Notes and References 1 The Invisible Migrants There have, however, been several short articles on exiled and other South Africans in Britain which have appeared in journals and news­ papers such as Race Today, New Society, Third World, the Guardian and the Independent on Sunday (Kozonguizi, 1969; Lapping, 1969; de Gier, 1987; Cunningham, 1988). 2 Apart from the plethora of autobiographies and two Hollywood films (Cry Freedom and A World Apart), a series of interviews with South African exiles appeared in the British press: with Hugh Masekela (Johnson, 1990), Peter Hain (Keating, 1991) and articles on South Africans in Britain by Freedberg (1990), Sher (1991) and Fathers (1992) . In addition, Anthony Sher appeared in a film written by Alan Cubitt for 'Screen Play' on BBC2, The Land of Dreams (transmitted 8 August 1990), and Christopher Hope (1990) presented a Kaleido­ scope programme on exile for Radio Four (transmitted 16 February 1990). 3 There have, of course, been exceptions. In a book published in 1994, Robin Cohen traced the relationship between Britain and Australia, New Zealand, Canada, South Africa and Rhodesia (Cohen, 1994). 4 None of these archives have been fully catalogued. Indeed, the mate­ rial in the IDAF and AAM collections will not be easily accessible for several more years. 5 The choice of 75 interviews seemed a reasonable compromise between my desire to obtain detailed accounts and a series of resource and time constraints. The sample size was chosen to give me enough information to study exiles as individuals as well as enough people to be able to consider what was going on among other exile groupings. The object of this study was not merely to gather descriptive data, but to develop a case study through which I might identify general prob ­ lems and explanations. Consequently, the typicality of subjects was less important than their ability to promote explanation (Mitchell, 1983). 6 Most older Johannesburg Congress and Communist Party activists knew this already. 2 State, Opposition and Exit Afrika! (the journal of the ANC Youth League) quoted in Advance, 17 December 1953, p. 1. Cited in Everatt (1991: 38). 2 The Congress Alliance comprised the South African Indian Congress (SAlC), the South African Coloured People's Organisation (SACPO), the COD, the ANC, and the South African Congress of Trade Unions (SACTU). 242 Notes and References 243 3 I interviewed people from two families as well as three single women who left in the 1940s and 1950s. None of them were simply forced out. 4 Some other African activists also left, though few came to Britain (see Abrahams, 1954; Hutchinson, 1960; Mphahlele, 1963; Anderson, 1970). 5 Described in more detail in Podbrey (1993 : 141-53). 6 Interview with Freda Katz. 7 Unpublished transcript of interview with Oliver Tambo by Hilda Bernstein. 8 Unpublished transcript of interview with Albie Sachs by Hilda Bernstein. Sachs was one of the Congress lawyers who helped people obtain exit permits. 9 K. Naidoo is a pseudonym. 10 Interview with Alexander Israel (my father). II Interview by Imruh Bakari. 12 Unpublished transcript of interview with Peggy Phango by Imruh Bakari. 13 Unpublished transcript of interview with Esme Matshikiza by Hilda Bernstein. 14 By 1968, this number had grown to 741. 15 From October 1962-3,24 people were placed under house arrest. Of these 24 people, II fled the country illegally, while two left under exit permits. By the end of 1966, about 125 banned people had left South Africa (Sachs, 1970: 21). 16 Hansard, 1965, col. 398. Cited in Albertyn (1991: 210). 17 See Pauline Podbrey's story. 18 Quoted in Africa Digest, 6 (jut--Aug. 1958) p. 30. 19 See Africa Digest in 1957 for various examples. 20 Sunday Express (South Africa) , 23 May 1965. 21 Unpublished transcript of interview with Albie Sachs by Hilda Bernstein. 22 Unpublished transcript of interview with Mac and Zarina Maharaj by Beata Lipman for Hilda Bernstein. 23 He later produced a fictional account of the collapse of the ARM (Driver, 1969). 24 There are various accounts of Harold Wolpe's first unsuccessful attempt to escape in 1963 (Kantor, 1967; Bernstein, 1994; Wolpe, 1994). 25 Assembly, Hansard, 1963, col. 7767. Amnesty International reported that 1200 refugees had passed through Bechuanaland (quoted in Barber and Barratt, 1990). 26 South African Institute of Race Relations 1964 Annual Report, p. 75. Quoted in Barber and Barratt (1990). 27 For an account of how Youssef Omar left South Africa, see Bernstein (1989) . 28 See Chapter 3. 29 Unpublished transcript of interview with Abdul Minty by Hilda Bernstein. 244 Notes and References 30 Unpublished transcript of interview with Edith Yengwa by Hilda Bernstein. 31 Quoted in Sachs (1968). 32 South Africa had introduced peacetime conscription for white males between the ages of 18 and 65 in 1957. In 1967 compulsory con­ scription replaced a ballot system of draft. 33 1966 General Law Amendment Act, s.22. 34 Evidence given at the Delmas Trial in 1988. Quoted in Albertyn (1991 : 276). 35 Sol Dubula was a pseudonym of J oe Slovo. 36 Unpublished transcript of interview with Dennis Goldberg by Hilda Bernstein. 37 Reprinted in Kitson (1987 : 297). 38 Extract from 'Instalment Two'. (Unnamed Debriefing Document held in Mayibuye Archive, University of Western Cape: African National Congress Papers, Boxfile 13.) 39 Letter to Jane Grant, 9 January 1977. Quoted in Grant (1979 : 236). 3 Accounts of Exit Quoted in Popular Memory Group (1982: 226). See also the work of Italian oral historians Luisa Passerini (1981, 1983) and Alessandro Portelli (1985). 2 For instance, Donald Woods' flight into exile received wide coverage in the British press in January 1978. 3 See Kitson (1987), Jenkins (1987), Kasrils (1993), Podbrey (1993), Bernstein (1994), Wolpe (1994), Press (1995), Slovo (1995). For earlier accounts, see Abrahams (1954), Hutchinson (1960), Segal (1963), Kantor (1967), Bernstein (1989). One ofthe few recent accounts of the experiences of black exiles in Britain was Resha (1992) while Ntantala (1992) has written of her life in the United States. There have also been fictional accounts such as Gillian Slovo's Ties ofBlood (1989). 4 Personal communication from Daso Iyer, 10 April 1998. 5 Robben Island, just west of Cape Town, was where most of the ANC and PAC black leadership were imprisoned. 6 On the other hand, husbands rarely attributed their political educa­ tion in South Africa to their wives. However, once outside South Africa, several men did note that they had learned about feminist politics through their female partners. 7 See, for example, unpublished transcript of interview with Esme Goldberg by Wolfie Kodesh, 5 August 1993. (Transcript held in Mayibuye Archive, University of the Western Cape.) 8 Unpublished transcript of interview with Harold Wolpe by Wolfie Kodesh, 16 December 1992. (Transcript held in Mayibuye Archive, University of the Western Cape.) 9 See Barrell (1991) for a discussion of the eventual shift in strategy by the ANC from military to legal, semi-legal and underground political struggle. Nales and References 245 4 South African Migration to Britain The concentration of South Africans in London was particularly marked, with 18500 South Africans living there (27 per cent of South Africans), including over 9000 (14 per cent) in Inner London while the inner part of the city only constituted four per cent of the British population. However, to put these figures in a different con­ text, those born in South-Africa made up only 1.2 per 1000 United Kingdom residents. Even in Inner London, South Africans only made up 3.7 per 1000 of the total local population. 2 For instance, we do know that there have consistently been more women than men, that in 1971 the age structure was skewed towards 20-30-year-olds (20 per cent) and away from under lOs (4.2 per cent). The 1971 census also provides a snapshot of when South African­ born United Kingdom residents entered the United Kingdom. Of those there in 1971, 8.6 per cent were known to have arrived in the 1940s, 19 per cent in the 1950s, and almost 32 per cent in the 1960s. 3 2737 residents of Great Britain who were born in South Africa were unemployed [CEN 91 EGCB Table F]. 4 A very rough population estimate of the ethnic composition of persons born in South Africa and living in Great Britain in 1991 can be obtained from multiplying by 50 the two per cent individual sample of Anonymised Records drawn from the 1991 Population Census. This sample of 1295 South Africans suggests that about 90 per cent of South Africans in Britain described themselves as white (approximately 58250), 3.4 per cent as Black African (approximately 2150), 1.2 per cent as 'Black other' (approximately 800 including, presumably, some of those who would have identified themselves as or been identified as Coloured in South Africa), 2.9 per cent as Indian (approximately 1900) as well as small numbers of 'Pakistani', 'Chinese', 'Other-Asian' (which may include some of those who might at one time have identified as Cape Malay), and 1.3 per cent 'Other-other' (approximately 850). 5 No figures are available for January-October 1993. 2880 people left for the United Kingdom in 1994. 6 433 HC Debs., col. 758 (14 February 1947). Reproduced in Miles (1989a : 433). 7 Report ofthe Royal Commission on Population (1949; Cmd. 7695 n. 49, p. 124). 8 637 HC Debs., col. 447 (22 March 1961). 9 Perhaps this might have been expected given the original motiva­ tions behind Dominion settlement (Seeley, 1883; Williams,1964; Cohen, 1994). 10 In 639 HC Debs., col. 1066 (1 May 1961). 11 Times, 22 March 1961. 12 Raymond Gower MP [639 HC Debs., col.