Business & Social Science Journal (BSSJ)

ASIA CUP: A RESOURCE-BASED VIEW OF FOOTBALL TALENT

ABSTRACT

Author: With the assistance of the resource-based theory (RBT) and the core competency theory (CCT), this study investigated the association Peter Omondi-Ochieng between football talent as a source of competitive advantage and qualifying for the Asia Cup. Using secondary data of Asian national University of Louisiana football teams, the dependent variable was qualifications for the Asia at Lafayette Bourgeois Hall, Cup, and the independent variables were football talent measured by the stock of amateur footballers, professional footballers, and football United States of America officials. The data was then analysed by Kendall Tau, the Mann- Whitney U test, and binary logistic regression. Kendall Tau Corresponding Email: correlations indicated that football talent was positively and [email protected] statistically associated with qualifying for the Asia Cup (officials, amateurs and professionals, respectively. The Mann-Whitney U test indicated that nations that qualified for the Asian Cup possessed a greater stock of football talent relative to non-qualifiers. Binary logistic regression (predictive correctness of 71.7%) indicated that the stock of professional footballers was the best predictor of qualifying for the Asia Cup. The study was unique in two ways. One, it made clear the positive significance of football talent as a source of competitive advantage. Two, it highlighted the distinction between professional and amateur footballers – a factor that is uncommon in similar studies.

Keywords: Asia Cup, football teams, football talent, competitive advantage

51 Author: Peter Omondi-Ochieng BSSJ, Volume 4: Issue 1, 2019 Business & Social Science Journal (BSSJ)

1. INTRODUCTION The Asian Football Confederation (AFC) for the FIFA World Cup and Summer was formed in 1954 and runs the AFC Olympic tournaments. The AFC has Asian Cup (herein Asian Cup) with 46 evolved in six phases, starting with four men’s national football teams. The national teams that grew to sixteen in 2015 tournament is regularly used for qualifying (Table 1).

Table 1: Growth of Asia Cup, 1956-2015

Phases Tournaments Number of Teams

I 1956, 1960,1964 4 II 1968 5 1972,1976 6 III 1980, 1984, 1988 10 1992 8 IV 1996, 2000 12 V 2004, 2007, 2011, 2015 16

The AFC also runs other national football competently, can be a source of competitive tournaments, such as the AFC Women’s advantage in qualifying for the 2015 Asia Cup, Asian Solidarity Cup, AFC Futsal Cup. With the assistance of the resource- Championship, AFC Beach Football based theory (RBT), this article attempts to Championship, AFC Champions League, investigate the association between football AFC Cup, and AFC President’s Cup, talent as a source of competitive advantage amongst others. when it comes to qualifying for the Asia Cup. In this study (and in line with the Regarding national football team RBT), we argue that the stock of football performances at the Asia Cup, Bhutan and talent, along with their related roles, is a the Philippines are yet to qualify for the source of competitive advantage (CA). tournament, while Iran, South Korea and, Understanding CA as the root of superior China have dominated the tournament for performance in organizations is a major some time now (Table 2). With a focus on area of research in strategic management football talent, this study will attempt to (Barney, 1991; Barney, 2003; Barney & answer why some Asian national football Clark, 2007; Peteraf, 1993; Penrose & teams are more capable of qualifying for Penrose, 2009; Newbert, 2007; Barney, the Asia Cup, while others are not. In this Ketchen & Wright, 2011; Nothnagel, study, football talent is defined as the stock 2008). In this study, CA is operationalised of amateur footballers, professional as the stock of football talent in Asian footballers, and football officials (including national football teams to qualify for Asia an aggregate of football administrators, Cup relative to their competitors. Simply coaches, technical staff, medical staff, etc.), stated, CA derived from football staff is the and that may act as a source of competitive collection of competencies that make a advantage when it comes to qualifying for national football team better or more the Asia Cup. successful than its competitors or opponents, especially if it is utilised This article attempts to analyse whether effectively and efficiently. football talent, especially if all are serving

52 Author: Peter Omondi-Ochieng BSSJ, Volume 4: Issue 1, 2019 Business & Social Science Journal (BSSJ)

Table 2: National team qualifications at Asia Cup, 1954-2017

Men’s National Teams Number of Qualifications Afghanistan, Bhutan, Brunei, Guam, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Laos, Macau, Maldives, 0 Mongolia, Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Tajikistan, Timor-Leste Myanmar, Singapore, Vietnam, Cambodia, Lebanon, Turkmenistan, South Yemen, 1 Palestine, Bangladesh Chinese Taipei, Vietnam 2 Australia, Jordan, Oman, India, Malaysia, Hong Kong 3 North Korea, Indonesia 4 Syria, Bahrain 5 Uzbekistan, Thailand 6 Japan, Iraq 8 Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Qatar 9

Kuwait 10 China 11 Iran, South Korea 13

In accordance with the RBT, other sources attaining and sustaining competitive of CA are financial capacity, organisational advantage, especially if they are valuable, capacity, technological capacity, scarce, and hard to imitate (Barney & infrastructural capacity, and marketing Clark, 2007; Coopoo & Fortuin, 2012; capacity, amongst others. When such core Crook et al., 2011). Moreover, football capacities are effectively and efficiently talent can be a source of competitive utilized, they become the foundation and advantage, especially if the footballers are leverage for attaining and gaining competent, skillful, and high achieving competitive advantage and eventually (Omondi-Ochieng, 2015; Omondi- superior performance in commercial firms Ochieng, 2018c; Smart & Wolfe, 2000; (Barney & Clark, 2007; Rouse & Cunningham & Sagas, 2004). Through Daellenbach, 1999; Lubit, 2001; Vorhies & football clubs, teams, and specialized Morgan, 2005; Fahy, 2002; Prahalad & academies, managers can, therefore, strive Hamel, 2003) and sports organisations to nurture and develop large stocks of (Amis, Pant, & Slack, 1997; Omondi- competent football talent to gain a Ochieng, 2018c; Won & Chelladurai, 2016; competitive advantage over opponents. In Smart & Wolfe, 2000; Kern & Sussmuth, sum, this research examines the importance 2005). In this study, CA is viewed as the of football talent in boosting competitive ability of an Asian men’s national football advantage in qualifying for the Asia Cup. team to outperform its competitors based on The rest of the article is organized into a its unique capacity to utilize football talent. conceptual framework, theoretical The concepts of utilizing human resources framework, literature review, hypothesis as a source of CA have previously been development, methods, results, discussions, utilized by: (Won & Chelladurai, 2016; conclusions, and managerial implications. Lado & Wilson, 1994; Omondi-Ochieng, 2015; Omondi-Ochieng, 2018c; Smart & 2. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK Wolfe, 2000; Berri et al., 2009; Cunningham & Sagas, 2004). Of all the Football talent refers to the stock of amateur resources that may be associated with CA, footballers, professional footballers, and human resources have been deemed as the football officials (including an aggregate of most important and critical resource in football administrators, coaches, technical

53 Author: Peter Omondi-Ochieng BSSJ, Volume 4: Issue 1, 2019 Business & Social Science Journal (BSSJ) staff, medical staff, etc.) – all serving to properly and skillfully trained, mentored, enhance the ability to qualify for the Asia and motivated by their officials through Cup. This study was conceptualized based junior clubs, teams, and academics, can on the following assumptions. First, generate superior performances. Past qualification for the Asia Cup is a gradual studies that correlated amateur footballers process that begins with amassing and football team performances include: experienced and dedicated football officials (Hoffmann et al., 2002; Omondi-Ochieng, who can nurture and develop amateur 2015; Omondi-Ochieng, 2018c; Sierer et footballers from developmental to al., 2008). Lastly, we support the argument professional leagues. Previous studies have that having a large stock of professional attested to the role of football officials in footballers playing in the domestic or boosting on-field performances: (Babwah foreign professional football leagues can & Rogers, 2008; Berman, Down, & Hill, make it easier for football officials to select 2002; Coopoo & Fortuin, 2012; and form a competent national team that Cunningham & Sagas, 2004; Dawson, can produce superior performances at Dobson, & Gerrard, 2000; Kern & international football tournaments Sussmuth, 2005; Killowe & Mkandawire, (Berlinschi, Schokkaert & Swinnen, 2013; 2005; Surujlal, J. (2013). Second, we argue Omondi-Ochieng, 2018e; Dawson & that qualifying for the Asia Cup may be Dobson, 2002; Smart & Wolfe, 2000; associated with the accumulation of a large Omondi-Ochieng, 2015; Omondi-Ochieng, stock of amateur footballers, who, when 2018c).

Football Competetive Superior Performances Talent Advantage at the Asia Cup

Figure 1: Linking football talent as a competitive advantage at the Asia Cup

3. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS continuous improvements over a long period of time rather than a single large To capture the role of football talent as a change (Ali, 2017; Bonjour & Micaelli, source of competitive advantage in 2010). Such improvements can be qualifying for the Asia Cup, this study developed into core competencies that can applies the use of core competency theory be used for new business creation (CCT) and the resource-based theory (Pechlaner et al., 2014), making them a (RBT). foundation and main strength of a company’s competitiveness, especially if 3.1 Core competency theory they are distinctive competencies that are A core competency theory (CCT) is a hard to replicate or mimic by rivals or managerial theory introduced by Prahalad competitors. The CCT focuses on & Hamel (1990). It is defined as “a attempting to narrowly define the field, harmonized combination of multiple task, skill, or production technology at resources and skills that distinguish a firm which a company excels, dominates, and is in the marketplace” as a result of the best at – and delivers additional value to the “collective learning across the corporation” customer. Core competencies may vary and (Prahalad & Hamel, 1994; 2003), which are may include, but are not limited to, but not developed through the process of limited to, information technology,

54 Author: Peter Omondi-Ochieng BSSJ, Volume 4: Issue 1, 2019 Business & Social Science Journal (BSSJ) financial management, specialized pooled Previous research has evaluated the core knowledge or skill, technical capacities, competencies that lead to the effectiveness brand recognition, marketing excellence, and efficiencies of banks (Ali, 2017), innovation, leadership, and customer humanitarian operations (Apte, Goncalves services. It is, therefore, the role of the & Yoho, 2016), managers (Manxhari, Veliu managers to develop the core competencies & Jashari, 2017; Schaupp & Virkkunen, that render the primary services, products, 2017; Veliu & Manxhari, 2017), tourism and new businesses that customers demand governance (Pechlaner et al., 2014), and and desire (Manxhari, Veliu & Jashari, manufacturing (Bonjour & Micaelli, 2010). 2017; Prahalad & Hamel, 2003). Sports-related studies that have used CC include, (Amis, Slack & Berrett, 1999; For a firm to take full advantage of its core Henseler, Wilson & Westberg, 2011; competencies, it should fulfill three criteria: Denicolai et al., 2010). (a) provide potential access to a wide variety of markets; (b) make a significant 3.2 Resource-based theory contribution to the perceived customer The RBT is a strategic managerial benefits of the end-product; and (c) be framework that has grown and evolved difficult to imitate by competitors (Prahalad from the scholarly works of: (Penrose & & Hamel, 1994; 2003). Moreover, core Penrose, 1959; Wernerfelt, 1984; Prahalad competencies can be categorised into three & Hamel, 1990; Barney, 1991; Peteraf, types: market-access competencies (skills 1993; Day, 1994; Hunt & Morgan, 1996) – that help place a firm in close proximity to all of whom strived to explain and its customers); integrity-related determine if strategic resources can deliver competencies (skills that allow a company a competitive advantage. However, to accomplish tasks much more quickly, Barney’s 1991 article, “Firm Resources with great flexibility, or with a higher and Sustainable Competitive Advantage,” calibre of reliability than competitors); and is widely cited as the pivotal work in the functionality-related competencies (skills RBT; his interpretations have been adopted that enable the company to invest its for this study. According to Barney (1991), services or products with unique RBT advocates that competitive advantage functionality) – Prahalad & Hamel, 1994. arises from an organisation’s capacity to identify and utilize internal resources The advantages of utilizing the CCT in efficiently and effectively. Barney (2001) boosting organisational performance defines resources as “all assets, capabilities, include market growth, company organisational processes, firm attributes, expansion, customer attraction, brand information, knowledge, etc. controlled by recognition, and an increase in the value for a firm that enables the firm to conceive of customers and stakeholders (Yang, 2015; and implement strategies that improve its Alexander & Martin, 2013). However, the efficiency and effectiveness." Other types weaknesses of the CCT are that the of resources include financial, legal, development of core competencies human, organisational culture, reputational, demands high intellectual energy and informational, relational, physical, financial resources, as well as a steadfast technological (innovation and patents), and commitment to fighting unforeseen marketing (brands and trademarks), environmental and opposition barriers amongst others (Barney & Clark, 2007). which may ruin future opportunities (Bonjour & Micaelli, 2010; Schaupp & Additionally, managers that successfully Virkkunen, 2017; Veliu & Manxhari, apply the RBT tend to develop strategies 2017). that focus attention and effort on identifying assets, capabilities, and

55 Author: Peter Omondi-Ochieng BSSJ, Volume 4: Issue 1, 2019 Business & Social Science Journal (BSSJ) competencies with the potential of competitive advantage if the applications of delivering competitive advantage, resources satisfy the VRIN criterion – i.e. especially if not being implemented valuable, rare, imperfectly imitable, and simultaneously by competitors (Barney, non-substitutable (Barney, 1991; Barney, 2001; Barney, 2003). As indicated in Figure 2001; Barney, 2003; Barney & Clark, 2, such strategies can create a sustainable 2007).

Resource • Amateur footballers Attributes • Professional footballers • Football officials • Valuability • Rarity • Competetive Football advantage • Un-substitutablity Talent • Imitability Superior Performance

Figure 2. Linking Football Talent, Resource Attributes, and Competitive Advantage

Indirect application to this study, VRIN can no other Brazilian player has ever matched be interpreted as follows. First, valuable Pele’s record (Foster, 2003; Naha, 2014). resources are those that enable an Third, imperfectly imitable resources occur organisation to exploit opportunities or because competing organisations face cost reduce threats by conceiving of and or quality disadvantages in developing a implementing value-creating strategies that duplicate or substitute of the resources, improve its effectiveness and efficiency especially if the ability to obtain the (Barney, 1991; Barney, 2001; Barney, resources depends on unique historical 2003; Barney & Clark, 2007). For instance, circumstances or if the resources are during his tenure from 1986 to 2013 as the socially complex or causally ambiguous manager of the Manchester football club, (Barney, 1991; Barney, 2001; Barney, Sir Alex Ferguson was a very valuable 2003; Barney & Clark, 2007). For instance, resource. Under his leadership, the club franchise relocation, expansion, or stadium produced stellar financial and on-field refurbishment, which may result from performances, both domestically and relegation or promotion, can have internationally – a record yet to be matched substantial impacts on fan engagement, (Elberse, 2013; Szymanski, 1998). Rare home attendance, and team operational resources are those that competing firms do expenses (Lewis, 2001; Noll, 2013; van not possess (Barney, 1991; Barney, 2001; Dam, 2000). It is easy to imitate a new Barney, 2003; Barney & Clark, 2007). For stadium design but difficult to replicate a instance, a resource that is possessed by championship performance, even with a many organisations is not rare and will not new coach. Lastly are un-substitutable be a source of competitive advantage. In resources that do not have an equivalent football, Pele was a very rare player who (Barney, 1991; Barney, 2001; Barney, led Brazil to multiple world cup trophies in 2003; Barney & Clark, 2007). Moreover, a long national career from 1957 to 1971; the RBT suggests that organisations must

56 Author: Peter Omondi-Ochieng BSSJ, Volume 4: Issue 1, 2019 Business & Social Science Journal (BSSJ) develop unique, firm-specific core substituted (Barney & Clark, 2007). competencies that allow them to Specific to sports, the RBT has previously outperform competitors by doing things been used by: (Smart and Wolfe, 2000; differently (Prahalad & Hamel, 1990). As Berman, Down & Hill, 2002; Won & an example, organisational culture is an un- Chelladurai 2016; Omondi-Ochieng, substitutable and unique resource that a 2017b; Omondi-Ochieng, 2018c). team can tap into to generate superior performances. For instance, the on-field 4. LITERATURE REVIEW AND performance and financial success of the HYPOTHESIS DEVELOPMENT Real Madrid Football Club have often been This section examines the association attributed to its unique organisational between football talent (operationalised as culture which cannot be replicated amateur footballers, football officials, and elsewhere (Callejo & Forcadell, 2006; professional footballers) and superior García, 2011). football performance, while also deriving hypotheses for each. In sum, the advantages of the RBT are: (a) although originating from strategic management, it is interdisciplinary in nature, encompassing multiple subjects, 4.1 Amateur footballers as a source of such as economics, ethics, law, marketing, competitive advantage supply chain, technology, etc.; (b) it Amateur footballers are individuals who focuses attention on an organisation’s play football mainly for fun and enjoyment. internal resources as a means of organizing In accordance with the RBT and the CCT, processes and obtaining a competitive Table 3 illustrates the contrast between advantage; and (c) its key insight is that not randomly selected qualifying and non- all resources are of equal importance or qualifying nations and their respective capacity, nor do they possess the potential stocks of amateur footballers. For instance, to be transformed into sustainable Bhutan (a non-qualifying nation) had 1,200 competitive advantages (Fahy & Smithee, amateur footballers, while South Korea (a 1999). The sustainability of any regular qualifier) had 31,127 – suggesting competitive advantage depends on the the possible role of amateur footballers in extent to which resources are imitated or qualifying for the Asia Cup.

Table 3: Contrasting qualifying & non-qualifying nations and the number of amateur footballers

Qualifying Nations Amateurs Non-Qualifying Nations Amateurs South Korea 31,127 Bhutan 1,200 Australia 435,528 Kyrgyzstan 8,977

national income and hosting were not Omondi-Ochieng (2015) used binary significant. Omondi-Ochieng (2018c) logistic regression analysis to report that reported that the stock of amateur amateur football players were positively footballers was positively associated with and statistically associated with global performances at the Gold Cup – a football football performance across 203 male tournament dominated by Mexico and the national football teams. Hoffmann et al., United States. Taken together, national (2002) used ordinary least squares teams with the capacity to nurture and regression to report that population was produce amateur footballers may be able to significant to the FIFA ranking, but gross generate the future competitive advantage

57 Author: Peter Omondi-Ochieng BSSJ, Volume 4: Issue 1, 2019 Business & Social Science Journal (BSSJ) necessary for superior performance at the highlights a randomly selected contrast Asia Cup. In line with these arguments, we between qualifying and non-qualifying formulate the following hypothesis: Asian national football teams regarding the H1. The stock of amateur footballers stock of professional footballers. For is positively associated with instance, three-time qualifier Malaysia (with 600 professional footballers) relative qualifying for the Asia Cup. to a regular non-qualifier, such as Nepal with 0, indicates a lack of capacity to “produce” professional footballers. A 4.2 Professional footballers as a source of nation that can “produce” a large number of competitive advantage professional footballers may, therefore, be Professional footballers are individuals able to choose from and form a strong who make their livelihood playing football. national football team capable of qualifying In line with the RBT and the CCT, Table 4 for the Asia Cup.

Table 4: Contrasting qualifying & non-qualifying nations and the number of professional footballers

Qualifying Nations Professionals Non-Qualifying Nations Professionals Malaysia 600 Nepal 0 Singapore 233 Philippines 0

Studies that have highlighted the role of overall quality, popularity, and professional football players in football international image. Using a variety of team successes include: (Omondi-Ochieng, multiple regressions analyses, Berlinschi et 2015; Omondi-Ochieng, 2017c; Berlinschi al., (2013) showed that the use of migrant et al., 2013; Omondi-Ochieng, 2018e). professional footballers had a positive First, Omondi-Ochieng (2015) utilized impact on the rankings of European leagues binary logistic regression analysis to report and the national teams. Omondi-Ochieng that the number of professional footballers (2018e) reported that Qatar has improved was the best predictor of national team its performances at the Asia Athletic performance across 203 men’s national Championship largely due to using migrant football teams. This indicates that athletes. Lastly, Omondi-Ochieng (2018c) professional players are a core competency reported that the stock of professional that is also rare and non-imitable as footballers was positively associated with justified by the resource-based view. Taken and predicted qualifying for the Gold Cup. together and in line with the resource-based In line with these arguments, the following theory, only national teams with a large hypothesis was put forth: pool of competent, capable, rare, and high achieving professional football players can H2. The stock of professional generate the competitive advantage footballers is positively necessary for superior performance at the Asia Cup. Omondi-Ochieng (2017c) associated with qualifying for reported that Australia, Canada, the UK, the Asia Cup. and the USA have instituted a variety of talent-based immigration legislation to tap into professional athletes. Specifically, 4.3 Football officials as a source of major league soccer has adopted the competitive advantage strategy of “importing” marquee players, Football officials are personnel charged such as David Villa and Kaka, to boost its with producing football teams capable of achieving superior performances. In this

58 Author: Peter Omondi-Ochieng BSSJ, Volume 4: Issue 1, 2019 Business & Social Science Journal (BSSJ)

study, the dimensions of the number of accordance with the RBT and the CCT, football officials included an aggregate of Table 5 underlines the contrast between the football administrators, coaches, technical capacities of qualifying and non-qualifying staff, and medical staff. Overall, football nations to acquire football officials for officials are generally burdened with some generating competitive advantage. For key roles – to ensure that the national team example, Iran has 4,500 football officials, sets high goals, qualifies, and then performs while Leos has 420 – indicating that the well at national and international football stock of football officials may be associated tournaments, such as the Asia Cup. In with qualifying for the Asia Cup.

Table 5: Contrasting qualifying & non-qualifying nations and the number of football officials

Qualifying Nations Officials Non-Qualifying Nations Officials Iran 25,800 Leos 420 Vietnam 10,652 Macau 754

As supported by the RBT, a large stock of experience and prior affiliation with their football officials can boost team current club enhanced the overall team’s performances, especially if the officials are performance in European professional competent at selecting, developing, football. Taken together, only national nurturing, and motivating players. teams with a large pool of experienced, Competent football officials who are strategic, and goal-setting officials who are knowledgeable, experienced, and dedicated competent and capable are more likely to can, therefore, enhance football generate the competitive advantage performance. necessary for superior performance at the Asia Cup. Lastly, Omondi-Ochieng Similar supportive arguments have been (2018c) reported that the stock of football reported previously (Omondi-Ochieng, officials was positively associated with 2015; Espitia-Escuer & Garcia-Cebrian, qualifying for the Gold Cup – a football 2006; Dawson & Dobson, 2002; Omondi- tournament regularly dominated by Mexico Ochieng, 2018c). Omondi-Ochieng (2015) and the United States. In line with these used binary logistic regression analysis to arguments, the following hypothesis was report that the number of football officials proposed: was a positive predictor of national team performance across 214 national football H3. The stock of football officials is teams, with most weak national teams positively associated with hiring expensive and experienced coaches to enhance their competitive advantage. qualifying for the Asia Cup. Espitia-Escuer & Garcia-Cebrian (2006) used data envelopment analysis to examine the performance of Spanish first division 5. RESEARCH PROBLEMS AND football teams based on the abilities of their GAPS players and coaches. They concluded that a Previous studies have applied the use of team’s final league position depends more population as an indicator of football talent on its efficient use of players and coaches (Yamamura, 2012; Garcia, et al., 2007; rather than its potential. Similarly, Dawson Houston & Wilson, 2002). The use of & Dobson (2000) also used data general population is misleading for the envelopment analysis to report that the following reasons: (a) it is a combined effects of a coach’s playing misrepresentation of national team

59 Author: Peter Omondi-Ochieng BSSJ, Volume 4: Issue 1, 2019 Business & Social Science Journal (BSSJ) selection. For instance, many population segments are usually excluded in the 6.1 Data sources selection of men’s national teams, This study used secondary data from including women, children, older adults, various sources for 46 men’s Asian national the sick, and the disabled; (b) with football teams that attempted to qualify for industrialization and economic affluence, the 2015 Asia Cup. This includes: many able-bodied youth are increasingly • Football talent data (measured as choosing not to participate in football but the stock of amateur footballers, instead seek alternative leisure activities, professional footballers, and such as video games or golf; (c) others may football officials), sourced from want to participate in football but may www.fifa.com. suffer from economic, environmental, or • Asia Cup qualifying data that was gender-related constraints; and (d) others sourced from the Asian Football simply might not be interested. To Confederation, www.the- overcome the population problem, this afc.com/competitions/. study measured talent as the number of amateur and professional footballers, as 6.2 Measurement variables well as officials (administrators, umpires, The study variables were divided into two coaches, trainers, medical staff, etc.). categories – dependent and independent variables. The dependent variable was Additionally, the key finding of this study qualifying for the 2015 Asia Cup, stated is that professional footballers are the most binarily as 0 and 1. The independent valuable source of competitive advantage variables were stocks of amateur and amongst the Asian national football teams. professional footballers and football Previous studies have also substantiated the officials – all comprising football talent. pivotal role of professional footballers (Omondi-Ochieng, 2015; Omondi- 6. RESULTS Ochieng, 2018c), giving weight for sports managers and policy administrators to This section examines the descriptive continue growing, expanding, and statistics, Kendall Tau correlations, the reforming their sports delivery systems that Mann-Whitney-U test, and binary logistic can boost the number of professional regressions. football players. With a focus on talent, the study evaluated 46 male Asian national 7.1 Descriptive statistics results football teams. This approach offers a more Descriptive statistics are quantitative direct means of examining talent as one of summary statistics that describe the the key sources of competitive advantage features of collected information with the within the Asian Cup football tournament. assistance of basic statistics, such as mean, median, range, etc. Table 6 presents descriptive statistics of the study variables, 6. METHODS revealing a maximum of 249,603 football officials, 711,235 amateur footballers, and This section contains data sources, 2,239 professional footballers, measurement of variables (dependent and respectively. Some nations had no independent), Kendall Tau analysis, the professional footballers. The standard Mann-Whitney U test, and binary logistic deviations varied widely. regression.

60 Author: Peter Omondi-Ochieng BSSJ, Volume 4: Issue 1, 2019 Business & Social Science Journal (BSSJ)

Table 6: Descriptive statistics

Range Minimum Maximum Mean Standard Deviation Football 249,503 100 249,603 14,850.9 42,664.4 Officials Amateur 710,735 500 711,235 62,710.8 138,176.6 Footballers Professional 2,239 0 2,239 232.2 440.3 Footballers

7.2 Kendal Tau correlation results between two variables or the association Kendal Tau (denoted by the Greek letter τ) between non-intervals scaled ordinal is a non-parametric correlation coefficient variables, expressed as: used to measure the strength of dependence

...... (1) Where, nc= number of concordant & nd = talent were as follows: with football number of discordant officials (.440, p < .01), with amateur (www.statisticssolutions.com/correlation- footballers (.255, p < .01), and with pearson-kendall-spearman/). professional footballers (.342, p < .01), As depicted in Table 7, the correlations respectively. between qualifying for the Asia Cup and

Table 7: Kendal Tau correlations

Football Amateur Professional Qualifying for the Officials Footballers Footballers Asia Cup Football Officials 1.000 .540** .259* .440**

Amateur Footballers .540** 1.000 .105 .255* Professional .259* .105 1.000 .342** Footballers Qualifying for the .440** .255* .342** 1.000 Asia Cup

Notes: **. Correlation is significant at the size, the most appropriate statistical test 0.01 level (2-tailed); *. Correlation is was the Mann-Whitney U-test, a non- significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). parametric procedure used to determine if there was a significant difference in categorical variables (Nachar, 2008; 7.3 Mann-Whitney u- test results Fagerland & Sandvik, 2009). The Mann- Whitney U test formula is given as: Because the data was skewed (not normally distributed) and there was a small sample

61 Author: Peter Omondi-Ochieng BSSJ, Volume 4: Issue 1, 2019 Business & Social Science Journal (BSSJ)

……………………………….. (2)

Where: R = sum of ranks; n = number of professionals, respectively (Table 8). The items in the sample Mann-Whitney U test also showed that (www.statisticshowto.com/wp- there was a significant difference (U = content/uploads/2015/08/mann-whitney-u- 5.568, p <0.01) between qualifiers and non- test.png). qualifiers, suggesting that talent influenced national team qualifications for the 2015 The results showed that qualifying nations Asia Cup. scored higher in talent than non-qualifiers across officials, amateurs, and

Table 8: Comparing means – The Man-Whitney U Test

Qualifying for the Asia Cup N Mean Rank Sum of Ranks Qualifications Not qualified 15 8.00 120.00 Qualified 31 31.00 961.00 Football Officials Not qualified 15 13.33 200.00 Qualified 31 28.42 881.00 Amateur Footballers Not qualified 15 17.60 264.00 Qualified 31 26.35 817.00 Professional Footballers Not qualified 15 16.53 248.00 Qualified 31 26.87 833.00

Calculated effect sizes (with the formula 0.5 and above (large effect) – (see Cohen, Z/√n) indicated that professional 1992, pp. 157). footballers = 0.38, amateur footballers = 0.31, and football officials = 0.53 – and 7.4. Binary logistic regression analysis were interpreted based on Cohen’s Binary logistic regression (BLR) is often classification of effect sizes, which is 0.1 used to predict binary events, such as (small effect), 0.3 (moderate effect), and win/loss, fail/pass, buy/not buy, and bad/good credit expressed as:

In[p/(1- p)] = β0 + β1X1 + β2X2 + ……βkXk …………………………….(1)

Where β0 is the intercept, and β1, β2….βn 2013). In this study, BLR was used to are the regression coefficients of X1, predict qualifying for the 2015 Asia Cup X2…Xn, respectively (Hilbe, 2017; Hosmer based on the ranked number of amateur & Stanley, 2013). BLR is advantageous in footballers, professional footballers, and its robustness –the independent variable football officials. The results showed an does not require normality, linearity, overall percentage predictive correctness of homoscedasticity, or equal variance in each 71.7% and a Nagelkerke R2 of 33.7%, with group (Hilbe, 2017; Hosmer & Stanley, professional footballers being the best

62 Author: Peter Omondi-Ochieng BSSJ, Volume 4: Issue 1, 2019 Business & Social Science Journal (BSSJ) predictor, instead of football officials and 7.5 Hypotheses test results amateur footballers. Table IX outlines the hypotheses previously stated.

Table 9: Hypotheses test results

Hypothesis Proof H1 The stock of amateur footballers is positively associated with qualifying for the Supported Asia Cup. H2 The stock of professional footballers is positively associated with qualifying for Supported the Asia Cup. H3 The stock of football officials is positively associated with qualifying for the Asia Supported Cup.

8. DISCUSSIONS (Dawson & Dobson, 2002; Espitia-Escuer & Garcia-Cebrian, 2006; Omondi-Ochieng, Overall, the study ascertained that football 2018c). While the findings were not staff (indicated as the stock of amateur predictive of qualifying for the Asia Cup, footballers, football officials, and they were in support of the views advocated professional footballers) is a source of by the RBT and the CCT (such as hiring competitive advantage and superior competent coaches, trainers, and medical performance for qualifying for the Asia staff). Cup – as framed and interpreted by the RBT and the CCT. All three measures of football Lastly, there was a statistical and positive staff were positively and statistically but low correlation between the number of associated with qualifying for the Asia Cup professional footballers and qualifications – highlighting the fact that football talent is for the Asia Cup (.342, p < 0.01) – as a core competence, especially professional substantiated by past studies (Berlinschi et footballers. Further discussions are al., 2013; Omondi-Ochieng, 2015; summarized in line with each hypothesis, Omondi-Ochieng, 2017c; Omondi- thus: Ochieng, 2018c; Omondi-Ochieng, 2018e). Professional footballers were the best The first findings indicated a statistical and predictor of qualifying for the Asia Cup, positive but low correlation between upholding the RBT and the CCT. The data amateur footballers and qualifying for the indicated that not all Asian nations had the Asia Cup (.255, p < 0.05) – as corroborated capacity to produce large stocks of by previous studies (Omondi-Ochieng, professional players – a valuable and rare 2018c; Hoffmann et al., 2002; Omondi- resource. When such imitable, rare, and Ochieng, 2018c; Yamamura, 2009; Manuel valuable resources are utilized, they often Luiz & Fadal, 2011). Although the findings become the core competency that produces were not predictive of qualifying for the the most competitive advantage (Smart & Asia Cup (possibly due to small sample Wolfe, 2000; Berman, Down & Hill, 2002; size), they were in support and agreement Won & Chelladurai 2016; Omondi- with the views advocated by the RBT. Ochieng, 2017b; Barney, 2003).

The second findings showed a statistical 9. CONCLUSIONS AND and positive but moderate correlation MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS between the number of football officials and qualifying for the Asia Cup (.440, p The results validate the importance of <0.01) – as validated by past studies football talent as a source of competitive

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advantage in national football team How can Asian nations increase their performances based on the following number of amateur footballers? Previous managerial implications: research indicates that parents, communities, schools, government, and the 9.1 Managerial implications for national private sector can play a major role in football federations boosting the number of amateur footballers How can Asian nations manage their (Horne & Manzenreiter 2004; Cho, 2014). national football federations (NFFs) to Parents can actively encourage and enable the growth of football talent? NFFs financially support their children to start have a big role to play in enhancing the playing football. Local community growth, development, and expansion of recreation clubs and teams can also offer football talent. First, NFFs can help identify volunteer opportunities for coaches and and nurture amateur footballers by trainers to boost participation. Schools can lobbying to the government to fund and encourage and nurture amateur football provide trained physical education teachers development and growth by availing and to include football as part of physical playing fields, equipment, trained PE education in schools (Omondi-Ochieng, teachers at recess, and after-school 2017b; Omondi-Ochieng, 2018c). For programmes. The government can offer example, in 2015 China made football direct funding towards the building of compulsory nationwide in all primary and training facilities, as well as legally secondary schools. Second, NFFs may mandating football in public schools. negotiate for additional revenues from Lastly, the private sector can offer football corporate sponsors which can be shared and training camps and sponsor local amateur distributed through grants to help football football tournaments and teams. clubs and teams to assist in financing their operational costs (Atkinson, Stanley, & 9.3 Managerial implications for football Tschirhart, 1988; Dietl et al. 2011). Third, officials NFFs could organize semi and professional How can Asian nations increase their football leagues by licensing clubs, teams, number of football officials? A growing and elite football academies (Franck, 2010; number of viable educational options exist Hamil et al., 2010). Fourth, NFFs can to boost the number of football officials, institute the legal structures for player such as FIFA sanctioned programmes, agents, drafting, transfers, migration, and international partnerships, and local pay (Einolf, 2004; Mcgee & Burkett, 2003; educational and licensing options (Table Omondi-Ochieng, 2017d; Omondi- 10). For instance, FIFA offers a variety of Ochieng, 2017c; Sierer et al., 2008). Lastly, programmes for grassroots organisations, when NFFs recruit passionate, dedicated, women’s football, referee training, and and competent leaders who don’t tolerate masters and diploma studies, amongst corruption, then the nation may stand a others – with the goal of building the skills better chance at producing competent and capabilities of football officials. players and officials (Chiweshe, 2014; Another option is to use trained and Njororai, 2014). experienced volunteers (Feltz et al., 2009; Kowalski et al., 2007). 9.2. Managerial implications for amateur footballers

Table 10: FIFA’s education programmes

Programme Name Objective

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1 FIFA grassroots programme “Training local coaches-educators to the specifics of teaching grassroots football” 2 FIFA women’s football development “Courses to build the skills of female coaches locally, to the support programme of promotional activities to raise the profile of the women's game while enticing young girls to play football, including support to local women's football competitions through courses, equipment, and financial support" 3 FIFA consultancies To develop futsal, beach soccer 4 FIFA masters & diploma studies in To develop administrators and medical experts football medicine

However, if there are no free FIFA migration, such as in the United States sanctioned programmes, Asian nations can (Omondi-Ochieng, 2017c); and (c) also tap into friendly international networks boosting the financial capacity from with countries keen on boosting corporate sponsorships and wealthy private international relations. For instance, Japan owners (Zimbealist, 2003; Weinberg, 2015) previously hired foreign national football and the licensing of football agents coaches, including Brasilia’s Zico and (Omondi-Ochieng, 2017d). Having a Falcao and Italy’s Alberto Zaccheroni. professional football league often leads to South Korea has also sorted the expertise of the growth and development of football- foreign coaches and Jo specific infrastructures, such as teams, Bonfrere of the Netherlands, and Humberto clubs, training fields, and stadiums (Table Coelhoo of Portugal and Uli Stielike of 11). Moreover, professional football Germany. Similarly, there are other local leagues have mandates for hiring qualified educational and licensing options through staff, developing youth programmes, and universities that train and certify physical maintaining financial regulations. Another education teachers, medical doctors, way of boosting the number of professional physiotherapists, and sports administrators, footballers include allowing cash from as well as physiotherapists that work corporate sponsors and wealthy owners to directly with students, teams, and pay attractive salaries and fund operations professional footballers based on demand expenses as common in the English Premier and supply. League and the relatively new and ambitious . Lastly, 9.4 Managerial implications for football agents can also facilitate the career professional footballers development and advancement of high How can Asian nations increase their achieving goal-oriented amateurs aspiring number of professional footballers? The to become professionals (Omondi- popular options of increasing the number of Ochieng, 2017d). This goal can be realized professional footballers include: (a) by wealthy sports agents, such as IMG, who legalization of professional football operate “complete” shops with training leagues, such in the United Kingdom camps, trainers, events, marketing, (Leeds & Marikova Leeds, 2009) and Japan licensing, media, and sports agents (Kelly, 2013); (b) legalizing sports talent (http://img.com/expertise/).

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Table 11: Professional football leagues in Asia

League Name Nation Year Number of Average Position Since Formed Professional Teams FIFA Rankings Began 1 K-League 1 South Korea 1983 12 39 2 J-League Japan 1992 18 34 3 A-League Australia 2004 10 46 4 Persian Gulf Iran 2001 16 46 Pro-League

2014; Omondi-Ochieng, 2018a; Omondi- Although the study was limited by small Ochieng, 2018b), governance (Njororai, sample size and a focus on one source of 2014), legal structures (Omondi-Ochieng, CA (i.e. football talent), the results opened 2017c; Omondi-Ochieng, 2017d), or the some possible future research role of sports talent migration (Omondi- opportunities. For instance, future studies Ochieng, 2017c; Omondi-Ochieng, 2018e) could directly interview players, coaches, or football agents (Omondi-Ochieng, and administrators and examine additional 2017a; Omondi-Ochieng, 2017d). Future sources of competitive advantage, such as research may expand the study to financial or economic capacity (Manuel- investigate the quality of each nation’s Luiz & Fadal, 2011; Omondi-Ochieng, football administrative competencies.

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