Syria might bring unwanted in order to justify a particular action, the and the United States to cooperate and foreign influence closer to home. Similarly, application of that action in similar address these challenges on a moral, in response to a U.S. Senate bill threatening circumstances must always be equitable basis. higher tariffs if China did not raise the justifiable, regardless of whom the actor For China and the United States, value of its currency, Chinese Foreign or the affected party is. Thus, if we were preserving intergenerational equity Ministry spokesman Ma Zhaoxu to protect the current generation from an poses the greatest long-term ethical exclaimed that the United States needed to imminent threat, then according to this challenge. As the greatest threat to it, “stop pressuring China through domestic principle we must do the same for future climate change knows no boundaries, lawmaking.” Perhaps the greatest driver of generations. For instance, it is a widely cannot be reasoned or bargained with, current mistrust lies in the Obama accepted notion that states have a moral and will inflict harm on each and every administration’s recent “pivot to Asia” obligation to protect their citizens from citizen both wealthy and poor, even strategy. In doing so, the United States impending environmental hazards and those not yet born. But herein lies the plans to bolster its military capabilities and natural disasters. By extension, problem: because climate and alliances in the Asia-Pacific region, therefore, states must also protect their environmental change are gradual, increasing the presence of conventional future citizens from similar incremental global phenomena, the forces right next to China’s doorstep. circumstances involving these hazards. effects also will not be realized China’s Defense Ministry responded that The consequentialist moral paradigm immediately. As a result, there appears “any strengthening and expansion of bases justifiable actions on end results to be no pressing need to protect unborn military alliances is an expression of a Cold and desirable social goals, such as future generations from the War mentality [that] does not help to maximizing total welfare or utility. unsustainable lifestyle of the current enhance mutual trust and cooperation Regardless of the procedures taken, one. Nevertheless, this lack of urgency between countries in the region.” As a states should endeavor to maximize the to act on behalf of future generations result, many Chinese perceive the United general welfare, even at the expense of remains a symptom rather than a direct States as a revisionist power seeking to individual rights and just processes. cause of inaction on climate change. curtail China’s political influence and

45 cLiMate cHange and deVeLoPMent damage its core interests in economic industrialized countries to avoid taking China during climate negotiations, development and territorial sovereignty. responsibility for decades of prior there is already heightened tension, From the perspective of China’s trans- emissions. China’s top climate change misperception, and mutual distrust. Pacific counterpart, the United States official Xie Zhenhua maintained that This is what makes the challenge of hopes to maintain a stable global order that during the process of industrialization combating climate change so great: on respects universal human rights and and urbanization, developed countries every level—political, economic, international law while dispelling notions were able to freely emit carbon pollution personal—obstacles stand in the way of of its impending decline. China’s and take advantage of unfettered real action on climate change. China opposition to decisive action in Syria and industrial growth. In a sense, those pushes back on widely-backed multilateral its perceived foot-dragging in currency countries had a head start in the race emissions reduction proposals, and the appreciation reform make the country towards industrialization and United States fails to observe the role of appear insensitive to humanitarian crises development. Developed countries national dignity and territorial sovereignty and defiant of global free trade norms, reached their emissions peak when per in Chinese affairs. Yet those who stand to respectively. Moreover, the United States capita GDP reached about $40,000; suffer the most have no way of voicing has consistently held that its overseas China, however, started to address their concerns. The underlying causes of involvement in the Diaoyu/Senkaku climate change when its per capita GDP this global gridlock—mistrust and islands dispute and the “Taiwan question” reached only $4,000. Thus, Xie’s misperception—show not just the have been in the interests of peace and argument goes, developed nations like complexities of achieving solutions to stability. The purpose of the “pivot to Asia” the United States should take the lead in climate change but also the importance of strategy is to ensure that all regional actors, controlling carbon emissions, especially mutual understanding in international including China, are being treated fairly since this group is responsible for the bulk relations, particularly Sino-U.S. relations. and adhere to international norms of of emissions already in the atmosphere. conduct. Nevertheless, media reports, public solutions Yet, such a viewpoint inevitably drifts opinion, and official government into the territorial sovereignty of other responses reveal another side of the There is a fundamental difference nations, an especially sensitive issue for argument, that by requiring all nations between these two nations in priorities, China. Following the “Century of to participate in binding emissions responsibilities, and perceptions. To Humiliation” brought on by colonial controls, the United States seeks to cap address these roadblocks and pave a Western powers and Japan, China has China’s inevitable rise to economic and pathway to climate change cooperation, become increasingly suspicious of any political power. Mandated emissions the United States and China must perceived attempts at circumventing its limits would effectively amount to limits establish a foundation for official, rise. What the United States has often on domestic economic growth. This constructive dialogue. One example that perceived as belligerent, muscle-flexing would be an indirect but potent method has been floated by analysts has been a by China against Japan, Taiwan, and the by which a Western superpower like the series of “G-2” summits in which both Philippines, China has seen as defending United States could contain China and countries would effectively place all its territorial sovereignty and national subtly curb its growth ambitions. concerns and preconditions on the table dignity. Any intervention by the United From the perspective of history, and engage one another in constructive States into Asia-Pacific regional affairs China has reason to be wary of foreign dialogue. They would explain official could mask a hidden motivation of influences on its domestic affairs, positions and goals while voicing containing China’s rise. beginning with the Opium Wars in the concerns and reservations about one This reinforcing sentiment of mistrust 1800s and continuing on until the end of another’s climate change abatement and apprehension has managed to the “Century of Humiliation” in the mid- schemes. Moreover, the United States permeate even the debate on how to deal 1900s. During this time of foreign and China not only account for the with climate change. During UN climate intervention and imperialism, China was largest proportion of carbon emissions talks, China has been wary of U.S.- repeatedly subjected to outside control but also broadly represent the “North- sponsored political and diplomatic of its economic, political, and South” divide on climate policy within initiatives that lead to binding emissions diplomatic affairs. Any indication of the international community. Over the caps or mandatory emissions monitoring repeating history is anathema to the years of climate negotiations, an intense schemes. Efforts to control the carbon rapidly-growing country, making it division has emerged between developed pollution brought by industrialization appear obstructionist or even belligerent nations (North) and developing nations could slow down China’s economic when intervening forces are present. As (South) over matters as how the burden growth while allowing already- a result, when the United States engages of reducing emissions should be shared;

46 whether industrialized nations should political and economic tensions. It could What makes the challenge of act first to cut emissions; and how much also catalyze cooperation in other areas preserving intergenerational equity historical versus current emissions of concern such as trade and human so profound is not only the multi- matter. The best prospects for building rights, as both sides begin to understand faceted nature of climate change—how an international consensus over climate more clearly each other’s motives and to allocate emissions reductions, policy will arise from developing such ideals. Through establishing stronger monitoring requirements, financing non-traditional alliances across this bilateral ties via enhancing mutual schemes, et cetera—but also the deep- “North-South” divide. Doing so would understanding and action on climate rooted aspect of it that blocks progress help encourage reluctant states to change, China and the United States can and cooperation. Horizontally and coalesce around a compromise that serve as powerful examples for the rest vertically, the United States and China considers all interests and concerns. Of of the world, representing how two very must work together to grapple with these course, a bilateral Sino-U.S. institution dissimilar countries can set aside deep immense hurdles. Because of the far- will not by itself solve the climate social and cultural differences in the reaching implications of climate change, change problem, but it would form the name of meeting the world’s greatest these two countries inherently will have basis for negotiations that can start challenge. to make a moral decision: how far we effectively to address it. should go in ensuring the health and As a leading voice in international closing ultimately the survival of future affairs, the United States is in a unique generations. Action or lack thereof on position to lead on this issue and take Every great nation desires more the issue in the present will have long- significant steps to work with China. economic development and higher term consequences for the future, Historically, the superpower is also the living standards for its people—the making the dilemma of economic largest emitter of climate-altering gases United States and China are certainly no growth versus environmental protection and therefore bears a high degree of exception. Their respective superpower even more pronounced. responsibility for any future status and dramatic economic rise Nevertheless, it is the sacred duty and consequences. Thus, the United States nevertheless have brought significant moral responsibility of all nations, not must act first to reduce its own climate- environmental costs, most of which will just China and the United States, to altering emissions; this would convince be felt by future generations. Despite the provide for their people and protect the China of the sincerity of U.S. efforts and political, social, and cultural differences welfare of their future citizens. Failure reduce fears about indirect western between these two great nations, both even to begin addressing climate change intervention in China’s domestic policy. agree that bilateral consultation is the would represent a failure of this In return, as an able representative of first step among many others to commitment and a severing of the “Southern” concerns, China would help restoring mutual trust and respect. inextricable bond between country and build the trust and confidence needed to The root of inaction on climate citizen. With the voices of those to be break through the deadlock on change reveals that the problem lies not most affected by climate change international climate negotiations. With with the core objective of combating effectively absent, it is up to current its status as the largest greenhouse gas climate change but with the method of state actors to speak for them, to ensure emitter and most populated country, doing so. There has been insufficient that their interests are represented and China has a distinct interest in protecting attention paid to how China and the their future livelihoods protected. These its future generations from the impacts United States should cooperate in actions would uphold the fundamental of climate change. To do so, it must moving forward, illustrated by the long- principles of intergenerational equity assume its international obligation to standing “North-South” divide. that reflect the moral as well as the work with other nations and advance, Beginning with a foundation of practical dimensions of climate change. rather than obstruct, progress in cooperation and consultation, the United Success in curbing climate change is all combating climate change. States and China can break through the but guaranteed, but by beginning with a It is undeniable that with their different Cold War mentality of suspicion and platform of mutual trust and respect, the political systems, strategic interests, and distrust and make significant progress in United States and China can pave the levels of economic development, China addressing climate change. With the way forward to meeting this crucial and the United States will inevitably face potential for this issue to become the moral responsibility. obstacles in achieving any sort of climate world’s greatest national security threat, agreement. Once begun, however, the United States and China share a April 29, 2013 cooperation on climate change could moral responsibility to respond quickly prove groundbreaking in smoothing over and effectively.

47 cLiMate cHange and deVeLoPMent Time, Talent, Treasure: Revisiting Development Partnerships between the Philippines and the United States Does well-meaning American “voluntourism” benefit the “givers” more than the receivers? Do large-scale U.S. aid programs try to fit American solutions onto Filipino problems? By Christopher derige mALANO (United States) and Jeanne Carmel pUErtOLLANO (philippines) U.S. Pacific Fleet www.flickr.com/photos/compacflt/ (CC) U.S. Pacific Fleet www.flickr.com/photos/compacflt/ U.S. Navy Seabees visiting school children in Palawan, Philippines.

ut of acts of goodwill came the or groups to join short-term missions for poverty in beneficiary countries. perpetuation of the long- intervention in key focus areas such as Although partnerships can be mutually O standing stereotypical images health, infrastructure, and environmental beneficial for both countries, genuine of the prosperous and the impoverished. management, to name a few. On a larger emancipation from these barriers to There is no doubt that the development scale, partnerships for development are development becomes more difficult for sector has played a significant role in the forged through foreign aid given by one the recipients to overcome. world today, especially as globalization country to another, often from high- The partnership between the United has brought countries closer together to income to middle-and low-income States and the Philippines is one of the collaborate on programs that benefit the countries. longest standing and most strategic most vulnerable in society. These These approaches to development in alliances formed in modern history. partnerships include volunteer programs contemporary times bring to the surface Philippine public opinion of the United that seek to engage willing individuals some critical problems that exacerbate States is generally positive with 90

48 percent of Filipinos viewing U.S. american “Voluntourism” in the painted an image of developing influences as positive. This was Philippines countries as destitute and less fortunate confirmed by the BBC Country Rating than they are. At a very young age Poll held in 2011. Volunteer travel is slowly becoming children are taught to see things at face But with this positive view of the a trend in the tourism sector. Although value, in other words, “those poor U.S.-Philippine relationship is the it is a largely European concept, people over there,” rather than to responsibility of both nations to ensure “voluntourism” has successfully found critically look at the situation, that the programs that they implement its niche in the U.S. tourism market. systems, and environments which together are mutually beneficial to both This ultimately led Asian countries, have hindered development. The sense parties. However, despite the seeming including the Philippines, to open of responsibility and obligation is so benevolence and altruism by the United various communities and even the most strongly ingrained into the American States to the Philippines, questions have obscure parts of the country to short- culture that it is no wonder that many been raised as to the ethics of the term mission trips. Although it has not easily get lost in it. There is no lack of relationship between these two reached its tipping point yet, various compassion, but it is that sympathy countries. nonprofit organizations in the which drives the “savior” or “hero” On smaller-scale commitments, there Philippines have started receiving complex which many short-term seems to be a growing trend of foreign volunteers through various volunteers have been disillusioned with. American volunteers sharing their time organizations such as Up With The In seeking an alternative to the in the Philippines to do what is often People, AIESEC, The Peace Corps, and traditional vacation, many Americans seen as an act of compassion. While we different faith-based organizations and have sought out the opportunity for do not question the genuineness of their youth groups. Some are individual sincere interaction with local people in good intentions, there are issues which tourists who come to the Philippines for the Philippines. They also genuinely need to be raised with regard to its a holiday and hear from locals of want to be of service to others while effectiveness and the kind of opportunities to be involved in some having a good time—after all, it is a relationship it is forging between the form of outreach program. Some are vacation. Good intentions for a short two countries, particularly between their university students who hope to apply period of time will leave a volunteer citizens. Do American volunteer themselves in the real world through feeling proud that a good deed has been programs actually seek to engage the community services. done and perhaps that the CV is a bit poor that they interact with in While contributions by these groups more attractive to universities and developing lasting solutions to social to volunteer mobilization are highly employers, but it is not enough; surely problems, or do they promote a culture appreciated, the goal of their visits to not for the so-called beneficiaries. In of dependence on aid? On the other side such countries and the activities that fact, it is simply egotistical and arrogant. of the coin, to what degree are groups in they are tasked to perform are not Community development is never an the Philippines that partner with responsive to the needs on the ground. overnight process but a long-term volunteer organizations keeping Although there are positive motivations commitment toward improving the vulnerable groups in poverty, so that the for these volunteers to serve poor quality of life. But the way that these “attraction” would always be there to communities and “give back” to society, groups have advertised such programs keep up with demand? the negative effect of these activities is reduces it into a benevolent and On larger-scale programs and obvious. Often, these programs are altruistic form of leisure. With a simple engagements, has the Philippine cookie-cutter types of activities that are search through YouTube or their government, whether consciously or not, designed around the interests of the websites, it would not take long to put its former colonial masters at the volunteers. Never mind that the paint on encounter videos of these volunteers center of its priorities over its own the walls of homes in relocation sites is “making an impact” in an urban poor people? Have aid programs been almost an inch thick, as long as the community in Metro Manila while designed to fit American solutions to volunteers feel good about what they running after kids or giving them Filipino problems? have accomplished, the objectives of piggyback rides, or maybe planting Considering the amount of material their visit have been met—or so they mangroves along the long coastlines in and nonmaterial investments pumped think. Batangas. A weeklong visit to a into these programs, it is important to In the United States, it is common for community gives volunteers the reexamine the kind of impact and the young people to be reminded that they impression that they are already saving quality of relationships they build are “blessed” to live in the land of plenty the world and making a huge dent in the between these two nations. and of opportunity. They are also fight against poverty. One could wonder

49 cLiMate cHange and deVeLoPMent if there truly is justice in such form of there are people who would share their development aid activities. time and talent for the betterment of In the Philippines, schools often fall the Philippines, rather than paying off The United States of America and the victim to the generous deeds of residual colonial guilt. It is also Republic of the Philippines have American voluntourists. Part of the necessary that people are inclined to fostered strong relationships cultivated agenda might include helping out at a get involved in the environments and by their deep historical ties. Long after local school. Instruction is interrupted situations of the “other.” the end of American rule, it has been when new groups of volunteers are It is more important and more evident that their presence is a fixture in introduced to the pupils. As welcoming urgent, however, to find sustainable the Philippine political landscape. In hosts, short programs have been solutions for both stakeholders. Both fact, over the span of five years, the developed to highlight the school and the United States and the Philippines United States has been one of the largest its students. What the volunteers see is have to promote responsible volunteer contributors of official development that particular block of time—their tourism that does not diminish the assistance to the Philippines, investing week of volunteering. But, what they capacity of communities to handle $318 million in the last year. The don’t see is that it all happens again their own development. While it would majority of foreign aid spent comes next week with a new set of volunteers. take more time, dedication, and from the Millennium Challenge The volunteers will help to tutor, plant coordination, a two-way exchange Corporation (MCC), a bilateral foreign school gardens, and other activities. opportunity promotes fairness and aid agency that “provides development This volatility of new people additional opportunities to learn about assistance that reduces extreme poverty constantly being introduced to each other. It is essential to have through economic growth and children’s lives, quick attachment, and substantial preparation for volunteer strengthens good governance, economic eventually having to say goodbye is groups which critically examines the freedom, and investments in people.” not necessarily beneficial for the history, context, structures, and Development assistance disbursed development of the child, especially if systems which have caused and through the MCC is intended to one develops a friendship with a prolong impoverished conditions. And, supplement aid given through the particular volunteer. there is a need to seriously answer the United States Agency for International Acknowledging there is a market for question of what happens when Development. generosity, several groups have taken volunteers return to the United States. Although the relationship between the advantage of these good intentions by Too often volunteers return to the United States and the Philippines in turning them into a commodity. What comfort of their homes and lives in the terms of mutual support is heavily these voluntourism organizations are United States having tucked away the focused on military relations, discussions inadvertently teaching those volunteers memories of their experience in a about the effectiveness of aid programs is that they are in a superior position to photo album, never having to think that in addressing poverty need to be given those who they are intending to help. their choices and behaviors are equal attention. Despite the sizable When they go on volunteer vacations, intrinsically connected to the life and contribution of the United States, one these people with good intentions only well-being of those whom they have could debate the effectiveness of aid in see the beneficiaries in their most just “served.” For those involved with promoting long-term development in the vulnerable state. On the contrary, those volunteer tourism, it should be stressed country. Have American interventions who are being “served” will always see that their good will and time in the such as aid weakened the capability of the volunteers in their most chivalrous Philippines should not be institutions in the Philippines to carry moments. This only hardens the compartmentalized, but put to good out reform programs that largely benefit longstanding mutual stereotypes of use by looking at the context, its populace? each other. When it comes to structures, and systems in the United Macroeconomic reforms have been sustainability, this kind of undignified States which propagate poverty in the at the forefront of the Aquino relationship is not based on mutual Philippines. administration’s agenda. The Philippine understanding and partnership. Even more so than that, however, it Development Plan is focused on This is not to say that these is imperative that the United States and achieving inclusive economic growth programs have to stop, but inevitably, the Philippines promote responsible through the creation of jobs, the paradigm under which these volunteer tourism that does not strengthening of the service sector, and activities have been carried out or the diminish the capacity of communities increasing foreign direct investment into pedagogy behind the experience must to handle their own development. the economy. While such goals are be reviewed. It is commendable that laudable, and U.S. support for the

50 government’s strategic objectives injects seen as backward and irrelevant In building its relationship with the much needed capital into the realization against the tide of modernization, is Philippines, the United States should of such programs, the negative effects of complicated by these external factors. allow the Philippines to define its aid cannot be ignored. So instead of promoting justice, the development agenda according to the In achieving broad-based economic development practices introduced by current state of its populace and its growth in the Philippines, one could well-meaning groups actually degrade readiness to accept technologies and wonder how many of these aid programs and distort the values system and practices. The Philippine government and their presumed goals affect those at traditions once strongly upheld by these should be thinking less of “Will the the bottom of the pyramid. One hundred tribes, and without proper legislative United States give us support for this and twenty million dollars, for example, protection, they are easily marginalized program” and more of “Will our people of the Millennium Challenge Account’s from mainstream Philippine society. be freed from chronic poverty through aid to the country is disbursed through Dependence on aid also significantly this initiative.” The United States, on the KALAHI-CIDSS, a community-based reduces institutional capabilities to carry other hand, must look at the quality of development-driven program that aims out programs that are responsive to real, the impact of its programs and to enhance local infrastructure, expressed local needs. Institutions that partnerships. If their approach continues governance, participation, and social are tasked to monitor and implement to perpetuate poverty in all its forms and cohesion, but the measures of its the development objectives of the brings more harm than good, then they effectiveness have yet to be measured. government are prioritizing palliative must reconsider the way these programs In fact, in some provinces in Mindanao solutions such as the conditional cash are implemented. After all, the return on where there are high levels of insurgent transfer program and over-extended investment for aid is not merely in terms activities, such programs have been humanitarian programs for typhoon of economic gains that both countries subject to sabotage. relief instead of longer term can reap from such partnerships but in In a 2012 study by Crost, Felter, and interventions that could truly bring the positive change that it brings to their Johnston, it was seen that even at the people out of poverty. Inasmuch as these formal and informal institutions. start of the social preparation phase, are needed, they are already bringing International aid programs and there is already much resistance from problems with corruption to the surface. volunteer tourism have their roots in groups such as the New People’s Army There have been reports, for example, charity and genuinely building good and the Moro Islamic Liberation Front. that election campaigns in the will between the Philippines and the Municipalities that have been rendered Philippines have converted items United States.However, acts of charity eligible to receive such aid have donated by the USAID into campaign are only temporary fixes to surface- recorded casualties related to the materials for politicians. Some have level challenges between unequal program. This could be attributed to the been repackaged and reused by those partners. True development of both competition among potential recipients. seeking reelection to show their countries is not simply pumping The fact that high amounts of aid pour commitment to the welfare of typhoon financial resources to boost a partner into the development of communities victims. In some store houses, sacks economy to protect the interest of one could increase tensions among upon sacks of rice are piled up and partner. It is much deeper, involving the competing municipalities. Furthermore, remain undistributed. The real goal of radical change of how relationships if aid programs could possibly weaken human development, which is to enable between peoples, systems, structures, the insurgent group’s clout in a certain people to have wider choices by and countries view, understand, and region, it gives them a reason to improving the quality of life, is defeated. interact with each other. Perhaps there is incapacitate the implementers. These problems, however, do not still hope to finally break the proscribed Aside from the violence that could mean that development aid must stop at stereotypes where one forever plays the emerge from such programs, the once. But its structure and trajectories role of a damsel in distress and the other implications of aid in the drive towards have to be reconsidered. The Philippines, a knight in shining armor. Only then will sustainable development should be being a strategic ally of the United we be able to create a truly genuine and discussed. The consideration for local States in the Asia-Pacific, should not mutual development partnership between and indigenous cultures must be remain aid-dependent forever. Just as the two countries. examined. Development trends, development seeks to free humans from especially those imposed by other being prisoners of social injustice over May 2, 2013 societies, could impinge on the values time, aid programs should be designed promulgated by different local groups. to make a country less dependent on Furthermore, their way of life, often external funding for its internal needs.

51 contriButors The Winning Authors

the U.S., China, and Cybersecurity: the Ethical Underpinnings of a Controversial Geopolitical Issue (p.4)

robert d. O’BrIEN (United States) is a passionate observer and analyst of geopolitical trends with a focus on their implications for business and public policy. He is a Ph.D. candidate at the University of Oxford and a research analyst at contextChina. He was a Fulbright Scholar in China from 2008–2009, but he has degrees in the broader study of international relations and international economics from Oxford and George Washington University. From 2009–2011, he worked at the Brookings Institution’s John L. Thornton China Center. He currently lives in London, England with his wife Carey.

Shiran SHEN (China) is a Ph.D. student in political science at Stanford University and an Asia-Pacific Scholar at Stanford’s Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies. A native of Beijing, she observes and writes on Chinese political economy and foreign policy, U.S.-China relations, and global governance on climate change. Her works have been featured in international and regional outlets such as the Asia Times, The Wall Street Journal, China Xinhua News Agency’s Reference News (Cankao Xiaoxi), and Singapore-based Lianhe Zaobao. She holds a BA in political science from Swarthmore College, where she graduated with High Honors and Phi Beta Kappa.

52 Finalists geoPoLitics and security A pivot and a promise: the Future of U.S.-myanmar relations (p.8)

thaw Zin Aung GYI (Myanmar) is a junior BA candidate at Brown University studying public policy and American institutions. Prior to Brown, he studied policy, planning and development at the University of South- ern California. He was born and raised in Myanmar (Burma). After his undergraduate studies, he plans to pursue further studies in law and public policy. He will return to Myanmar to pursue a career in public policy and pol- itics, and to contribute to the establishment of the rule of law. He is also founder of a student-run charity or- ganization named Conscience Community Development and Aid.

reid LIdOW (United States) is a senior BA candidate at the University of Southern California where he double-majors in political science and international relations. Reid has visited Myanmar on three occasions, and his writings have previously appeared in the Asia Sentinel, The Irrawaddy, The Korea Times, and the Korea JoongAng Daily.

the Ethical Challenge in Sino-U.S. relations: the threat of War (p.12)

tONG Zhichao (China) is an MA candidate at Hopkins-Nanjing Center, a joint educational venture between Johns Hopkins University and Nanjing University in Nanjing. His main interests include political theories and thoughts, especially Rawlsian political philosophy, American history, and a comparative study of liberalism and communitarianism. Besides contributing the part about Tianxia in his essay here, he is currently working on a formal academic paper regarding Tianxia and modern liberalism, tentatively titled “A Rawlsian Critique on Tianxia.”

William YALE (United States) is currently a graduate student at Johns Hopkins SAIS, concentrating in China studies, global theory and history, and international economics. He previously spent a year at the Hopkins- Nanjing Center, and has worked at the Naval War College and U.S. State Department. He graduated from Trinity College in Hartford, CT in 2012 with a public policy and law degree.

Senkaku/diaoyu Conflict Endangers U.S. rebalance to the Asia-pacific (p.16)

Ana mArtINOvIC (United States) is from Southern California. Although she has lived in California for most of her life, she considers her Serbian heritage to be a large part of her life. She is attending University of Cali- fornia, Irvine and is in her fourth year as a philosophy and criminology double major. She is actively involved in Global Environmental Brigades and is working on starting a new club on campus focusing on environmental law. Her goal is to attend law school within the next couple of years to become an environmental lawyer.

Iris SOrIANO (Philippines) was born and raised in the Philippines and is the oldest and only girl in her family. She moved to the United States at fourteen years old and is fluent in Tagalog and English, and also proficient in Spanish. She is in her fourth year at University of California, Irvine, majoring in international studies and minoring in global sustainability. She is the president of a club called Global Environmental Brigades, which gathers students to help do sustainability work abroad in countries such as Panama.

53 contriButors this Is How You Lose: Against political pressure by militarism (p.20)

Alexandra Nicolette kHOO (Singapore), is a xenophile with a writing problem. She was previously at the University of York, England, where she used to write for the campus academic Vox journal and London-based think tank, Think Africa Press. As a scholar with the Maritime and Port Authority of Singapore, she hopes to use her intellectual training at the University of Chicago to become a better public servant. She is currently pursuing an MA with the Committee on International Relations and is one of their official bloggers.

Sean LAGUNA (United States) is a computer science Ph.D. student at the University of Chicago, doing re- search in scientific computing that involves crossing disciplinary lines into mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, engineering, and even the social sciences: next year he will lead the school's Computational Social Sciences Workshop. Although indoctrinated into the STEM corner of academia (inevitable as he obtained his BS from Harvey Mudd College), he has a penchant for political philosophy and, in general, trying to understand social issues from a fundamental, distilled point of view. At the Claremont Colleges, he also wrote for The Stu- dent Life, the consortium's newspaper.

In Case of Intervention, Break Glass: How the China-U.S. Impasse on Syria Could Be Used to move the G2 toward a Unified Global Ethic (p.24)

Gage demont HANSEN (United States) is a Juris Doctor candidate at the University of Utah’s S.J. Quinney College of Law (Class of 2014) and two-time recipient of the Lionel Frankel Public Interest Fellowship. He works as a legal analyst for The MILLA Project. He received a BA in political science from Southern Utah University and a Certificate of International Relations in 2007, a BA in history from Southern Utah University in 2009 and an MS in public administration from Southern Utah University in 2011.

Jasper WONG Yun Guang (Singapore) is in his third year of study, majoring in political science and inter- national relations at the University of Queensland. He is interested in non-Western international relations the- ories and the East Asian region in general. He will be travelling to Indonesia in the summer of 2013 to study for a semester before returning back to Australia to complete his BA honors year.

LaBor rigHts and HuMan rigHts Sewing dissension: the Struggle for Labor rights in Cambodia’s Garment Industry (p.28)

Abigail GrEGG (United States) was born in Australia, but grew up in Northern California. She attended the University of Southern California, majoring in anthropology and creative writing. During her sophomore year, she had the opportunity to do research in Cambodia, where she met Elita Ouk, her co-author for this paper. This trip also sparked her interest in international relations. She went on to do related research in Brazil, during six months of study abroad, as well as in Los Angeles. In August 2013, she is moving to New York City to pur- sue an MA degree in policy and administration in development practice.

Elita OUk (Cambodia) was born and raised in Phnom Penh, Cambodia. She recently finished her BA degree in media and communication from the Royal University of Phnom Penh. Apart from school, she is also an active member of two youth organizations: the U.S. Ambassador’s Youth Council, and the Fulbright and Un- dergraduate State Alumni Association of Cambodia. Her interest in international affairs began when she took an American government class during her time as an exchange student in Jackson, Mississippi, USA.

54 two Faces of Economic development: the Ethical Controversy Surrounding U.S.-related Sweatshops in developing Asian Countries (p.32)

Benjamin Adam SCHOrr (United States) is entering his junior year at Portland State University, where he will continue studying political science after transferring from the University of Oregon. He is especially in- terested in U.S. politics and the effects of globalization. He has made several documentaries that can be found on YouTube and is currently working on a documentary about the psychological effects of war on a Vietnam veteran.

Annabelle WONG (Singapore) recently graduated from the National University of Singapore with a B.Soc.Sci. (Hons) for a major in political science and a minor in philosophy. Having written an honors thesis on morality in relation to statecraft, she is also embarking on her MSSc program this academic year (2013) at the National University of Singapore, with plans to specialize in political theory and political philosophy. Her research in- terests include Western political thought, political ethics, and contemporary issues of justice.

Speaking Against the Silence: An Ethical Analysis of Censorship practices within China today (p.36)

Qingchuan Lv (China) is from Anhui, China. She is studying at China Youth University for Political Science and her major is journalism. She believes in universal values, and practices them in everyday life. As a volunteer, she is busy with select students who want to participate in an educational program called LRC. She is active in lectures after class, and interested in foreign affairs and human rights. Believing in sharing and the Internet, she’s always trying to find the real facts of history, although it’s very hard in her homeland.

Brian YU (United States) is an 18 year-old who is studying at Mt. San Antonio College, California. In the past, he has garnered more than a dozen awards and US$ 2,000 in scholarships from his public speaking en- deavors. In his spare time, he has also hosted multiple local charity concerts, raising thousands of dollars for various causes such as the Supply Group, Relay for Life, and the Leukemia Foundation. In 2012, he took fourth place in the Gulen Youth Platform contest and missed his high school graduation to attend the Congressional Ceremony in Washington, D.C.

Confronting traditions and Contextualizing modernity: the Challenges of protecting Women’s Human rights in Southeast Asia (p.40)

Julio AmAdOr III (Philippines) is a Fulbright graduate scholar at the Maxwell School of Citizenship and Public Affairs, Syracuse University for 2012–2013, where he is an MA candidate in international relations. He is currently Asia Studies Visiting Fellow at the East-West Center in Washington, D.C. effective May 27 to No- vember 27, 2013. He is on leave as foreign affairs research specialist at the Center for International Relations and Strategic Studies (CIRSS) of the Foreign Service Institute of the Philippines, where he has worked since 2007.

michele CANtOS (United States) is an MA candidate in international relations at the Maxwell School of Cit- izenship and Public Affairs, and an aspiring international development professional focusing on women, refugees, education, and post-conflict issues. She is currently a junior program officer for the Implementation Support Unit (ISU) of the Anti-Personnel Mine Ban Convention in Geneva, Switzerland. Upon completion of her post with the ISU, she will be traveling to Santiago, Chile where she will finish her master’s degree. For the last four years, she has worked supporting integration programs in New York State for refugees and migrants, particularly in the areas of language instruction, civic education, and women’s reproductive health.

55 contriButors cLiMate cHange and deVeLoPMent the Ethical Challenges of Climate Change and Intergenerational Equity (p.44)

tsering Jan vAN dEr kUIJp (United States) is currently a Fulbright Research Scholar at Nanjing Univer- sity’s School of the Environment, where he is conducting heavy metal pollution research and studying risk analysis. A graduate of Harvard University, he majored in government and obtained a secondary field in envi- ronmental science and public policy as well as a Mandarin Chinese language citation.

LIN Lilin (Taiwan) conducted undergraduate studies at Xiamen University’s School of Oceanography and En- vironmental Science, majoring in environmental science. In 2009, she received a merit-based scholarship for the Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Macau region. In 2011, she received the China BaoGang Scholarship. She is cur- rently a master’s-level student at Nanjing University School of the Environment, where she conducts research in security vulnerability analysis of hazardous materials management.

time, talent, treasure: revisiting development partnerships between the philippines and the United States (p.48)

Christopher derige mALANO (United States) is studying for an MA in global development and social justice at St. John’s University and has received a BA in history and religious studies from the University of New Mexico. From 2007 to 2012, he served as secretary general of the international youth NGO, Pax Romana – IMCS, where as an advocate for inter-cultural dialogue, he collaborated with the United Nations Alliance of Civilizations on formation projects. His experience with youth issues at the United Nations include the devel- opment of goals and targets for monitoring the progress of the UN’s World Programme of Action for Youth.

Jeanne Carmel pUErtOLLANO (Philippines) is an MA student in development policy at De La Salle Uni- versity (DLSU). She is moving towards specializing in program development, impact evaluation, and moni- toring. She also works at the Office of the Vice Chancellor for Lasallian Mission as the liaison between DLSU and Gawad Kalinga, a nationwide movement in the Philippines that builds communities to end poverty. She advocates community engagement in universities and hopes to connect college students to opportunities to make society better through their expertise and knowledge.

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