934 divided into 100 centavos. In circulation are pure nickel 1 sucre coins; there are 20, 10 and 5 centavo pieces, copper-nickel and copper-20inc. The currency consists mainly of the note& of the CentraI Bank in d~omina­ tions of 5, 10, 20, 50 and 100 sucres; notes of 500 and 1,000 sucres were retired from circulation in 1949. By a law of6 Dec., 1856, the metric system of weights and meaatll'6ll was made the legal standard of the republic; but the Spanish me&&ures are in general uee. The qnintal is equivalent to 101·4lb. The meridian of Quito has been adopted as the official time. Diplomatic Representatives. 1. 01' EcuADoB IN GREAT BRITAIN (3 Hans Crescent, S.W.l). Amhaa&ador.-(Vacant). Minister-CQUnsellor and Charge d'Affaire&, a.i.-Jorge Espinoza. CQUnsellor_-Trista.n de Aviles. There are consular representatives at Birmingham, Glasgow, Liverpool and London. 2. 01!' GBRAT BRITAIN IN EcuADOR. AmbaB&ador.-N. Mayers, C.M-G. (appointed 22 Oct., 1951). Secretary.-!. M. Hurrell. Commercial Secretary.-N. R. W. Smith. Naval Attache.-Capt. G. F. Renwick, R.N. Air Attache.-Gronp-Capt. R. B. Ward. There are consular officers at Guayaquil and Quito. Books of Reference. Anuarlo de LeillslaciOn Ecntorlana. Quito. Annual. Boletln de Hacienda. Qnito. Monthly. Conetitucl6n politica de Ia Repdblica del Ecuador, promnlgada El I de Marso de 1945 Quito, 1945. Boletln del Banco Central. Quito. Boletln General de Batadlatlca. Tri-monthly. By the Director of the Bureau. Boletln Meneual del Mlnlaterlo de Obrae Pdblicas. Monthly. Informea Mlnloterlalea. Quito. Annual. BlbUO(!lafla Naciona.l, 1766-1114.1. Qnito, 1941. Bevlsta Ecuatoriaoa de Eotedlftica. Quito ,1942. Touring Guide of Bcnador. Quito, 1942. BuitrOn (Anibal) and CoUier, Jr. (J".), The Awakening Valley; study of the Otavalo Indians. New York, 1950. Corporation of Foreilm Bondboldera. Annual Report. London. Blank.

EGYPT. (JAMHUBYAT MlsB.) EGYPT is an independent sovereign state. The British protectorate, declared on 18 Dec., 1914, terminated on 28 Feb., 1922, and the Sultan was proclaimed king on 15 March, 1922. On 26 Ang.,1936, an Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of Alliance was signed in London (ra.tifiqations exchanged on 22 Dec., 1936) to continue for 20

S. H. Steinberg (ed.), The Statesman’s Year-Book © Palgrave Macmillan, a division of Macmillan Publishers Limited 1954 EGYPT 935 years, whereby the military occupation by British forces was terminated, the special British interest in the defence of the Canal zone recognized (the Government of the U.K. were authorized to station 400 pilots with ancillary personnel and 10,000 troops in the Canal zone) and the adminis• tration of the remains in accordance with the arrangement resulting from the Condominium Agreements of 1899. In Dec., 1945, Egypt asked for a revision of the 1936 treaty, but the negotiations finally failed owing to Egypt's assertion of the permanent unity of Egypt and the Sudan, the British Government maintaining that the Sudanese should, after they had become self-governing, have the right to choose their future status. The Egyptian Government broke off negotiations in Jan., 1947, and in July appealed to the Security Council to direct the total and imme• diate evacuation of British troops from Egypt and the Sudan, and the termination of the present administrative regime in the Sudan. The Security Council, however, failed to make any recommendation. On 15 Oct., 1951, the Egyptian Senate and Chamber enacted laws pur• porting to abrogate the treaty of 1936. On the same day, the Egyptian Government rejected the proposals, submitted on the 13th by Great Britain, the United States, France and Turkey, for the establishment of an Allied Middle East Command in which Egypt was invited to take part on a basis of equality and partnership with the four sponsors and other founder members, namely, Australia, New Zealand and the Union of South Africa. In the event of Egypt's acceptance the British Government had expreBSed its willingneBB to agree to the supersession of the 1936 treaty and to with• draw such British forces as would not be included in the Allied Middle East Command. Negotiations for the revision of the 1936 treaty between the British Government and the new Egyptian Government were re-opened in April, 1953, but no agreement was reached. Subsequent informal discussions were suspended in Dec., 1953. National flag : green, with a white crescent and 3 white stars. Constitution and Government. On 13 June, 1953, General Mohammed Neguib proclaimed Egypt as a republic, with himself as President and Prime Minister. For the coup d'etat of 23 July, 1952, which led to the abdication of King Farouk and the brief reign of his infant son, Ahmed Foiiad II, see THE STATESMEN's YEAR• BooK, 1953, p. 925 f. A provisional constitution was enacted on 10 Feb., 1953. On 18 April, 1954, the Revolutionary Council forced President Neguib to abandon the offices of Premier and Military Governor and to dismiss the 6 civilian ministers who favoured the resumption of parliamentary government. The following Cabinet was formed :- Prime Minister and Military Govemor.-Lieut.-Col. Gamal Abd el Nasser Heissin. Commander-in-Chief, Armed Forces.-Major . Min• ister of the Interior.-Lieut.-Col. Zakarya Mohy ed Din. Minister of Finance and Economy.-Abdul Hamid el-Sherif. Minister of Agriculture.-Abdel Razzaq Sidqi. Minister of Ptiblie Works.-Ahmed Abdoh el Shorbasy. Minister of Ptiblic Healtk.-Noureddine Tarraf. Minister of Juatice, Minis• ter of Palace.-Ahmed Hussny. Minister of Education.-Moha.med Awad Mohamed. Minister of Communications.-Wing-Cdr. Gamal Salem. Minis• ter of Foreign Affairs.-Mahmoud Fawzi. M iniseer of Municipal and Rura Affairs.-Wing-Cdr. Abd el Latif Boghdadi. Minister of Wakfs.--Sheikh Ahmed Hassan el Bakoury. Miniseer of Social Affairs.-Major Kamal El 936 EGYPT

Din Hussein. MinisterofGommerceandlndustry.-Hassan Marei. Mini&• ter of Supply.-Guindy Abdel Malek. Minister of War and Marine.• Lieut.-Col. Hussein Shafei. Mini&ter of National Guidance and Minister for Sudan Affairs.-Major . Mini&ters of State.-Fathy Radwan; Wing-Cdr. . LocAL GoVBBNMENT. Except , which has had a municipal council since 1890, the provincial councils were endowed in 1909 with the powers of apply• ing bye-laws, authorizing public markets, fixing the number and pay of ghafirtJ (village watchmen), and authorizing the creation of ~zbtu (hamlets). They are the local authorities in connexion with elementary vernacular education and trade schools. They consist of 2 elected representativee from each markaz. The Mudtr is the ez officio president of the council. In 1934 a law extended the powers of the provincial councils, in particular with reference to educational, public health and agricultural matters. Elementary education, through all the villages and towns of the provinces. was made a duty exclusively of the councils. By Law No. 145, 1944, local councils were divided into municipal and rural. The number of members varies between 10 and 18 in municipal councils; in rural councils it varies between 6 and 9 according to area and population. Membership is restricted to Egyptians. Part of the members are elected, others are nominated ez officio. There are now 81 municipal councils and 128 rural councils. These local bodies have the right to impose local rates on all residents. The municipalities of Alexandria and, since 1949, are managed by municipal councils of partly elected and partly nominated members. Area and Population. The total area of Egypt proper, including the Libyan Desert, the region between the and the Red Sea and the Sinai Peninsular is about 386,198 11quare miles, but the cultivated and settled area, that is, the Nile valley, delta and oases, covers only about 13,500 square miles. Canals, roads, date plantations, etc., cover 1,900 square miles; 2,850 square miles are comprised in the surface of the Nile, marshes and lakes. Egypt is divided into two districts-' Wagh-el-Bahri,' or , and 'El-Said,' or . The following table gives the area of the settled land surface, and the reaults of the census taken in 1937 and on 26-27 March, 1947:-

1937 Popola Admlnlstrathe Area In census 1947 census tion per divillf.ons sq.km. sq.km. Total Males Females Total (1947) Cairo 178·6 1,312,096 1,063,353 1,027,301 2,090,654 11,704 Alexandria 71·3 685,736 464,643 454,381 919,024 12,910 Oano.l 347·8 161,146 128,835 117,097 245,932 707 Suez 307·0 49,686 66,791 50,453 107,244 349 2·2 40,S32 27,069 26,562 63,631 24,829 Total for Governorates 906•9 2,248,996 1,740,691 1,676,794 3,416,485 3,767 Behera 4,624·0 1,061,596 698,664 645,831 1,244,495 269 Gho.rblya 7,023·7 1,967,894 1,130,624 1,196,407 2,327,031 331 Daqahllya 2,628·3 1,218,502 693,478 720,427 1,413,905 638 Bh&rqlya • 4,943·2 1,120,826 666,466 679,364 1,345,829 272 Kenfiflya • 1,688·1 1,169,701 669,037 696,978 1,166,015 734 Qaly6blya 944•2 610,1117 345,495 348,413 693,908 735 Total for Lower Bgypt 21,751·5 7,138,676 4,003,763 4,186,420 8,190,183 377 EGYPT 937

1937 Popula- Administrative Area in I census 1947 census tion per divisions sq.km. sq. km. Total Males Females Tots! (1947) 1,027·7 686,331 407,693 410,475 818,168 796 Beni Suet: 1,069·8 661,312 297,190 314,837 612,027 572 Falyftm 1,778·3 602,122 326,631 343,065 669,696 377 2,007·5 928,sli9 515,163 529,038 1,044,201 520 MlnJaAll t 2,037·8 1,206,321 686,597 687,857 1.374,454 674 Glrga 1,540·4 1,118,40ll 640,181 643,287 1,283,468 833 1,822·2 1,017,669 553,174 553,128 1,106,302 607 A.nrAn 873·3 3011,096 13f,528 155,314 290,842 331

Tots! for Upper Bgypt 12,157·0 6,4:1S,~ll 3,562,157 3,637,001 7,199,158 691 Red Sea - 9,914 10,640 6,389 15,929 - Sina. - 18,0ll 20,457 17,213 37,670 - S. Desert. - 29,109 15,671 16,832 32,603 - 34,934 33,227 W. Desert. - 52,676 68,161 - Babaria Oases - } 3,515 3,163 6,678 - ---- Total for Frontier Dis· ---- tricta - 109,610 85,117 75,824 160,941 - Total of Nomads - 12,000 27,270 27,803 55,073 - Grand total 34,815•4 15,932,694 9,418,998 9,602,842 19,021,840 540

In 1925, Egypt ceded to Cyrenaica the oasis of Gaghbub. (For the frontier between Egypt and Libya, aee map in THE STATESMAN's YEAR• BooK, 1952.) In accordance with the armistice concluded with Israel on 24 Feb., 1949, the Egyptian forces hold a coastal strip in southwest Palestine, covering an area. of 258 square km. and including the town of Gaza and the railway junction of Rafah. The principal towns, with their populations, according to the census of 1947, are :-Cairo, 2,090,654; Alexandria, 919,024; , 177,703; , 139,926; Ma.ha.lla. el Kubra., ll5,758; Suez, 107,244; MansUra., 101,965; , 90,103; , 84,352; Za.gazig, 81,813; Faiyl1m, 73,642; Minya., 70,298; Giza, 66,156; , 57,106; Damietta, 53,631; , 43,168; Qena, 42,929; Shibin el-Kom, 41,636; , 35,880; , 23,996; Aswii.n, 26,343.

VITAL STA TIS'flCS Births Marrl- Dlvorees Deaths 1948 832,728 272,128 76,164 397,976 1949 836,516 280,463 73,827 410,524 1950 904,941 272,794 74,881 388,94!

Religion. In 1947, the population (excluding Nomads) consisted of 17,397,946 Moslems; 1,186,353 Orthodox Copts; 86,918 Protestant Copts; 72,764 Roman Catholic Copts; 89,062 other Orthodox; 50,200 other Roman Catholics; 16,338 other Protestants; 65,639 Jews; 1,54 7 others and un• known. Thus Moslems formed 91·46% of the population; Christians, 7·89%; Jews, 0·34%. The principal seat of Koranic learning is the Mosque and University of El-Azha.r at Cairo, founded in the year 361 of the 938 .EGYPT

Hegira, being 972 of the Christian era. The main centres of Higher Islamic learning under the supervision of the Council and the University of El• Azhar are the Faculty of Theology, the Faculty of Islamic Law (1,791 atudents in 1951-52), the Faculty of Arabic Language (1,633 students in 1952-53), the Faculty of Sources of Law (966 students in 1952-'-53), together with the following institutions ofEl-Azhar (with 18,857 students in 1951-52), at Cairo, at Alexandria, at Tanta, at Asyiit, at Disiik, at Dii.mietta, at , at Shibin el-Ki>m and at Kena. There are in Egypt large numbers of native Christians connected with the various Oriental Churches; of these, the largest and most influential are the Copts, the descendants of those ancient Egyptians who adopted Christianity in the 4th century of the Christian era. Their head is the Coptic Patriarch. There are 17 metropolitans and 6 bishops in Egypt, and 3 metropolitans for Jerusalem, Khartoum and Omdurman. Priests must be married before ordination, but celibacy is imposed on monks and high dignitaries. The Copts use the Diocletian (or Martyrs') calendar, which differs by 284 years from the Gregorian calendar. Education. Education was made compulsory for all children between the age• of 6 and 12 in 1933; primary education was made free in 1944, secondary and technical education in 1950. Compulsory education is provided in primary schools (6 years). The 'preparatory stage' of secondary education (4 years) leads up to a public examination, nrst held in 1953. Statistics for the school year 1952-53 :-Kindergarten schools, 403 with 111,451 children, including 37,150 girls; primary schools (state and private), 7,369 with 1,464,446 pupils, including 524,997 ~Is; secondary schools (state and private), 412 with 180,759 pupils, including 26,725 girls. Technical primary education (commercial, agricultural, industrial) was given in 47 schools with 2,843 pupils, including 74 girls. Technical secondary education (commercial, agricultural, industrial, domestic) was given in 87 state schools with 32,736 students, including 8,987 girls; and 10 private schools with 2,018 students, including 42 girls. Teachers' training colleges numbered 114 with 23,968 students, including 11,344 women. There are 3 universities in Egypt. Cairo University, founded in 1908 as a private institution and taken over by the Government in 1925, had, in 1952-53, 21,669 students (1, 758 women); Alexandria University, founded by the Government in 1943, had 8,655 students (594 women); the Ibrahim University, founded by the Government in Cairo in 1950, had 14,903 students (1,356 women). A fourth University will be opened at Asyiit, Upper Egypt. The Azhar University, the seat of Islamic teaching, had together with its associated colleges, in 1952-53, 29,074 students, all men. There were, in 1951, 260 cinemas with a seating capacity of 255,000.

Justice. Before 1883 the only national tribunals in the country were theMehkema8, presided over by the Qddi8. At the present time, they retain jurisdiction only in matters of personal law (marriage, succession, etc.) and charitable wakfa and also in certain non-religious cases (e.g. succession) between non. Moslem nationals. In matters of personal law other than inteatate suece~~sion, non-Moslems are, however, in general subject to their own Magalia Melliah, or any other recognized religious authority. In other EG:n"f 939 matters, nationals are justiciable before the 80-called national conrts established in 1883. These now oo1111ist of 149 aummary tribunals and of 13 judicial delegations, each presided over by a single judge, with civil jurisdiction in matters np to £E250 in value, and criminal jurisdiction in offences punishable by fine or by imprisonment up to 3 years (i.e., police offences and misdemeanours), except in cases relating to the trafficking in narcotics, where the period rises np to perpetual hard labour and a fine not exceeding £E10,000. There are also 18 central tribunals, each of the chambers of which consists of 3 judges, and 5 courts of appeal, at Cairo, Asyilt, Alexandria, Mansura. and Tanta. The Markaz Tribunals for the disposal of petty offences have been abolished. Civil cases not within the competence of the summary tribunals are heard in first instance by the central tribunals, with an appeal to one of the courts of appeal. The central tribunals also hear civil and criminal appeals from the summary tribunals. Serious crimes, trafficking in narcotics and Press offences are tried at the central tribunals by 3 judges of the court of appeal sitting as an assize court, assizes being held monthly. In 1931 a court of cassation above the courts of appeal was set up. It is composed of a president, 2 deputy presidents and 14 judges and divided into 3 chambers of 5 judges each, one for criminal and the others for civil, com• mercial and personal law. The prosecution before summary tribunals and assize conrts is entrusted to the Pari]1Ld, which is directed by a OM.f de Parquet, having under him a substitut or B'Ubatitut-adjoint at each summary tribunal of the circumspection; the investigation of crime is ordinarily conducted by the Parquet, or by the police under the direction of the Parquet; cases going before an assize court are further submitted to a • chamber of accusation.' There is also an administrative court, composed of 3 judges, or of 5 in cases when the validity of administrative regulations is contested. The so-called' cantonal' courts (numbering approximately 240) composed of village notables, created in 1912, with a general civil jurisdiction in suits up to £E5 in value and a petty criminal jurisdiction were suppressed by Law No. 34 of 1930, their jurisdiction being transferred to the summary tribunals. The capitulations were abolished by the Convention of Montrenx of 8 May, 1937. The mixed courts· were abolished on 14 Oct., 1949. Law No. 188, of 1952, guarantees the complete independence of the Egyptian judicature by removing from the Minister of Justice the pre• rogatives of appointments, promotions and transfers of judges and handing over these powers to a professional judicial council.

Finance. Revenue and expenditure in £E, for fiscal years ending 28 or 29 Feb.:-

Year Revenue I Expenditure I Year Revenue Expenditure 1949-60 1 173,692,682 163,806,615 1952-63 1 206,000,000 206,000,000 1960-li1 191,806,055 190,183,808 1953-M 1 197,5CO,OOO 197,500,000 1961-52 1 215,204,300 I 231,447.300 I 1953-54. - 35,500,1JOO 1 Estimatesa 1 Ordinary ; estimates.• a Development; estimates. The final accounts for the year 1951-52 (receipts), and the budget estimates for the year 1952-53, are as follows (in £E):- 940 EGYPT

___R_ece_ip._t_s ____ 1_95_1_-_5_2_ 1__ 1._9_5._2_-5_3_11 Expenditure _ -1~1-52_ 1952-53_ Direct taxes : Civil list 1,014,623 521,000 Land tax, etc. 37,320,004 38,500,00() Parliament . 495,676 486,900 Indirect taxes : Expenoea of ad- Custolll8 44,316,585 41,437,000 ministration . 86,904,965 108,~66,630 Tobacco 32,638,248 37,459,000 Post office . 1,357,323 1,414,920 Excise . . 14,736,590 12,739,000 Egyptian army • 23,330,921 38,605,400 Surtax on luxnriea 1,615,598 3,215,000 Perutions • • 4,679,218 ,,935,150 Miscellaneous • 10,259,655 16,348,000 Expenoes of even- Railway receipt& . 14,446,869 15,100,000 tuality • • 5,133,281' 232,300 Telegraphs and Bonus for high telephones 3,969,363 4,400,000 coot of living . 32,741,569 29,000,000 Post office • 1,686,273 1,650,000 Pnblic debt • 6,195,571 6,520,000 Administrative ser• Settlement of loBB vices: on supplies 18,306,784 15,500,000 State domains • 2,124,165 2,228,000 Ports and light- houses . . 628,454 562,000 Judicial and regis- tration fees 2,773,083 2, 752,000 Interest on funds 1,327,R29 1,513,000 Miscellaneous • 18,064,208 19,965,000 Special revenue to coTer loss on sup- plies . • 6,163.576 7,068,000 Extraordinary. 12,005,742 2,087,000 Total of receipts . 204,076.242 207,023,000 Total ordinary Draft on the reserve 28,77 4,289 - expenditure 180,169,931 206,000,000 Less balance of land Expenditure for sales . 1,023,000 new works 52,690,600 Total 232,850,531 206,000,000 Total 232,850,531 206,000,000

The various debts were converted into a national loan on 7 Sept., 1943, which amounted to £E78,001,850 on 28 Feb., 1951, and the credits ear• marked in 1951-52 budget for the payment of interest and redemption amounted to £E4,420,114. At the end of Feb., 1953, the public debt amounted to £E208 m., includ• ing, in addition to the 1943 loan, two Palestinian loans of £E30 m. and a cotton loan of £El5 m. The General Reserve Fund amounted to £E75,372,021 on 28 Feb., 1951.

Defence. Expenditure on defence, 1952-53 is estimated at £E38,655,400, exclu• sive of operation costs in Palestine. ARMY.-According to Article 8 of the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of Alliance, 1936, Egypt authorized, without prejudice to her sovereign rights, Great Britain to station 10,000 troops and 400 airmen with the necessary staff in the vicinity of the canal, to ensure, temporarily in co-operation with the Egyptian forces, the defence of the canal, until the Egyptian Army is in a position to ensure such defence by its own resources. On 7 May, 1946, the British Government announced its proposal to withdraw all British land, aea and air forces from Egypt. ~lexandria was evacuated on 14 February, 1947, and Cairo on 31 March, 1947. Service in the Army is compulsory and, owing to the proposed expansion of the Army, all men fit for service are enlisted on a large scale. EGYPT 941

The Army has been expanded, reorganized and re-equipped with the most up-to-date weapons. Am FoRCE.-Egypt possesses a mixed Air Force, consisting of bombers, fighters and transport airplanes. In 1950 these were reinforced by jet• propelled aircraft. NAVY.-Egypt possesses 9 frigates (all ex-British), 2 fleet minesweepers, 9 motor minesweepers, 6 motor torpedo boats, 6 motor launches, a landing ship and 20 landing craft. Naval personnel total over 2,000 officers and men. MILITARY FAcTORIES.-A number of military and aircraft factories have been created to supply the Armed Forces.

Production and Industry. A 'permanent council of national production' was established in 1952. Rain seldom falls in Upper Egypt and only at irregular intervals in Cairo where the average for the year is no more than 1·2 in. At Alexandria the average is 8 in. The cultivable area of Egypt proper was reckoned in 1946-47 at 8,142,461 feddii.ns (1 feddan = 1·038 acres), and of this 644,780 were taken up for public utility purposes and 2,381,072 were uncultivated for want of reclamation. The agricultural population (Fellahin) forms about 62% of the whole. A large proportion of them are small landholders with under 5 feddii.ns, while others, almost or altogether landless, are labourers, the relation between the employers and the employed being mostly hereditary. The following table shows the number of landholders and the distribution of the land at the end of 1950 :-

Extent Foreigners Egyptians Total of area Total of of landownem holdings - In Area in Land- Area In Land- Per- Land- Per- feddlns feddlns owners feddA.ns owners FeddA.ns centage owners centage ------Up to 1 446 1,206 779,600 1,980,140 780,046 13·1 1,981,346 71·7 From 1-6 1,714 672 1,322,316 618,188 1,324,030 22·2 618,860 22·4 6-10 1,667 240 529,357 79,779 631,024 9·0 80,019 2·8 :: 10-20 3,983 284 622,717 45,839 626,700 10·5 46,123 1·7 .. 20-30 4,632 198 308,446 12,875 313,078 5·3 13,073 0·7 .. 30-60 7,250 185 344,327 9,171 351,577 5•8 9,356 0·3 Over 60 196,091 544 1,841!,116 11,340 2,036,207 34·1 11,884 0·4 ------Total 215.783 3.32U 5. 746.879 2,757,332 5.962,662 100·0 2, 760.661 100·0

The Agricultural Reform Decree of Sept., 1952, limits agricultural ownership to 200 feddans. Holdings in excess of this limit will be redis• tributed by the government within 5 years; compensation, equivalent to ten times the rental value of the land, will take the form of 3% bonds redeemable within 30 years. All national waqfs are to be dissolved. Irrigation occupies a predominant place in the economic development of the country. The reservoir can now hold up to 5,500 million cubic metres of water, and the Gebel Aulia reservoir, completed in 1937, holds 2,000 million cubic metres. Barrages have been erected at Esna, Nag' Hammadi, Assiut and Zifta, and at the bifurcation of the Nile below Cairo. Nag' Hammii.di barrage, completed in 1930, ensures full basin supplies even 942 EGYPT in low flood to province, and will facilitate perennial irrigation when basin lands are converted. Assiut barrage having been remodelled will meet the greater demands of the area it now commands. The Esna barrage now secures basin irrigation to lands in Qena province. New barrages (Mohamed Ali barrages) have been completed at the bifurcation of the Nile below Cairo to replace the existing structures which, built in 1861, are now unable to meet the conditions following the increase in summer supplies, the reclamation of large areas of waste lands and the earlier watering of food crops. Expenditure on irrigation amounted to £E6,175,053 in 1948. The area and production of cotton for 6 years were :-

in Area Crop in Year Area in Crop in Year feddil.ns II feddil.ns qantArs --- qant&rs 1948 1,441,455 8,898,732 1951 1,979,453 7,454,000 1949 1,692,004 8704,430 1962 1,966,955 9,713,691 1950 1,974,559 8,500,029 II 1953 1,324,304 9,971,000

In 1951-52, the area and yield of wheat were 1,402,005 feddans and 7,260,000 ardebs; barley, 136,578 feddans and 981,000 ardebs; beans. 355,448 feddans and 1,610,000 ardebs; lentils, 57,635 feddans and 199,000 ardebs; onions (195~51), 31,722 feddans and 4,802,000 qantars. In the year 1951-52 the area and the yield of maize were 1,703,828 feddans and 10,757,000 ardebs; millet, 432,870 feddans and 3, 732,000 ardebs; rice, unde• corticated, 373,609 feddans and 547,000 daribas (1 dariba = 945 kilos). Production of sugar cane, in 1949-50, was 2,163,360 metric tons (230,876 tons refined sugar); 1950-51, 2,809,612 metric tons (218,085 tons of refined sugar). In March, 1952, there were in Egypt 38,946 horses, 815,655 donkeys, 9, 701 mules, 1,355,805 cows, 1,211,822 buffaloes, 1,253,534 sheep, 703,317 goats, 164,908 camels and 26,618 pigs. The principal mineral products in 1952 were (in metric tons):• Phosphate rock, 527,204; petroleum, 2,352,372; asbestos, 60. Other products are :-Ochres, sulphate of magnesia, talc, building stones, clay, cement, gypsum, natron, carbonate and sulphate of sodium, nitrate of soda and salt. Salt exports in 1950 amounted to 204,268 metric tons. A small steel plant was set up in 1949; output 1951 and 1952, 20,000 tons each; estimated output, 1953, 60,000 tons. Petroleum in commercial quantities was first discovered at Gemsah in 1908. Production is now obtained from four fields at Ras Gharib, As!, Sudr and . Operations are carried on by Anglo-Egyptian Oil• fields-largely owned by British and Dutch interests. A U.S. company is jointly concerned in production in the As! and Sudr fields. Anglo-Egyptian Oilfields also operate a large refinery at Suez : a smaller plant in Suez is owned by the Egyptian Government. The fishing industry is of some importance. The catch of the Egyptian seas and lakes fisheries in 1952 amounted to 34,569 metric tons, valued at £E5 m. There were 48,947 men and 16,347 boys engaged in fishing and ll, 739 boats used for fishing. LABOUR.-Labour legislation began in 1909 with the prohibition of the employment of children under 9 years. In 1930 a Labour Office was set up. In 1933 the minimum working age was raised to 12, except in agricul· ture and the textile industry, and the maximum working hours were de• creased to seven for the 9-12 age group, and to nine for the 12-15 age group. EGYPT 943

Hours were fixed at nine in dangerous industries (1935), compensation for labour accidents was stipulated (1936 and 1942) and a law on employment of hired labour was passed ( 1944 ). Statistics on trade unions :-

Year Trade unions Members Trade unions Members Year I 1947 441 91,604 1950 481 149,424 1948 478 124.094 1951 483 145,108 1949 465 123,005 1952 1 568 159,608

Commerce. Imports and exports for 6 years (in £E) :- Year I Imports i Exports 1 Year Imports Exports 1 1948 172,877,416 140,740,700 1951 279,694.279 200,640,426 1949 178,229,700 1 135,874,849 1952 218,770,979 142,851,388 1950 212,685,307 172,959,011 1953 174,696,638 135,863,122 1 Exports of products and manufactures of Egypt. Exports of cotton during the marketing year 1950-51 (ended 31 Aug.) totalled 6,426,106 qantars. Principal export markets in 1950--51 :-United Kingdom, 1,853,953 qantars; India, 996,775; Italy, 716,113; France, 500,659; United States, 317,588; Spain, 231,186; Switzerland, 167,988; Belgium and Luxemburg, 51,201. Commerce by principal countries (in £E) :-

Imports from Exports to Countries of origin or 1------,-'------,----1----.-'------;----- destination 1950 1951 1952 1950 1951 j 1952 ------1---1---1------A.den - 398,054 338,061 - 225,614 398,054 A.ustralia . 12,914,967 18,741,519 1,544,416 748,601 1,982,930 593,234 l'l•l

1938 1950 1951 1952 1953 Imports to U.K. 11,612,568 40,072,002 47,495,769 12,901,403 15,284,988 Exports from U.K. 8,689,015 42,442,154 40,586,453 32,540,704 20,949,615 Re-exports from U.K. 179,213 496,242 608,186 432,639 423,644 944 EGYPT Shipping and Navigation. Egyptian shipping owned by Egyptians in I948 : 68 steamers of 67,062 tons. In I948, excluding warships and vessels requisitioned by the military authorities, 20,265 steamers of a net registered tonnage of 89,892,391 entered at, and 20,328 steamers of a net registered tonnage of 89,936,349 departed from, all the Egyptian ports (Alexandria, Port Said, Suez, Tor, El Qoseir, , Hurghada, Ras Gharib, Abu Zenima, , Marsa Matrith and Sollum). Suez Canal. The Suez Canal is 101 miles1ong (excluding 7 miles of approach channels to the harbours), connecting the Mediterranean with the Red Sea. Its minimum width is 197 ft. at a depth of 33 ft., and its depth permits the passage of vessels up to 34 ft. draught. It was opened for navigation on I7 Nov., 1869. The concession to the Suez Canal Company expires on 17 Nov., 1968. By the convention of Constantinople of29 Oct., I888, the canal is open to vessels of all nations and is free from blockade. The canal is owned by an Egyptian joint-stock company, in which the British Govern• ment holds 353,504 shares out of a total of 800,000. The canal is governed by a board of 32 directors, of whom 16 are French, 9 British (3 representing the British Government), 5 Egyptian, I American and I Dutch. According to the agreement between the Egyptian Government and the Suez Canal Company of 7 March, 1949, the number of Egyptian representatives will be increased to 7 by filling the next French and British vacancies. Repre~~entative~~ of the British Government.-E. W. Meiklereid, C.M.G.; Sir Francis Wylie, G.C.I.E., K.C.S.I.; Sir Alexander G. M. Cadogan, O.M., G.C.M.G., K.C.B. The same agreement provides for an improvement programme, esti• mated at £E5 million, which will take 5 years to complete. A bypass 7! miles long from El Ballah to El Ferdan and of the same dimensions as the main Canal was opened to traffic in 1951 and the whole of the Canal is being deepened by another 20 in. to permit the passage of ships of 36 ft. draught. The concession provides that the Canal reverts to the Egyptian Govern• ment at the end of the 99-year concession in 1968. Meanwhile Egypt takes annually 7% of the gross profits of each preceding year, with a minimum of £E350,000 provided the gross profits do not fall below this amount. Another provision that mainly benefits Egypt, although it is applicable to all countries, is that ships under 300 tons burthen may use the Canal free of transit dues. The following table shows the number and net tonnage of vessels of the principal nationalities that passed through the canal in I953 :-

Nationality No. of Suez Canal I Nationality No. of Suez Canal transits net tonnage transits net tonnage British. 4,446 31,262,257 Netherlands 614 4,230,149 Norwegian 1,720 13,926,2R5 Liberian 429 5,016,656 American 537 4,123,498 Danish . 345 2,410,860 French 1,101 8,425,534 Swedish. 441 3,169,113 Panamanian . 924 7,943,845 Greek 194 1,079,606 Italian . 880 4,991,152 Honduran 102 1,345,297 I EGYPT 945

The number and net tonnage of vessels that have paSIIOO through the Suez Canal (including warships), and the transit receipts of the company (in £E), have been as follows :-

Suez net Year No. of Receipts No. of Suez net Receipts -- tmnaits tollJUI88 / Year transits tonnage 1948 8,186 lili,081,01i6 18,382,900 11,694 80,356,338 26,160,000 1949 10,420 68,861,548 22,869,700 119511952 lll,168 86,137,037 26,730,000 1950 11,761 81,795,523 26,700,500 1953 12,731 92,905,439 28,901,200

The number of p&BBengers (civil and military) who went through the canal was, in 1949, 610,951; 1950, 664,284: 1951, 588,947; 1952, 571,416; 1953, 554,737. Communications. In 1948--49 there were 4,188 miles of rails belonging to and worked by the state, including 2,919 miles of main line, 192 miles of branch line and 1,077 miles of sidings. There were also 862 miles of agricultural light railways owned by private companies. The state railways have a gauge of 4 ft. 8! in. inside rails (the line, 124 miles in length, from to Assuan being opened on wide gauge in Dec., 1926), except that to the Western Oases, which is 2 ft. 5! in. To~ receipts of Egyptian State Railways in 1950-51 were £E13,261,821; total expenditures, £Ell,040,455. The British Army built a track from Haifa to Tripoli (Syria), 175 miles In length, provid• Ing for the llrsf; time a contlnuooa liue linking the Tur.lrleh rail system with Egypt and the Southern Mediterranean coaat. It has put a modem steel swing bridge &erOilll the Suez O&nal and extended the Egyptian coutal railway into Cyrenaica, so thst It Is pOI!IIible to take train from Istanbul right through to the Libyan port of Tobruk. At the same time, a motpr highway suitable for dally ,_ by heavy transport has been built from Haifa across the Syrian desert through Northern lrsq to Baghdad. Egypt had 2,728 km. of macadamized surface roads in 1950; non• macadamized surface roads totalled 10,983 km. Motor vehicles as at 31 Dec., 1952 :--56,448 private cars, 11,451 taxis, 14,839 trucks, 4,705 buses. The telephone service was taken over by the Egyptian Government in April, 1918. In 1950-51, the state telegraphs had a length of 19,433 km. of wire, and telephones, 673,649 km. There were in 1950, 6,432 post offices and stations. Number of telephones in 1951, 121,546. The internal telecommunications system is owned and operated by the Egyptian State Telegraphs and Telephones. Government landlines connect with those of Palestine, Syria, Lebanon and the Sudan. Egypt is con• nected by cable with Malta and thence with Great Britain and all parts of the world; with the Sudan, thence via Aden to India and the East; and with Greece and Cyprus, thence with Palestine. The cable circuits are operated by the Marconi Radio Telegraph Company of Egypt, S.A., by arrangement with Cable and WireleSB, Ltd. Before the Second World War, the Misr Airways S.A.E. was the National Air Transport Co. in Egypt. A modem airport was inaugurated at Luxor in Feb., 1954. Banks and Credit. The National Bank founded in 1898 has the privilege of bank-notes iSBue. The position of the bank on 31 Dec., 1952, was (in £E1,000) :-Issue Depart- 946 EGYPT

ment, gold, 60,553 ; British treasury bills and British war loan, 72,440; Egyptian Government securities, 87,768; notes issued, 220,761. Banking department, assets, investments, 187,280; advances and bills, 23,297; cash, 8,690; sundry accounts, 4 75 ; liabilities, capital and reserve, 6,000; deposits, 63,379; bankers' accounts, 38,158; other liabilities, 118,388. On 27 June, 1939, the shareholders of the bank agreed to the conversion of the bank into a central bank, and the Government approved this trans. formation on 8 Feb., 1950. The law was passed on 12 March, 1951. The Agricultural Bank of Egypt was founded in Nov., 1930, with a ca.pital of £E1,000,000 (half subscribed by the Government). In 1901, a post office savings bank was opened; on 31 Dec., 1951, the depositors numbered 797,976, and their balances (including interest) amounted to £E28,446,24 7. The balance (including interest) of deposits in the savings department£ of the banks in Egypt at the end of 1951 amounted to £E8,626,942 and the number of depositors to 49,471. Money, Weights and Measures. MONEY. By decree of 18 Oct., 1916 (20 Zi-1-Higga 1334), the monetary unit of Egypt is the gold Egyptian pound of 100 piastres. It weighs 8·5 grammee 0·87!l fine, and therefore contains 7·4375 grammes of fine gold. Its value in sterling is £1 Os. 6id. A new coinage was introduced at the same time. Twenty piastres= 1 Tallari; or £E1 ::0: 5 Tallaris. The 10-piastre silver piece weighs 14 grammes 0·833! fine, and therefore containsll·67 grammes of fine silver. The piastre is worth 2·46d. in English money. It is subdivided into tenths (ushr el girsh or milliemes). Coins in circulation are the Egyptian pound (IOO piastres) and half pound in gold; 20, 10, 5 and 2 piastre pieces in silver; 1, !, t. t. ,:\ piastre pieces in nickel and n,, ..Jo pieces in bronze. Silver coin is legal tender only up to £E2, and nickel or bronze coins up to 10 piastres. :For some years gold coins have not been issued, and the gold circnlating in Egypt and the Sudan is almost exclusively British sovereigns, which are legal tender at the rate of 117! piastres. The gold pieces of the former Monetary Union equivalent to the French 20-franc piece are permitted to circulate at a uniform rate of £E0·77l5. Bank-notes are issued by the National Bank in various denominations: P.T. (=piastre tariffe, or legal piastre) 25 and 50, £E1, 5, 10, 50, 100. They are in principle not legal tender, and the bank was compelled to keep a 50% gold cover for the issue. Soon after the outbreak of the Great War of 1914 the notes were made legal tender, and in Oct., 1916, a further step was taken authorizing the bank to deposit British treasury bills and treasury bonds in lieu of gold for any extension of the then existing issue. The amount of notes issued on 31 Dec., 1952, was £E220,760,712. Gold cover was £60,552,607; Egyptian Government securities, £87,768,043; British treasury bills, £23,068,500; war loan £6,045,000. Notes in circulation, 31 Dec., 1952, £E200,516,953.

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. C.UACITY.-Kadah = 1/96th ardeb = 3·63 pints. Rob= 4 kadahs = 1·815 gallons. Keila = 8 kadahs = 3·63 gallons. Ardeb = 96 kadahs = ~3-555 gallons, or 5·44439 bushels. WEIGHTs.-Rotl = 144 dirhems = 0·9905 lb. @ke = 400 dirhems = 2·75137 lb. Heml = 200 okes = 55€)·274 lb. Qantar or 100 rotls or 36 EGYl'T 947 okes = 99·0493 lb. I .Qantdr of unginned cotton= 3I5 lb. I Qantdr of ginned cotton= 100 Rotl8= 99·05 lb. The approximate weight of the ardeb is as follows:-Wheat, 150 kg.; beans, 155 kg.; barley, I20 kg.; maize, I40 kg.; cotton seed, I21 kg. LENGTH.-Diraa Baladi (for textiles)= 22·8347 in. Diraa Mimdri (for building, etc.) = 29·5276 in. Qasaba (for agricultural land) = 3·8823 yards = 139·7639 in. SURFACE.-Fedddn, the unit of measure for land= 4,200% square metres= 7,468·148 square pies= I·03805 acres. I square pic= 6·0547 square ft. = 0·5625 square metre. In March, 1939, a law was passed establishing the metre, the kilogramme and the litre as the weights and measures legal in Egypt. LawNo. I06, 1951, officially introduced the metric systems with the exception of measures of area (i.e., the feddan and its subdivisions).

Diplomatic Representatives. 1. OF EGYPT IN GREAT BRITAIN (75 South Audley Street, W.I). Ambassador.-Abdul Rahman Hakki (accredited 18 March, 1953). Counsellor.-Abdel Hamid Seoud (Minister). Air Attachi.-Group Capt. Ali Attia. Military Attaches.-Col. Mohamed Hamdy el Maghraby ; Col. Hassan Mohammed Sobeih. Commercial Counsellor.-Ahmed Fuad. Commercial Attachis.-Mahmoud Abdel-Hamid Shalaby; Hani Abou Rida. Agricultural Counsellor.-Gamil Ali Abul Fetouh. Cultural Attache-Dr. AbdelAziz Ateek. Labour Attachi.-Abdallah I. Darwish. There are consular representatives at Liverpool and London. Egypt also maintains embassies in Argentina, Brazil, France, India, Pakistan, Persia, Spain, Syria, Turkey, U.S.A.; legations in Afghanistan, Austria, Belgium (also for Luxemburg), China, Czechoslovakia, Denmark, Ethiopia, Finland, Greece, Hungary, Iraq, Italy, Jordan, Lebanon, Nether• lands, Poland, Portugal, Rumania, Saudi Arabia, Sweden (also for Norway), Switzerland, Union of South Africa, U.S.S.R., Vatican, Yugoslavia. 2. OF GREAT BRITAIN IN EGYPT. Ambassador.-Sir Ralph Skrine Stevenson, G.C.M.G. (accredited 15 June, 1950). Ministers.-A. N. Cumberbatch, C.M.G., C.B.E. (Commercial). Counsellors.-C. B. Duke, C. I.E., O.B.E; T. E. Evans, O.B.E. (Oriental); J. F. R. Vaughan-Russell, C.B.E. (and Consul-General); M. T. Audsley, C.M.G. (Labour); W. M. Graham, C.M.G., C.B.E. (Legal). Naval Attachi.-Capt. H. P. Henderson, D.S.O., R.N. Military Attache.-Brig. G. W. Duke, C.B.E., D.S.O. Air Attachi.-Air Cdre. C. M. Heard, C.B.E. Civil Air Attache.-B. G. Barnard. First Secretaries.-T. F. Brenchley; L. M. Minford and J. B. Flux, M.B.E. (Commercial); M. Henderson; J. Murray and C. N. Jupp (Infor• mation); J. Lamb, M.B.E.; F. Smitherman, M.B.E.; W. B. Emery. There are Consuls-General at Alexa.ndria and Cairo, Consuls at Port Said and Suez, and Consular agents at 9 other places. 948 EL SALVADOR Books of Reference. STATISTICAL INI!'OIUIATJON.-Tbe Statistical Department, attached to the Ministry of Finance and Economy (5, Sharia Mansour, Cairo) was formed in 1905; Diret.:lor-Oerurai.• Mobamed Lotfy el Banoa. Previously, various government departments had their own statist• ical sections. Estimates of population were made in 1800, 1821 and 1846; the fust census took place in 1873. Among the publications of the Statistical Departments are the following :- A.nnna.ire Statistique (Alablc and French). Annual Return of Sbipping (Ambic and English). Monthly Summary, and Annual Statement of Foreign Trade (Arabic and Englfllh). Monthly Bnlletin of Agricultnral and Economic Statistics (Ambic and Englieh).

u CaMl dl! Sua, published every ten days. Paris. Retllrtlll of Shipping and Tonnage. London. Annual. Boundaries. Royaume d'Egypte. Mlnistl!re des Aftalrea Et;rangmea No. 1, 1926. La Frontiilre Occidentale de l'Egypte. Accord Italo-Egyptien du 6 Th!cembre, 1925. Oalro,1926. The Egyptian Almanac. Annual. Les Actes de Montreux. (Abolition des Capitulations en Egypte.) A.nnoUs d'aprilo les ProOO&-Verbaux des Seances et les notes personelles des auteurs. Paris, 193i. Le Mondaln Egyptien (Who's WboJ. Cairo. A.nnoal. Great Britain and Ecypt, 1914-51. R. lll"t. of Int. Affairs, 1952. Ani• (M. A.), The N a tiona! Income, Output and Expenditure of Egypt, 1937-45. Cairo, 1950. Ba.datmi (Z.), Les probllml.es do travail et lea organisations ouTrillres en :9gypte. Alexandria, 1948. Ball (J.), Contributions to the Geography of Egypt. Cairo, 1939. Colombe (M.), L'Evolution de l'Egypte, 1924-50. Paris, 1951. Ortmt:hlq (A. E.), The Economic Development of Modem Egypt. London, 1938. Cumberbatch (A. N.), Economic and Commercial Conditions in Egypt. H.M.S.O., 1952. Dri....U(E.), L'Egypte et !'Europe. 5 vols. Cairo,1935. DrWton (Etienne) and Ytmdier (Jacques), Les peoples de I'Orlent medlterranlen. II: L'Egypte. Paris 1938. Elia• (E. A.), Modern Dictionsry English-Alabic. 5th ed. Cairo, 1946. P~ (B.), The Land of Egypt. London, 1939. Federation 6gyptienne de l'indnstrie : Annua.ire, 1951-52. Cairo, 1952. HWM(W. F.), Geology of Egypt. Calro,1937. Hur11 (H. E.) and PhiUip (P.), The Nile Basin (VoL 5, The Hydrology of the Lake Plateau and Bahr eJ Jebel). Cairo, 1938. l••afDi (C.), Egypt: An Economic and Sooial Analysla. London. 1947. Landau (J. M.), Parliaments and Parties in Egypt. Tel Aviv, 1953. !Aprd.le (F.), Egypte terre du Nil. Paris, 1940. Looad& (J.), Le Delta do Nil: :9tode de geographie humalne. Oalro, 193&.-Bibhc- graphie Geographique de I'Egypte. 2 vols. Cairo, 1928-29. Moljlno (G.), II Oanale dl Sues e llsuo Regime Intemaziouale. Genoa, 1936. Jlurrav (G. W.), Son of Ishmael: A Study of the Egyptian Bedouin. London,1936. Ri/IJIJI (M. A.), The Monetary System of Egypt. London, 1935. Ri/IJIJI Bq (M.), The Awakening of Modem Egypt. London, 1948. Rua••ll PIJ6ha (Sir T.), Egyptian Service, 1902-46. London, 1949. WID'I'in.,. (D.), Land and Poverty in the Middle East. London, 1948. EL SALVADOR. (REPUBLICA DB EL SALVADOR.} Constitution and Government.-In 1839 the Central American Federation, which had comprised the states of Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua and Costa Rica, was dissolved. and EJ Salvador became an independent republic. Plans for a gradual federation with Guatemala were discussed between the presidents of both countries in March, 1945. A new constitution came into force in 1950, superseding the 1886 constitution, with a strong bias towards social welfare. Legislative power is vested in a single chamber, the Legislative Assembly, consisting of deputies, elected for 2 years by universal suffrage, one for each group of 39,000 inhabitants. Large powers are vested in the President, whose term is for 6 years; normally he cannot succeed himself. He has a cabinet of