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INTRODUCTION 1. Though the Policies of Apartheid and Separate Development Sought to Preserve African Languages and Traditions, T

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INTRODUCTION 1. Though the Policies of Apartheid and Separate Development Sought to Preserve African Languages and Traditions, T Notes INTRODUCTION 1. Though the policies of apartheid and separate development sought to preserve African languages and traditions, this was part of a wider programme to confine the 'Bantu' to their tribal cultures; it took no account of the degree of tribal integration that had taken place, and very little account of the natural linguistic developments within the black communities- developments which were never towards greater purity. The major liberation movements therefore view this official tampering with African cultures as part of the machinery of repression. 2. Recent work by Couzens and others demonstrates much more fully than has hitherto been shown, the operations of African tradition within the work of those early writers. See Daniel Kunene's new translation of Mofolo's Chaka and Tim Couzens' editions ofDhlomo. 3. A shebeen is a drinking place run, illegally, by African women, usually in their own homes. Thus while it serves the function of a bar, and is often the scene of wild drinking bouts, it has the character of a family living room. 4. See R. Kavanagh, Theatre and Cultural Struggle in South Africa (London: Zed Books, 1985) p. 33. CHAPTER 1 1. Mafika Gwala, No More Lullabies (Johannesburg: Ravan Press, 1982) p. 10. 2. Terry Eagleton, Literary Theory: An Introduction (Oxford: Basil Black­ well, 1983) p. 21. 3. Athol Fugard, John Kani & Winston Ntshona, 'The Island', Statements (London & Capetown: Oxford U.P., 1974) p. 62. 4. Eagleton, Criticism and Ideology: A Study in Marxist Literary Theory (London: Verso, 1978) p. 49. 5. Donald Woods, Biko (New York & London: Paddington Press, 1978) p. 130. 6. See Denis Duerden & Cosmo Pieterse (eds), African Writers Talking (London: Heinemann, 1972) p. 158. 7. Nadine Gordimer, 'English-Language Literature and Politics in South 257 258 Black Writers from South Africa Africa' in Christopher Heywood (ed.), Aspects of South African Literature (London: Heinemann, 1976) p. 118. 8. Nadine Gordimer, 'The Novel and the Nation in South Africa', in G. D. Killam (ed.), African Writers on African Writing (London: Heinemann, 1973)p. 52. 9. Lewis Nkosi, 'Fiction by Black South Africans', Home and Exile and Other Selections, 2nd edition (London & New York: Longman, 1983) p. 137. 10. Ibid., p. 5. 11. Essop Patel (ed.), The World of Nat Nakasa: Selected Writings of the Late Nat Nakasa(Johannesburg: Ravan Press, 1975) p. 82. 12. Nkosi, Home and Exile II, p. 25. 13. Aelred Stubbs (ed.), Steve Biko: I Write What I Like (The Bowerdean Press,l978)p.164. 14. Gordimer in Christopher Heywood (ed.), Aspects of South African Literature, p. 118. 15. Alex La Guma in Duerden and Pieterse (eds), African Writers Talking, p. 93. 16. Gordimer in Christopher Heywood (ed.), Aspects of South 4/rican Literature, p. 119. 17. Ezekiel Mphahlele, The African Image, 1st edition (London: Faber & Faber, 1962) p. 108. 18. Ibid., p. 38. 19. Olive Schreiner, Story of an African Farm (London: T. Fisher Unwin Ltd, 1924) p. 106. 20. Nadine Gordimer and Lionel Abrahams (eds), South African Writing Today (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1967). 21. Dennis Brutus, 'Protest Against Apartheid', in C. Pieterse & D. Munro (eds), Protest and Conflict in African Literature (London: Heinemann, 1974)pp. 93-4. 22. See Publications and Entertainment Act 1963 Section 6, Statutes of the Republic ofSouth Africa, Classified & Annotatedfrom 1910. 23. House of Assembly Debates, Republic of South 4frica,18 Jan.-15 March, 1963, vol. 5, columns 532-3. 24. Publications Act No. 42 of1974, Statutes R.S.A. 25. Publications Act No. 42 of1974, Statutes ofR.S.A., Section 52. 26. Ibid., Section 8. 27. Alfred Hutchinson, Road to Ghana (London: Gollancz, 1960) p. 15. 28. Jonathon Paton, 'Censorship & the University', in J. S. Paton (ed.), The Grey Ones: Essays on Censorship (Johannesburg: Ravan Press, 1974) p. 8. Quoted from a memorandum on banned books of literary merit by Professor Colin Gardner, no reference given. 29. Nadine Gordimer, 'Apartheid and Censorship', in J. S. Paton (ed.), The Grey Ones, p. 5. 30. Lewis Nkosi, Home and Exile, 1st edition (London: Longmans, 1965) p. 119. 31. Ibid., p. 121. 32. Nadine Gordimer, The Black Interpreters (Johannesburg: Spro­ CasjRavan, 1973) p. 51. 33. Nkosi, Home and Exile I, p. 121. Notes 259 34. Ibid., p. 46. 35. G. D. Killam (ed.), African Writers on African Writing, p. 10. 36. Nkosi, Home and Exile I, p. 50. 37. G. D. Killam (ed.), African Writers on African Writing, p. 33. 38. SeeNkosi,HomeandExilel,p. 17. 39. Marx & Engels, The German Ideology, 1865--6, quoted in Terry Eagleton, Marxism and Literary Criticism (London: Methuen, 1976, reprinted 1983)p. 4. 40. From A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy (1859), quoted ibid.,p. 4. 41. 'Notebook' December 1968, quoted in Christopher Heywood (ed.), Aspects ofSouth African Literature, p. 169. 42. Woods, Bilco, p. 124. 43. Hazel Barnes, Sartre (London: Quartet Books, 1974) p. 120. 44. Ibid. 45. Ezekiel Mphahlele, 'Renewal Time', preface to The Unbroken Song (Johannesburg: Ravan, 1981) p. x. 46. Barnes, Sartre, p. Ill. 47. Iris Murdoch, Sartre (London: Fontana, Collins, 1967) p. 71. 48. David Lodge (ed.), Twentieth Century Literary Criticism (London: Longmans, 1972) pp. 276-90. 49. Ibid., p. 289. 50. Robert Kavanagh, South African People's Plays (London: Heinemann, 1981) pp. xxiii-xxiv. 51. Eagleton, Marxism and Literary Criticism, p. 22. 52. Ibid., p. 24. 53. Ibid., p. 26. 54. Jacques Alvarez Peryre, The Poetry of Commitment in South Africa (London: Heinemann, 1984) p. 215. 55. Mothabi Mutloatse, Forced Landing Africa South, Contemporary Writ- ings (Johannesburg: Ravan Press, 1980) p. 5. 56. Eagleton, Marxism and Literary Criticism, p. 62. 57. Mutloatse, Forced Landing, p. 5. 58. Quoted in Eagleton, Marxism and Literary Criticism, p. 24. 59. Ibid., pp. 24-5. 60. Allistair Sparks, 'A poet's anger revives ideals of Steve Biko', Observer, 18 September 1983, p. 13. 61. Eagleton, Literary Theory, p. 90. 62. Eagleton, Criticism and Ideology: A Study in Marxist Literary Theory (London: Verso Editions, 1978) p. 56. 63. Eagleton, Literary Theory, pp. 208-9. 64. Ibid., p. 209. 65. Ibid., p. 196. 66. Ibid., p. 141. 67. Ibid., pp. 108-9. 68. Ibid., p. 109. 69. Ibid., p. 112. 70. David Lodge (ed.), Twentieth Century Criticism, p. 371. 71. Ibid., p. 376. 72. Ibid., p. 377. 260 Black Writers from South Africa 73. Ibid. 74. Ibid. 75. Ibid., p. 379. 76. Ibid., p. 380. 77: Ibid., p. 383. 78. Ibid. 79. Ibid. 80. Ibid., p. 384. 81. Ibid., p. 338. 82. Northrop Frye, Fables of Identity: Studies in Poetic Mythology (New York: Harcourt Brace& World, 1963) pp. 12-13. 83. Lodge (ed.), Twentieth Century Criticism, p. 187. 84. Ibid. 85. See Barnes, Sartre, p. 71. 86. N. Chabani Manganyi, Mashangu's Reverie and other essays (Johannes- burg: Ravan Press, 1977) pp. 55-6. 87. Ibid., p. 60. 88. Ibid., p. 66. 89. Ibid., p. 67. 90. Eagleton, Literary Theory, p. 214. 91. Cliff Slaughter, Marxism, Ideology and Literature (London: Macmillan, 1980)p. 179. 92. Ibid., p. 182. 93. See ibid., pp. 90-100. 94. Eagleton, Literary Theory, p. 215. 95. Eagleton, Criticism and Ideology, p. 55. 96. Slaughter, Marxism, Ideology and Literature, p. 57. 97. Ibid. 98. Eagleton, Literary Theory, p. 203. 99. Ibid. 100. Slaughter, Marxism, Ideology and Literature, p. 145. 101. Ibid., p. 174. 102. See summary of Benjamin's 'The Author as Producer', ibid., p. 181. 103. Eagleton, Criticism and Ideology, p. 84. 104. Eagleton, Literary Theory, p. 74. 105. Ibid., p. 89. 106. Ibid., p. 125. 107. Seeibid.,p. 191. 108. Slaughter, Marxism, Ideology and Literature, p. 47. 109. Eagleton, Criticism and Ideology, p. 135. CHAPTER TWO 1. Ezekiel Mphahlele, preface to The African Image, 1st edition (London: Faber & Faber, 1962) p. 16. 2. Ezekiel Mphahlele, preface to The African Image, 2nd edition (London: Faber & Faber, 1974) p. 10. 3. N. Chabani Manganyi, Exiles and Homecomings:A Biography of Es'kia Mphah/ele (Johannesburg: Ravan Press, 1983) p. 2. Notes 261 4. Ezekiel Mphahlele, Voices in the Whirlwind and Other Essays (London: Macmillan, 1972) p. 160. 5. Voices in the Whirlwind, p. 127. 6. Ibid., p. 157. 1. Ibid., p. 127. 8. Ibid., p. 128. 9. The African Image II, p. 21. 10. Voices in the Whirlwind, p. 198. He goes on to argue that with development and the inequalities that follow in its train, culture now requires an economic base. This is one of the points at which his train of thought is not immediately apparent-an idea in germination rather than fruition, perhaps. 11. Ibid., p. 121. 12. Ibid. 13. Ibid., p. 127. 14. Ibid., p. 198. 15. Mphahlele, The African Image II, p. 15. 16. Ibid., p. 29. 17. Ibid. 18. Ibid., pp. 48-9. 19. Ibid., p. 30. 20. Mphahlele, Voices in the Whirlwind, p. 169. 21. The African Image I, p. 93. 22. The African Image II, p. 41. 23. Voices in the Whirlwind, p. 15. 24. Ibid., p. 198. 25. Ibid., pp. 76-7. 26. The African Image II, p. 27. 27. Ibid., p. 28. 28. Ibid. 29. Ibid., p. 30. 30. Ibid., p. 248. 31. Ibid., pp. 247-8. 32. The African Image I, p. 93. 33. The African Image II, p. 35. 34. Ibid., pp. 246-7. 35. Andre Brink, A Dry White Season (London: W. H. Allen, 1979). 36. Nadine Gordimer, July's People (London: Jonathan Cape, 1981) p. 8. 37. Ibid., p. 152. 38. Mphahlele, preface to The African Image II, p. 9. 39. The African Image I, p. 19. 40. Ibid. 41. Ibid., p. 20. 42. Voices in the Whirlwind, pp. 15-16. 43. Ibid., p. 16. 44. Ibid., p. 196. 45. The African Image II, p. 89.
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