128 THE MAURYAN PERIOD

e^act translation of a wooden by a central interior doonvay Tbf™tanL7a'ra''nt^c'^ co^eeted a barrel-vaulted roof, while the doorwav hfl =i anti-chamber has the most important of the Asokan rock-cut jambs._ But CHAPTER V Lomasha Rishi. It is similar to the Sudlnn * ^^onp is the gi-ound plan and general design the rock-cut hall lies in its facade ? \ individuality of this INDIA FROM THE SECOND CENTURY B.C. deed been copied in the stone in everyTiSe^d^f^ TO THIRD CENTURY A.D. small.juni hills The there largest are isthree the hallsSe ofpopulSfifno^^'" "n^o 4.J the Nagar- maid's cave. It has a long rectangular roof. These excavated haUs were^iP fm ^ ^avTei vaulted 1. THE SUNGAS fieent rock-cut halls of the Buddhists as magni- ' The treacherous murder of Brihadrata by Pusyamitra caused Ohats and other places. found in the Western the Mauryau empire to split up into two parts. In the east, ac The Dhauli elephant : Of ■M"mT..TTo , cording to Purauic tradition, the Sungas and the Kanvas succeed to the crowning animals already discussed^Tb^^^^®®' addition ing to a branch of the Mauryas; in the west, according to Jama attention is the Dhauli elephant. This ® ^^t deserves tradition and Greek accounts, independent republics were being animal at Sankisa in the sense that it has a (We?on^^ crowning established. Thus the political geogi-aphy of India in about 180 and has been rendered artistically To onntJ p B. C. was; in the north-west the Indo-Bactrian and Indo-Parthian deed such plastic presentation of bnlW i Brown : "In- kingdoms, in Central and Eastern India, the Sunga and the Kanva living flesh rendered with remarkablp such feeling for empires with their capital at Vidisa; in Ralinga, the kingdom of the physiognomical form of the subWt Iniowledge of Kharavela and in south India, the Satavahana Empire. dignified movement and linear rhvthrn L '''^'^' «ense of Sources : For the study of this period, we have to depend upon sculptures." The style, motive and the puranas 'which transmit genuine historical tradition.' The impresses the onlooker. dignity of this animal evidences of the Puranas are supplemented and corroborated by As to the estimate of thp Mm,,., sources of other denomiuations, epigraphic, numismatic and lite differed from Marshall and Smith scholars have rary evidences. Works like Gargi Sarahita, Patanjali's Mahabhasya, failed to make any noticeaWe and Mauryas Kaiidasa's Malvikagnimitra, the Divyavadana and Bana's Harsa- Indian art. It only helps ns in thTLT' charita are our valuable guides for the study of the period under permanent material, like stone. Mrurvrn . ■ review. highly eonsmopoUtan, urban, consciousl?^77-r the Origin : The origin of the Sungas is still shrouded in mystery. putra. It represents the individual <>« If the Divyavadana is to be trusted, Pusyamitra was a descendant art was raised from the status of handic?a?t' t"'thfdTSty o^hlgh of the Mauryas. In the drama Malvikagnimitra, Agnimitra, the second ruler of the line, is described as a scion of the Bimbika family. According to the Puranas and Harsacharita, Pusyamitra belonged to the Sunga family. The ending of their name in mitra is the basis of the remark that they were Iranians, worshippers of Mitra (the Sun). Some scholars regard them as Indian Brahmanas. The great Sanskrit grammarian, Panini connects the Sungas to the Brahmanas of the Bharadvaja Gotra. There are frequent re ferences to Sunga teachers in the Vedic texts like Asvalayana Srauta Sutra. However, the Sunga origin of Pusyamitra has been generally accepted. Pusyamitra (B.C. 187—B.C. 152) : After killing his master, Brihadrata Maurya, Pusyamitra the founder the Sunga dynasty, came to power. The reasons for this i. 129

. > '1. 130 INDIA-SECOND CENTURY B.C. TO THIRD A. D. INDIA-SECOND CENTURY B.C. TO THIRD A. D. 131 act of Pusyamitra are far to ^ accounts show that the ecouomic condition 1 I ' r Pusyamitra as a violent annihilater of the Buddha's doctrine and and the personal character of Tnl \r deteriorating one who was responsible for the destruction of monasteries and the happy. This created a feeling of disLtiS^c^^ burning of many monks. He is said to have set a price of 100 Added to tliis, the Mauryan monaiclfs among the people, dinars on the head of every monk. Such stories as this are noth of the Bactrian Greeks who had nlrp^^ri i ^ progress ing but a figment of Buddhist imagination. We have observed outskirts of Pataliputra. There w^^ elsewhere that the Buddhist account cannot be taken without a of the administrative machinerv Tt complete breakdown pinch of salt. They disliked Pusyamitra, because he revived stances, to save the country from fiircum- Brahmanism. This is attested to by the fact that he revived the Oreeks, the Sunga dynasty came into exisfe]^e° old institution of Asvamedha sacrifice. Naturally the Buddhists reacted sharply towards the policy of Pusyamitra. It is true that Pusyamitra championed the cause of Brahamanism: but there is Pusyamitra Tn'd Viceronf VidSl^^^^ Agnimitra, son of nothing to show that he did it at the cost of Buddliism. He conti and defeated its king Yajnasena' Sp ^ invaded Vidarbha nued the traditional poliny of toleration of all religions and victory of Vasumitra, the son of Agnimitrn n ^.^^^^rence to the patronised the Buddhist art of the period. The fact that the finest banks of the Sindhu. After this victory' Buddhist monuments—the Stupas of Bharhut and Sanchi—^not the celebrated asvamedha with aDoroniM f performed only belong to this period, but received private and royal support claim his paramount sovereignty. magnificence to pro- are a unique testimony to the liberal policy of Pusyamitra. Successors of Pusyamitra : After a long and eventful reign dhaKaling::L'\ll2tl.y::rTsitX by name Bahasatimita. The identlh/^ I^-'avelaof Maga- of Pusyamitra died in or about 151 B.C. Agnimitra succeeded him and means certain. K. P. Jayaswai re?rtnn ^ing is by no ruled for eight years. The next king was Vasumitra, son of Agni matie evidences lias identified Bahaa"fmita w'tT'"t mitra who led the sacrificial horse of his grandfather. Then we has sugpsted an equation of Brihaspati mtti d He have an uneventful rule of about 17 years by four kings. The next IS the Lord of PnsyanaksWaatra T„ Pusya a.s Brihaspati important king was Bhaga or Bhagavata of the Puranas who had Smith have also thought that the advei^Itt^ Dubreuil and V. A. a long reign of 32 years. In his fourteenth regnal year a pillar no other than Pusyamitra. This ident^?^. Kbaravela was dedicated to Garuda was erected at Besnagar by Heliodorous, the questioned by Allen and R. p. Chanda n " recentlv Greek ambassador. The last king was Devabhuti, 'a man of licen logmal grounds. According to them 'Th ""Pf''®PbieaI and phUo tious liabits', who lost his life in a discreditable intrigue of his m imrssible. According to Allen,' the worf Bahasatimita Brahmana minister, Vasudeva Kanva. mthwith bahu,r .Vthe certain elementsto Allen, in it the^ph wnV^ ^ question^akasatimit begins Importanoe of the Sunga Period: As Prof. Roy Choudhri points It IS very probably not a proper name at a?l fn idfta • out, "the rule of the emperors of the house of Pusyamitra marks mg of the F^cucujijgpreceding wordsworas as MagadhamMagadham'chn p1,o T - ""jested read- an important epoch in the history of India in general and Central tremelynely improbable, philologieallypliilologically as wellweP as m ex- India in particular". No doubt there was some loss in political use of the syuonyms in the case of propei T P'''''."S''^PbieaUy The unity, but it did not lead to any decadence of Culture. The period fequation Pusya-Brihaspati, must be d' absurd and the witnessed the rise of Bhagavata religion based on the teachings Therefoi^ hiiig KharavehP; activities ifW ^'-^-^ous" of Sri Krishna as embodied in the Bhagavadgita. Above all, there Pusyamitra may be reckoned as one of thp ^ against was an outburst of artistic activity as evidenced from the stupas Indian history. kn.olved ProbleSTof of Bharhut aud Sanchi, the two celebrated masterpieces of tbe Extent of the Empire : The Siin"-n p>v,v.- period. Sanskrit literature received royal patronage and Patanjali, included the iiome province of the Mauryani'and ^,"®y™itra the grammarian, is said to have been the contemporary of as Narmada and Vidarbha in the South It fncWi as far Pusyamitra and lived in his court. important cities; Pataiiputra, Ayodhva an I three and Sakaia wore also included in the Bmnir ' "'^"'^hdhara 2. THE INDO-GRBEKS AND INDO-BACTRIANS Buddiii.st iii.storiaii Tarnnatlia. It is uniiMvH,"??-''"® the The history of the Indo-Greeks is one of the most fascmating had extended to the Punjab. Even if it had ef i'" ^^'^^inty phases of Indian history. It is "a story of 200 years in whieh not have continued there in the face of the trem^d ''' ''® tvould there reigned 39 kings and 2 queens. It is the story of the rise vance. '^^inendous Greek ad- of an adventurous people to fill the vacuum created bv the ahsenee Persecution of Bnddhism ; The Buddhist traditio . of a great power; when In course of time, new peoples came^u aoitiou depicts the scene, one had to give to other. The Tavanas could not hold 132 INDIA-SECOND CENTURY B.C. TO THIRD A.D. INDIA-SECOND CENTURY B.C. TO THIRD A.D. 133 their own, and were doomed sooner or later to collapse. Their kingdom fell and their proud ruling families merged with the armed hosts knew no end." Menander was certainly the greatest mingled stocks of North-West India, until all traces of them were of the Indo-Greek kings in India. lost". They came to constitute an important section of the Indian After the death of Menander, the Greek rule lasted for a cen people in the subsequent period. tury or more. But this history is just a story of disintegration, The history of the Indo-Greeks and Bactrians has been mutual jealousy and decline. This was taken advantage of by reconstructed on the numismatic evidence. The successors of the Indo-Scythians, Yueh-chis and others who invaded the terri Seleukos in the region of Bactria and Hindu-Kush were tory of the Indo-Greeks. In about 78 B. C. the Saka Manes estab Euthydemos I, Demetrios, Agathokles, Pantalaon, Eucratides and lished himself in Pukalavati and Taxila. In the northern Punjab, Diodotus, who ruled from 220 B.C. to 150 B.C. Dr. Tarn thinks there were dynasties of the Satraps. The Mathura Lion capitol ins that in the south of the Hindu-Kush, Eucratides and his son Hale cription shows that in about 30 B.C. these principalities were inde Okies conquered the Punjab upto the Jhelum river ai^Setts pendent of the Southern branch at Mathura. Finally, they were had even occupied Sinf Patanjali in his Mahabhasya giW an overthrown by the Indo-Parthians in about the same time, i:e., 30 example of present perfect tense indicating- an incidpiii w B.C. .lust taken place says, Anmat yavanah Saketam Arnilnt ^ Madhyamikam, i.e., the Yavaim king has bes^'.^Tn INFLUENCE ON INDIAN CULTURE besieging the Saketa and Madhyamika country The" a^ai The question as to the extent of Greek influence or more pro ■Samluta also says that the wicked Yavanas are kifung tLusa^ds perly speaking, Hellenistic influence upon Indian culture is a sub of people and invading central India Probablv +h^ tiiousands ject of great interest and importance. In recent years, it has been refer to conquests of Eucratides, Demetrios and MenSdei""''®'''''' warmly debated by European scholars whose general tendency has The extent of the territory occupied bv Dpmpfi>^nc • t j- been to exaggerate the Greek effects of Alexander's invasion and. IS differently told by different writers. Strabo is oVfV. Greek rule on India's North-Western Frontier. Plutarch is of the that Demetrios advanced even beyond HvDanl« (n- f opimon opinion that Alexander opened out the far vistas of civilization to and Pataliputra. Some Indian Cka Ufe Si®'''',' Asia. To this Neise adds that the whole subsequent development included Madhyamika and Saketa ,n the oecupaion of^^ of India was dependent upon Greek ideal and institutions to which Scholars are again divided in their opbL i f Demetrios. Europe owes so much. Some even claimed that the entire culture kings, Demetrios or Menander, conquered Madhvrd'ia' of the period was dominated by the Greeks. Greek coinage was of the opinion that Demetrios was alone in a nosip . '"'® imitated down to the Gupta times. Gandhara art and sculpture take such an expedition. According to Dr T-,i ^ was influenced by the Hellenistic ideas. In literature, Sanskrit vanee into the interior of India was accomnlitwi n drama adopted Greek conventions. The Sankrit word Yavajiika and Apollodotus, the two lientenauts of Demetrios the^liH was supposed to be derived form the Greek theatre. In Sanskrit the chief guiding factor. That Demetrios held Bketrl. drama, the Vidusaka or the buffoon and the Vita were taken from his Indian possessions is established bv literaw nn i the Athenian comedy. In astronomy, the old astronomy was given evidence. uterary and archaeological up and Romaka siddhauta and Pulisa siddhanta seem to have deriv Demetrios had to cut short his stay in India anri ed from the astronomical tables of Alexandria. Moreover, Varaha- Bactria to face a revolt led by Eucratides. NothiTi., . mihira in his astronomical works mentions Greek also as authori about his last days. Possibly he was killed in the fighting ties, and has sanskritised many Greek words. But these arguments The next important Greek king in India was Menander whn.« arc plainly opposed to the Indian evidence. name is a frequent occurrence in the works of Stmhr. S I f It may be pointed out here that India never sought the trea Trogos, Justin and the Buddhist Tradition. In the'MiliiTioi^^^' sures of foreign wisdom. Guarded, as she is, by the seas on the (Question of Milinda) it is recorded that the BuddllrSfn^^ three sides and mountain ranges in the north, she tried from time sena converted Menander to Buddhism. Of Menanrlpr immemorial, to work cut her own salvation, in a way that was of the Pali treatise has the following to say: ' most suited to her. The invasion of Alexander as noted in Ch III was just a passing pliase and it bore no direct results As V A "As a disputant he had no equal, harder still to cvercomc tho Smith points out, "Alexander stayed in India for onlv" 19 months' acknowledged superior of all the founders of the various school! and, however far-reachmg his plans may have been it is manifest' of thought. As in wisdom so in strength of body, swiftness Td ly impossible that during those few months of incessant eonfliei valour there was found none to equal Milinda in India K he should have founded Hellemstie institutions on a permanent rich, too, mighty in wealth and prosperity, and the number ofYs basis, or materially affected the strueture of Hindu polity and so rpF-

INDIA-SECOND CENTURY B. C. TO THIRD A.D. 135 134 INDIA-SECOND CENTURY B.C. TO THIRD A.D. because it has a superior message to him. In the art of the 1st ^d ciety." Therefore, Alexander's invasion did not produce any 2nd century B.C. there is a conscious rejection o± Greek influences eonseqiicnce of utmost importance. except in three figures, as evidenced from the art in ^^ntial and Indian scholars have questioned the Greek influence on Indian Eastern India The civilization of these centuries i everted to coinage, sculpture, drama and astronomy. Though in matter of the ancient Indian tradition before the Mauryan age. coinage some dyansties imitated Greek models, soon after the In sculpture, it is now proved that the Mathura school is ear Gupta age India reverted to the Punch-marked coins amd the lier than the Gandhara school and the origin of the Buddha image beautiful artistic works of the Greek coins never appealed to the must be traced to the Mathura school, though it was adopted by Indian craftsman. Greek sculptors sliowing neither inspiration^ nor outstanding The differences between the ideals of Greek art and those merit There is no reason to suppose that India was ni anj'" way Indian art are considerable. The Indian craftsmen never receiv influenced by Greek architceturo by 400 A.D., if not earlier, when ed those Greek ideals with open arms. Its very introduction, in the Gandhara school appears to have been completely extinct. stead of inspiring the art in India, fled to a conflict which chilled It is held by some scholars that Sanskrit drama is largely and deadened the original ener^ of the Indian art.' The result indebted to the Greeks for the curtain is called 'yayanika' and was that Indian art re-asserted itself. Y^avana was tlie name of the lonians. A point to he noted m It may also be noted that the Greek artist was concerned this connection is that the term 'yavanika' docs not refer to the more with man than with nature. To put it differently, nature Greeles, because in Greek theatre there was no curtain plays a very insignificant part in Greek art. The Indian artist, at all. D. R. Bhandarkar and S. K. De have shown that on the other hand, considered that the supreme vocation and 'yavanika' was perhaps the original form of the name of the cur- purpose of his art was to delineate the inner expression truth , tain. According to Levi, Yavanika may signify the materials land reality of the person more than his physical appearancca u.sed for making curtain wliieh were probably to he obtained on About the degeneration of the art of Mathura, Marshall says the other side of the Indus, the region that remained for a long "The dramatic vigour and warmth of the feeling which charL- time under the hegemony of the Greeks. The recent discoveries m terised the reliefs of the Sanchi gateways are now vanishing • the Central Asia have proved that the technique of drama was work composition is becoming weak and mechanical, the postures ed out completely in India before the beginning of our era, and formal and stilled. The cause of this decadence is not difficult it had developed to such a stage that it could easily influence the to discover. A little before the Christian era, Mathura had be dramas of Burma, Tibet, China and other countries. Moreover, come the capital of Satrapy, as a result there was an influx of semi-Hellenistic art, too weak in its environment to maintain its in Sanskrit drama there was no pure tragedy and therefore it individuality, yet still strong enough to interrupt and enprvnf^ does not observe the unity of time and place prescribed by Aris the old traditions of Hindustan. It was no longer a case of totle. Greek must have been a colloquial language in the Punjab Indian art vitalised by the inspiration of the west but of its beinir and the Indian epics might have been translated into the Greek. deadened by its embrace." Elaborating thi.s, Marshall says • Though Varahamihira and some otlier astronomers used Greek "Hellenistic art never took a real and lasting hold upon India f terms, it is not proved tliat the wliole system of Siddhanta was the reason that the temperaments of the two people were rad/" derived from the Greeks. eally dissimilar. To the Greek, man, man's beauty, and man's In fbie : "The history of these Greek dyansties" says E.B. intellect were everything and it was the apothesis of this be Havell, "is for us almost a blank and for estimating the amount and this intellect which remained the keynote of the Hell * and quality of Hellenism in Ba.ctria, we are reduced to building art in the Orient. But these ideals awakened no resnnrio^ up hypothesis upon the scantiest data." As the occupation of Indian mind. Theminr. vision ofrvf India -cTrr..,was 1hounded , by the immorIH thC India by the Greeks was purely military and commercial matter, tal, rather than the mortal, by the infinite rather than tho a •+ it had very little effect in hellenising the country. Therefore, as "Wliere Greek thought was ethical, his was spiritual- whero P i' Dr. Tarn says, India had very little to learn from the Greeks and was rational, his was emotional. And to these higher also she knew that she could out-stay the spirit. India developed these moral spiritual instincts, he sought, at a later datP her own culture and would have gone in the same way had the .• nn Irir +7*£lncnl an+tn n ' ^0 glVe articulate expression by transplanting them into the terms' of Greeks never existed. and colonr," The Indian craftsman made use of it asTyaiuS Indian Influence in the West : There is definite evidence of medium in which to narrate m a simple and conyersational lan^age India's influence in the West. Asoka's missionaries had carried the legends and history of its faith. This wa.s maintained for the^ake Indian culture to Alexandria in Egypt, Cyrene, Macedonia and of lucidity and dramatic power. He welcomed Hellenistic an not Epirus. Asoka claims m his Edicts, that even in the distant 1 r

136 INDIA-SECOND CENTURY B.C. TO THIRD A.D. INDIA-SECOND CENTURY B. C. TO THIRD A. D. 137

countries the Law of Dharma was followed. Even before AJe- Indianisation of the Sakas : The coins, sculptural represen sender there were Indian colonies in Athens and many Greek re tations and the proper names of the monarchs indicate that the ligious sects had adopted Indian ideas of celibacy, asceticism in Indianisation of the Sakas was complete and thorough. In the field itiation, transmigration and purification by fastintr Plntn In of coinage, they continued the Greek model, but used both Greek ■Eepublic and in 'Theory of Ideas' accepts the caste system and and Kharosthi monograms. The Sakas led a simple and unsophist^ many other Upamsadic theories. cated life. Even their palace at Sircap does not exhibit much In the 1st and 2nd centuries A.D. Christianity was also in architectural pretensions. They embraced different Indian reli fluenced by Buddhism. It is shown that the' original gospel was gious creeds and extended the royal patronage to all the sects. influenced by Buddhism and the stories of Virgin birth of lesiis They worshipped Siva, Mahavira and the Buddha. A Saka prince Temptation, of Jesus, etc were borrowed from he Budd^ Usavadata, according to Nasik inscription, made liberal donation stones. Winternitz says that points of affreement for the maintenance of Hindu gods and Brahmanas. He bestowed dhist and Gospel stories are numerous and even amono- a cave on the Buddhist Sangha together with a perpetual endow tian theologians there are very few who doubt th^ ) ^ Chns- ment. Their names and titles are the sure testimony of their com nection between the two religions. i"storical con- plete Indianisation. The Saka Era : There has been a great controversy regarding 3. INDO-SCYTHIAN AND PARTHIAN PERIOD the origin of the Saka era. The first Saka era of about B.C. may have been followed in north-western India. Prof. Sten K(mow The disappearance of the Indo-Greek ATifi -n thinks that there were two other Saka eras. The current Saka the middle of the 1st century B.C. was era of 78 A.D. is called Salivahana Saka. According to South invasions and some scholars have called thi« L Indian tradition the Salivahana or Satavahana defeated Vikra- Scythian period of Indian history Thp pf as the Indo- maditya, overthrew the Vikrama era and established his own era of Darius I refer to as many as three bran^^ insd-iptions from 78' A.D. Some scliolars have attributed it to G-autamiputra According to Herodotus, some of these Sakac Sakas. who claims to have destroyed the Sakas or tlie family of Nahapana. contingents of Zerxes at the time of his inl iiicluded in the But Gautamiputra must be placed in about 120 A.D. However, a Sakas were kept in check by the rise of tha Pd^h" The foreign origin at the Saka era cannot be accepted and as S. Sri- Syrian and Indo-Bactrian powers Later the , Macedonian, kanta Sastri says, it is most probable that Hala, a Satavahana the weakness of the Baetrlan powers n advantage of king, founded the era which is accepted by the Puranas and the portions of their empire ThrSar''^'"'. ^^^ters of inscriptions. Afghanistan into Sind by the Bolan Pa«o • advance through eriptions. _ Therefore they first eoCised ^ 4. THE AGE OF THE KUSHANAS upwards into the Punjab. This is proved by tr * P^hed Mathura. inscriptions at The age of the Kushanas forms a significant chapter in the history of ancient India. It is 'one of the peaceful, prosperous The first king of kings was Manes TtrU ^ and dynamic epochs' in the annals of this country. The age is in Puskalavati and TaksasiJa in about 78 B P ^^^Mished himself made memorable by its intense political, intellectual, religious and by Azes I in about 58 B. C. Sir John Mar^oii i succeeded artistic activity. The rulers of this dynasty built up a vast empire Vikrama era to Azes I. But this theory of for attributed the comprising of the old kingdom of Bactria, Kashmir, Punjab and Vikrama era has -^^ry little epigraphic basis of the ed by Azes II and'Gondophores, who were'th ® foUow- parts of Central Asia. This in turn brought India into close con chosia before becoming king of kings Gondonh"^^^®^'^^® tact with the outside world. famous because his name has been associn+e.i become Origin and Early History ; The Kushanas were a branch of St. Thoma.s. the Apo.^tle of the PArachosia and made himsIiP^v^'^''^ ^o have Bactria and ousting the Sakas from the Bactrian borderland to a wide dominion free from Parthian control H faster of wards the south. In the Greek and Latin works Bactrians are des cribed as conquered by Saiwang i.e. Saka, one of the subtribes was by Pakores whose anthority seems to have confined Kuei-shung or Kushanas and therefore the Kushanas were Sakas. It was at this time the powerful family of irn ■ ? ^ f'onjab. This theory has been supported among otliers by Karlgren, Sten ICadphises had established itself in the Puniab "W'ema Konow and Kuwabara Jituziizo. But according to Dr. Tarn, the (KujuJa) drove out the Parthian? from the north ^-^^^Ptiises I Kushanas represented the Asii or the dominant element among the Taxila and Kashmir Valley. '""ost occupied yueh-Chi. That the Kushanas bMonged to the Yueh-Chi seems to 139 138 INDIA-SECOND CENTURY B.C. TO THIRD A.D. INDIA-SECOND CENTURY B.C. TO THIRD A.D. be a more reasonable Tiew for the simple. reason that the two shka group of Kadphises group. This theory cannot be accepted Chinese Annals, the Annals of the Earlier and the Later Han because the priority of the Kadphises group has been established Dynasties, the Tsian Hanshnn and the Hon Han-shu refer to the by archaeological evidence. Much reliance cannot be pl^ed on power of the Ta Yueh-chi in the Ta-his region. According to Han tradition placing Kanishka 400 years after the Bustupa at Taxila arrived at the conclusion that he must have reign his epithet Mahesvara, and the figure of Nandi and V ed in the 2nd century A.D. , reverse of his coins. ^ R. C. Majumdar has maintained that Kanishka ascended the throne in 248 A.D. and was the founder of an era, which he con Kanishka Group of Kings : nects with the Trikutaka era, starting from the same year. This Chronology : TJie problem of the date of Kanishka whipli * theory can hardly be accepted. As shown by Prof. Dubreuil; "the practically the question of the Kushanas, is one of the reign of Vasudeva, the last of the Kushanas, came to an end 100 puzzles of ancient Indian history. Before we take ud fh years after the beginning of the reign of Kanishka. Numerous tion of this question in great detail, we have to be clear inscriptions prove that Vasudeva reigned at Mathura. In about points, viz., whether the Kanishka group preceded the KadnV 350 A. D. the Nagas had their capitals at Mathura, Kantipuri and group and whether Kanishka was the founder of either Padmavati before they Avere subjugated by Samudvagupta" Vikrama or Saka era. As will be shown presently we m Majumdar's theory is also contrary to the Tibetan account''which sumo that the ICadpliises group and Kanishka was not tho makes one Kanishka a contemporary of king Viiavakirti nf Tri-,nfor> of either the Vikrama or Saka era. tounder who ruled about 120 A.D.^ Further, the evidence of the eni^hs of the Kausambi kings and recently discovered Kailvan inscrintior, The beginning of the reign of Kanishka has been assiimpd h as well as the Saka inscriptions in east Malva, do not ^4^ different scholars differently to 1st century B.C., and l^t' ? sucli a conclusion. ' of 3rd centuries A. D. Prof. Cunningham, E. J. Fleet and j' Kenned support the 1st century B. C. theory, on the ground that Kanishke The above disenssion clearly shows that there is no unanimity was the founder of bas^ of a tradition that KanishS I, H. C. Roychoudlmry; Political History ot Ancient India; p. 468, lived 400 years after the Buddha and on the priority of the Kani- 140 INDIA-SECOND CENTURY B.C. TO THIRD A. D. INDIA-SECOND CENTURY B.C. TO THIRD A.D. 141 among scholars regarding the date of Kanishka. In the present convened the Fourth Synod of Buddhism at Kundalavana Vihara state of our knowledge we can only say that he must have ascend in Kashmir under the presidentshiiD of Vasumitra. According to ed the throne in the first half of the 1st century A.D. and aceordinw Tibetan accounts however, the Couuhil was held at Jullundur, in to this view it was Kanishka who was defeated by the Chinese pene'' eastern Punjab. The reason for this is not far to seek. The older ral in about 90 A.D. ^ Theravada or Hinayana Buddhism had by the time of Asoka deve loped into the 18 heretical schools and Asoka is said to have re Kanishka ; Kanishka who was the most warlike and ablest is established Theravada. After Asoka's death, coiiflmts arose with undoubtedly the most striking personality of his dynasty. He was regard to Buddha's teachings and Kanishka thought it wise to the greatest of the Kushana kings. As a conqueror, a military have them systematised and codified. Accordingly, with the aid of leader, a patron and propagandist of Buddhism, he appears oreat Parsva, he convened a council of 500 monks belonging to Sarvasti- He resembles Chaudragupta Maurya in his military ability and vada school to settle the disputed doctrines. Yuan Cliwang says Asoka in his religious zeal. Under him the Kushana empire reach- that the Buddhi.st canon was written down on copper plates and ed its highest watermark. enclosed in stone boxes were deposited in a stupa specially built for After the death of "Woma Kadphises. the family of Kanishka the purpose. ^ems to have occupied the Punjab. In coins and inscriptions three Though a patron of Buddhism, Kanishka was not intolerant to Kanishkasbetween Kanishka are mentioned. I and the Scholars family have of Kadphises.disputed the According connections to wards other creeds. His coins show that he followed an eclectic Chinese history, Kanishka came from Khotan and belonged to the religion. Greek, Zoroastrian, Maithraik and Hindu gods like Siva, httle Yueh-chi tribe. But his deseendants are called as Lat Durga are found on his coins. These may he taken as a unique Tueh-ehi. The view of V.A. Smith that Kanishka hpln7.rr J 1 testimony to his remarkable toleration and benevolence towards the Kushana section of the Yueh-chi nation may be accepted diiferent creeds. Mahayanism : The rise of Mahayana Buddhism has been trac Kanishka began his career as a Viceroy of "WpTUfl ed far earlier than Kanishka, i.e., to tlie 3rd and the 2iid centuiy tic valley. He began consolidating his position for tlie B.C. But its doctrines were systematised in the second century throne by subjugating the rival viceroys and extending hi^ A. D. The Hinayana Buddhism did not attach great importance rity to the Punjab and Sind. Soon afterward he e™ to logic and psychology and was partly realistic. The doctrines north-western India and established his capital nt Pnv of Silas, Vinaya and ritual were entirely different. But when A Buddhist tradition says that the Buddhist schohr 1! Buddhism began to spread and was attacked by other schools, it refused to attend the court of Kanishka and, therefore partly absorbed elements of popular Hinduism. Thus began the . Central India. He fought with tlie kings of Saketa'anrl p worship of Buddlia and his manifestations in the image form. It putra. Now Kanishka turned his attention to the west whS'p t'' associated itself with Tantrie Saivism and Gandhara school of defeated the king of Parthia. In his old age he 1p7 n architecture. In doctrinal matters, there came to be developed pedition to China and his fii-st expedition was a failure^ 1?" what is known as theoiy of Trikayas. Buddha was no longer a again invaded for a second time and defeated thp nv,'- historical person and Gautama was only an illusory manifestation king Pan Young, son of Pan Chao and wrested from him tlin of the Buddha. winces of Kashgar. Tarkand and Khotan. This was the The Plinayana was opposed by the purely idealistic theory, striking exploit of Kanishka. Kashmir was also included i negating the existence everywhere and attributing perishability empire and some of his monuments are found there As i and momentariness to all the manifestations of the minds, denying of these eonque.sts, the empire of Kanishka extended from nnil? tbe reality of the world altogetlier. Sunya was interpreted as the and Kashmir to middle India. The remote regionrSd T negation of negation, but without a positive conflict. It was argued Pamir passes formed a part and parcel of his empire It that the external world apprehended by senses did not exist in fi:tness of tilings he assumed the title of Maharais • reality, but was only a manifestation, out and out unreal This Kaisera and Devaputra. ^'lanaraja, Rajatiraja, was due to the streams of self-impressions which o-q out and Kanishka and Buddhism : Kanishka's name is snpclnii create the form oJ the external things. This was called Pratitva ciated with Buddhi.sm. According to Buddhist tradition hp h Samutapada. The Sunyavadins also deny the existence of onv :eonvort to Buddhism and built a relic tower'afSh'w'rToo permanent entity, like the individual ego or atma, but Karma was the universal law of cause and effect. Therefo-e tl,o Tvr n feet in be.ght, to winch was attracted a large number of liters Buddhists had to develop a system of logic to relute the frr of Buddha on'tlie co'inrThe JlVrf k"'-'"'"® systems. Nagarjuna in about 2nd ccnlury AD do! ? ^ has become memorable m the hi,story of Buddhist eh.frch"'He powerful dialectic to dcmoli.sh the opposing theory. Therefore^ 142 INDIA-SECOND CENTURY B.C. TO THIRD A.D INDIA-SECOND CENTURY B.C. TO THIRD A.D. 143 regarded to be tbe founder of Suuyavada pMlo- stone called clay-state or schist, and also clay and stucco. The NagarjW approaches the Vedautic ideal of Anirvachaniva Gandhara school has become memorable by its sculptures. or mdeseribable. But denying the soul, the Buddhist sehoclfeZ The figure sculptures of the school resolve themselves into two nutted themselves to two psychological theories, accSgTo groups, the detached statues and relief pictures. The detached which the supreme entity is neither sat or real nor asot ^ stautes include the representation of the Buddha, Bodhisatvas and but a void or simya, which still has a reality otherwke"''th ® other deities of tlie Buddhist pautheou. The one figure who is would be no possiblity of liberation or Moksha tl^ere frequently represented by the side of Buddha is worthy of notice. In Mahayana pJiilosopIiy, Nirvana or Moksha + He holds a thunderbolt in his left hand. This figure has been quite a different thing from ^he Hinayanridea Tf . 1^ variously identified as Devadatta, the enemy of the Buddha, or tion of self of all desires. But this L-ativp i Mara, the Buddliist Satan or God Indra. Vogel regarded him as satisfy tlie thinkers and the common people Ihere^^ +i the personification of Dharnia. The most reasonable view appears dox philosophical schools which developed "in tl t n • i to be his identification with Yaksa. 'Probably the sculptors in hody of Sutra literature, attacked the Mahavnn ^ tended that he should be comsidered invisible to spectators, in ac the Maliayana compelled to compromise with t^e unmif v cordance with the well understood convention.' M a result of this jcompromise Mahayana adnnt^i^ 'Religious. For an early Buddha type we have to turn to the seated Dhyana and other Tantric practices. A vasfuterat ' Buddha image, now in the Berlin museum. He has moustaches -and spread throughout Asia. ^erature sprang up and coiled hair. The robe he wears falls over his feet. It is the Literature; Kanishka was equallv finest example of the early type of the Buddha. ture. During this period Sanskrit ivL acti™ L d btur° The relief pictures illustrate sacred stories in successive scenes. were many famous scholars like Vasumitro ^ There They are commonly spoken as bas-relief or liigh-relief. Of these Kumaralata, Asvaghosa, Parsva, Mathara T w °™8l>araksha, the four following representations of the Buddha may be noted : Sangharaksha was the author of Margabhumi^Sl?' 'The master is depicted with fiames issuing from his head and was translated into Chinese and other CenM A the water of life from his feet. This represents fire and water mira Asvaghosa was not only a philosopher, but a cle mentioned in the Jataka. The second representation shows the Supdaxananda, the earliest extant Sanskrit dramrdisT Buddha seated under a tree and third is a good specimen of the Central Asia. Among his other works menti/ "discovered in Buddha seated on a diamond throne. The remaining figure is in Buddhacharita, Sutralankara and Sariputran?Sr^^^ teresting as a distinctly more Indian Buddha type, seated on a lata is tlie author of Kalpanamanditika. In SS lotus, with the soles of the feet turned up in Yogi fashion. The. and Susruta were patronised by Kanishka ®"icine, Charaka right shoulder is bare. This represents the latter part of the Great _ Administration : Details are lackine ibmn- • Miracle at Sravasti when Buddha multiplied his person in the air tion of Kanishka. His vast empire must hn vp ho. .^."d^mistra- and was heard preaching on all sides.' his subordiuates who had the status of'Re + ^^Mimstered by Two other bas-reliefs, one representing the emaciated Buddha trapn. The prosperity of Eiua empire unfe Tfn 't and the other the nativity of the Buddha are of high quality. The less due to his efficient and benevolent administration former illustrates an event in his life wlion ho desired to attain en lightenment by subjecting his body to self-torture by rcfusiuf* food. Gandhara school of sculpture : KaniQbko , He attained tlie Buddhuhood only after he abandoned self-torture' Like Asoka, he built many s'upas and mtntS^ bndlder. The other illustration relates to the birth of Siddhartha. In this and I uskalavati. He built cities like KanishkaruiT", j f^taliputra relief are found nine figures. The central figure is queen Maya he erected a monastery and a huge wooden w - devi standing under a tree. On her left is god Indra who receives placed some relics of the Buddha. tower, m the child sjiriiiging from Mayadevi's side. Behind liim stands The age of Kanishka is specially known fn-n fi, Brahma and two other gods. On the right is the sister of quppti new style of sculpture known as the Greco of a Mayadevi and three attendants. Tlie figures are thorouffhlv Gandhara school which originated about 2 centmxt oi* the naturalistic men and women, cleverly modelled and ingeniouslv was tho meeting ground of three civilizatim,« Gandhara urrangod as lu.t to intorfcie one witl, tlie other, The draperies Iranian. This resulted in the birth of a hvh ^ *^^cek and are treated with freedom and variety. V A applied Greek ideals to Indian subjects with "^Weh The material that the artists employed were a success. picture:^p™Ced No account of Gandhara sculpture would be considered as com- 144 INDIA—SECOND CENTURY B. C. TO THljRJD A. iD INDIA-SECOND CENTURY B.C. TO THIRD A.D. 145 customs brought before our eyes. The different classes of the Hele .representing the 'Great Eenunciation'. population from prince to parish are represented and what is more "S.ready I saddledj fori th^egroom, use of IS his represented master. Indianas leading sculptor out theeenerally horse no subject of human interest was regarded as material unsuitable for the sculptor's chisel. elnrextent. ThfwMet'The whole scene"""T has been exquisitiely rendered to a great The sculptures cannot in anyway stand comparison with Sculptures of Bliarimt or Sanclii. As Rene Grousset has pointed out • -Tt is obvious that the Gandhara school, with its faces which neardhisrShooi:\"eii"tVK£rL^" Peshawar, is represented TCnhov i! • ^ discovered are often weak and lacking in character, its conventional motives ed with Buddhism. X?s represent mtimately assoeiat- adopted to order, and, we may add, its common places, cannot on a throne in European fashion His left possibly be compared to the school of Sanchi in siimenty of faith stool while he grasps a spear in idc 1o-p+ ^ ^ and emotion or spontaneity of inspiration, still less with the later find represents both Kubera and his p ^ Sahri-Bahlol schools of the Gupta and Pallava periods. But it would be a false throne. Hariti, in one of her atpeets waT^r' interpretation of its nature to class it with the Indian school. On the other liaiid, if we set it in its legitimate place, among the from the dangers of epidemics. (The'seulotoiT j Hellenistic schools, it .cuts a more honourable figure there. Instead work most delicately. 'culptor has modelled his of putting the Gandhara school in the shade by contrasting it with The Buddha Image : Tim Dnr-mii^ • the Gupta art, we should compare with that of Alexandria, Perga- tieally Hellenistic. But the ideal w*as"p«?^ stylis- mou, and the various schools of Romano-Asiatic or Romano-Syrian evident from the mudras or poses and Indian becomes art, when it will assume its full value." From the artistic point of The hair on the Buddha's head at Gandharl features, view many sculptures do not deserve the attention of a serious ed in curls turning from left to right well arrang- student of art, but considering ''its importance from iconogi-aphie legend which informs that after dismissinj ifi and other aspects, it would certainly find a place of distinction locks with sword and therefore his head w^s in the history of Asiatic art." Anotlier distinguishing feature of the Gandlm shaven, To sum up, tiie reign of Kaiiisbka is a significant landmark in that they show heads covered with wivi of Buddha is the history of ancient India. Politically, he established an empire seats provided for the Buddha images which included the major part of northern India, the first attempt M said before, the craftsmen who were wnT- comfortable. towards political integration after the fall of the Mauryas. His Indian ideal were foreigners. The oonpnnJ"^ essentially period also saw tlie Kusliaiia empire reach high pitch of prosperi Indian. "All that is really Hellenistic Ic d undoubtedly ty. This is evidenced by the brisk trade between India and Roman dhara sculptor....did not make an AdoiL Plastmity; the Gan- empire and Ciiina. the Uteravy a.ctivity, religious formament and dha into an Apollo. He may not LatreopiS'' ^ Bud- great missionary activity. In short, Kanishka 'was the master of bnt his Buddha type and that of Mathnro ludian sculpture the great cross roads of the active civilizations of his time.' common literary and oral tradition." equally based on a Successors of Kanishka : Our knowledge regarding the succes Historical interests of the Sculptures • v ir o ■ sors of Kanishka is very little. Ills immediate successor seems to ably summed up the historical interest bas admir- be Vasiska, probably his sou, whose authority in tho region of thus : "The Gandhara sculptures sugfrest if Baudhara sculptures Mathura and Sanchi is indicated by the inscriptions found there. tions of many kinds. Regarded as an specula- No coins of this monareli have, however, been found so far. He was obviously literary and religions tradition ti° expression of the succeeded by Huviska who assumed the title of Devaputra Shahi. trate the testimony of the Buddhist scriotnrp!^^fi and illus- The absence of otlier imperial title has made Sten Kouow to think upon the beliefs and practines of the earUr , cwing much light that the centre of the Kushana power was at the hands of another Vehicle. Viewed as a collection of saer^rf pffi king. He was the founder of the city of Huviskapura in Kashmir guide to the iconography of Buddhism as ^ That his rule was a long^ ^ and ,prosperous I one and that heU.*., UJflmaintain- importance". He is also of the view that thp«i c? ed the empire intact is attested to by the abundant gold and copper a., in a mirror, a vivid image of almost eve^rpC^'or/.' coinage. North India, lay and elerieal, during several Centuries TI,'' r-"/ Huviska was succeeded by Vasudeva T who was the last im depicted landscapes, towns, domestic interiors st T portsnt monarch of the Kushana dyansty. His name a svnonvm trees and animals with unlimited realistic detail' 0th ^ ' of Visbnu, inclioates tl.at how the foreigners were embracing ob,iects like furniture, vehicles, arms, tools, and' the Hinduism rapi^y. He appears to have lost his hold on the outlal- pieted as they were used by the anfiient.s and their maun a ing provinces in northern and north-western parts of TnrPs w;;,. 146 INDIA—SECOND CENTURY B.C. TO THIRD A. D. INDIA-SECOND CENTURY B.C. TO THIRD A.D, 147

oeeurrea inl78 A. D. began the decline of the ruling with his son »Tayadaman, after whose death with Rudrada- Vnsndeva I v.'as .s^ccGded by Vasudeva II and Kanishka III !man, his grandson. Tlicy WGie weak and failed to curb the expansion of the Sessanian The reign of Rudradaman I constitutes a brilliant chapter in power towards the east and the empire eame to an end. The Yac- the liistory of tlie family of Satraps in particular. It was he who retrieved tlie fallen fortunes of the family and by defeating the Satavalianas he once again established the supremacy of the Satraps. He is well remembered for his benevolent measures. As king and administrator, Rudradaman ligures undoubtedly as the i. fjrs mo.st illustrious and the greatest sovereign among the Western most interosbing and important in ancient Indian history The Kushanas who were culturally a less developed rane, cam^unde^ Satraps. the deep impact of the culture of the Indians. They easily assf At the time of his accession t6 the throne, the Satraps had not milated themselves with the indigenous population. A pdnt to te recovered from the severe blow received by King Nahapana at the noted ill tins connection is that these foreicmers wer^ Tint it?- • t liancls of the Satavahana ruler, Gautamiputra Satakarani. After to Indiiin culture. On the other band tbpv iT n iiUDUCal becoming King, tlie recovery of the glory of the Satraps became art and literature. The KusCrrnlT n T^df. Patronised his concern. . Rudradaman defeated his Satavahana rival in of an era of political stability which in turn^^eavr^nf the dawm two clearly I'ouglit battles; but he did not extirpate the Satava- efflorescence of Indian culture. Above all the rife nf M liaua king on account of liis "non-remote relationship.' He how the Gandhara school of art and the cultivation of ever wrested from the Satavahana ruler the provinces of Kukura, guage are events of utmost importance whicli rP Ian- Suraslitra, Avanti and other places, lost to them by King Nahapana. With this victory Rudradaman became the master of the whole of K.^huna period as one of the most brilliant peri^dfffTdi' hi" Hie Satrap dominions with the exception possibly of Nasik and Poona districts. He claims to have conquered all these territories 5. THE "WESTERN SATRAPS by his own prowess. Rudradaman was a benevolent King with intense love for humanity. This has been attested to by his exceptionally impor tant document, the Girnar Rock inscription. This great inscrip Ksabrr:iaV™"d'rar'dti:i®^^:PLrattw^two rulers, Bhumaka and Nahapana .f^P^^^ented by tion is the first to be composed in classical Sanskrit anticipating belonged to the line of the Kardamaka Pmf "w Chastana perhaps tlie Golden Age of the Guptas. The rock which contains that It IS possible that the Ksaharatas mav hil« Ti observes this inscription is 12' in height and 75' in circumference at its base. the family of Chastana, a Saka., That thev are nf P^Jlavas and The inscription was composed after completing the construction of IS certain^ Sten Konow considered Bhnmaka anrM n SI new dam to Lake Sudarsana wliieli had breached by the floods two members of the Ksaharata family as of Saka ori^^ due to a terrific storm ou IGth November, 150 A. D. Tlie inscrip Nahapana was the notable member of tim w i tion records the history of the Lake. It was built originally by a He raised the power and prestige of the familv family, provincial governor of Chandrngupta Manrya, Pnsya Gupta, a independent empire of his own which extended vaisya. During the time of Asoka, irrigation canals were cons Ajmir. Tlie two important and prosperoufp^i!'"^, to tructed by the Yavana Tusyapa. The inscription further informs Kathiawar were included in his empire Nahamn^ i f ns that the lake was noted for its beauty and "solidarity of the date is the year 46. This year refers to Siko^ known embankments with well provided conduits and drains." Because Nahapana's reign came to an end in 124 A D pvni? of its excellent condition, the lake was called Sudarsana. The floods in this year that Nahapana was defeated by Vlautaminnfi. q ^ caused by the terrific storm damaged the dam and "its devastating ram of the Satavahana dyansty, who restruek his Lins t effects made the Lake Dnrdarsana or ugly." Rudradaman realised memorate his achieving victory over Nahapana the im]>orlinice of this lake to the people and wanted to recons truct the dam. With this end in view he sent up a proposal for With the death of Nahapana, the other line nf ^w^c■^ Ibo consideration of his mmistry. The Ministry disapproved the Satraps, the founder of which was Chastana bn^o ^ . estern scheme on the ground that the breach to the lake was too wide Prof. Dubreuil a.cribe. the Sal.a La trStanfL^Tbl th'ns involving eostly repairs^ But. King Ruclradaman did not been disputed. After his accession to the throne he'set himself leave tlie matter at that. On the other hand he provided the the ta,sk of retrieving the fallen fortunes of tlie family hL tos neeessniw funds from Ins own purse for the reconstruction of the dam with a view to remove the despair of the peopV In ^ short 148 INDIA—SECOND CENTURY B. C. TO THIRD A.D. INDIA-SECOND CENTURY B.C. TO THIRD A.D. 149 time tlie work was completed and the dam became trebly strong. With the repairs, we are told, the lake became very beautiful and The successors of Rudradaman who ruled as Ksatrapas and the hence its name—Sudarsana Tara or more beautiful.' iMahaksatrapas continued to have their hold on western India till This instance speaks volume for his qualities of head and the last quarter of the 4th century A. D. Their empire was finally heart. In the true Mauryan tradition he identified his interests obliterated when Ghaudragupta II Vikramaditya killed the Chief •witli the interests ot his subjeets. That he eared more for the "of the Western Satrapas, Rudrasinha III in 395 A.D. and incor- feet nappmess of his subjects can be deduced from the above porated it into the Gupta empire. As an administrator, Eudradaman appears equally great. The Socdal and Economic Condition Girnar rock inscription gives us welcome clues to his admiuistra- The Indianisation of the foreigners shook the foundations of tive abilities The pnnees appear to have been trained in the Indian society. Though it did not lead to the loosening of caste Science oi Polity. As a writer points out, the fact that they rigidity, it certainly led to greater exelusiveness among the Brah- aitached much importance '-to train thp T\i ^ iqanas and Ksatriyas. The rise of Bhagavatism, based on the the employjiient of ofiiccrs endowed with ministerial aulMcaSon^^ teachings of Vasudeva-ICrishna, and its emphasis on bhakti helped the classification of ministers and otiier wT offleLlT cl! f' foreigners to embrace Hindu religion. This religion also under shows that the teaching of the writers of titatfe in n;,;; w mined to an extent the rigidity in the social systems. These foreign not lost upon the Scytliian conquerors of India The r races did not produce any noticeable effect on Hindu society. They this statement is attested to by the Girnar inscription itself married Hindu wives, adopted their customs and manners, religion and even the names and in course of time they became indis- The inscription further informs' us that Dnrlvtri tjnguisliable. However tlie foreigners had to wait till the days elected as the King. But how and in what of Guptas for tlieir inclusion in the fourfold division of the Indian is nowhere informed, if anything this fact indicates that society. The Sakas practised sati and their assimilation in the man established a constitutional type of monarchy and w Indian population must have made the institution of sati popular tary dictatorship or autocracy. There wfl«i tl,o S ^ ^ in India. They introduced in India the long tunic for men and which checked royal absolutism. If Rudradamnu^'^^ eouueil blouses for women. Generally people led a happy and contented ingan autocratthe matter he towould the councilhave reeoiistructed of ministe.-s theby tpen^''^ life and there was greater economic prosperity as a -result of ■ flourishing foreign commerce. csiehequer of the state. That he did not do suDnm^ Agriculture continued to be the basis of Indian economy. But that Rudradaman established a constitutional type of Governm™7 the state farms worked by hired and forced labour of the Mauryan The mentioning of the two tynes of times were dispensed with and Divyavadana mentions individual {counsellors) and Karmasachlva (executive officers) in farmers in large numbers working hard and engaged in agricul tion is very significant. Tliis clearly shows that t1,pv mscrip- ture. The State encouraged individual efforts in the extension of Idnds of ministers. The first class of ministers Mati^pU- the area of cultivation. The Kushanas introduced the Aksayaniti cerned themselves in framing policy for good T7 system of land tenure which implied perpetual endowment of land the execution of such policy was left in the hands of e revenues. officers or Karmasacliivas. Rudradaman thus evolved Tim establishment of political unity over a greater part of tradition for tlie proper administration of the state ^ right North India and the ensuing peane and order created a congenial Rudradanniii was equally just in the administrntimq ^ climate for the growth of Trade. Trade also received great im as well. He imposed moderate taxes on Ids subiectr. petus when that great trade route connecting Central Asia fell change from the days of the Maurya.s. Poreed 'labour 1 into the hands of Kani&hka consequent on his victory over the benevolences were unheard of in his period. The Girnar RopV Cliinese Emperor. India, during this period, had a favourable inscription bears testimony to this statement. balance of trade with tlie Greco-Roman world which brought into By his enliglitened admiuistVation, Rudradaman was able to this country the scarce yellow metal which in turn added secure long peace m hi.s empire. The inscription claims that "h' to the national wealth of the country. realm was not troubled by robbers, snakes or diseases" It wonTd In this flourisliing commerce guUds played a vital role Bv be clear from this that under his just rule people led a happy 3 tins time guilds had won public esteem and confidence. Not'only contented life. Rudradaman was well versed in grammar polities the public but even members of the roval famiW ^ ^ musLC and logic. He ,wp^ equally versed in prose and poetry In with the gnilds. The Naaik ii«iription of uttd.fe in7°"^ short as King and administrator, Rudradaman appears great perthat month he made and two another depo.sits, 1000 Kahapanasone of 2000 at Kahapanas 3/4% interest at IV Jr fe mrnttiterZt T

150 INDIA-SECOND CENTURY B. C. TO THIRD A.D. INDIA-SECOND CENTURY B. C. TO THIRD A. D. 151 •with -tt-eavers guild for supplying annually "to everyone of the The drapery moulds the flesh very closely and folds are shown in twenty monks twelve Kahapanas as cloth money" and the rest to schematic lines. 'The under garment is fastened to the waist by a meet other sundry expenses. The guilds used these deposits as knotted girdle, while the upper is wouud round the left shoulder their capital which they lent to their members either to start new and drawn diagonally across the body, the ends being gathered industry or trade. By thier fair dealing guilds exercised greater up over the left over arm'. The nimbus, wherever preserved, is influence in the state. plain or scalloped at the edge in a low relief. These peculiarities prove tliat the Buddha image is a product of the Indian school. AST ■ Buddhist sculptures : Tlie earlier Mathura sculputres are The Mathura School of Sculpture V" derived from the stupas and railings. The Lonasobhika Votive iMathura, a city of immemorial 'antiquity, is renowned as a tablet represents a Jaiiia stupa. Tlie Jamalpur mound has yielded great centre of sculpture. Its early phase is contemporaneous pillars aiid pillar bases. The pillars liave high relief which contain with Bharhut and Sanchi schools, while its great phase coincides representation of Yaksliis, Buddhas. Bodhisatvas, toilet scenes and with the rise of the Kushanas. - In the realm of artistic activity etc. Another column from the same site represents 'almost nude Mathura held a premier place in north-estern India. In the words figure' of an ApSara 'standing on lotus flower springing from a globular jar'. This symbolises abundance. Among other sculp MMathura took long stridesthe in developmentshort time and of perfectedart and arhitecture,its artistic tures represented on the railing tlie toilet scene, tlie 'motif of a canons to a degree of excellence that for a time put into shnd^ woman ^^*ringing tlie water from lier long tresses', 'a crane drink the ancient stone cutters of Sanchi and Bharhut. Mathnm ing the drops of water that falls from the hair, as though they were the most prolific centre of art production during thtTeriolTd rain drops falling from a dark cloud' are worthy of notice. In Its ateliers flourished as warehouses for the newly concLed Bud the Mathura scliool, the representation of female figures "have dha and Bodhisatva images to be exported to such distanf attained greater freedom of movement, gestures and attitudes as Sarnath, Sanchi, Kusinagara and Sravasti." places along with an increased plasticity and refinement of the physical mass. The increased plasticity loads to the creation of alluring The Buddha Image : The most significant , female forms of which the aim is frankly sensual and suggestively Mathura school of sculpture is the image of the Buddha erotic. Whatever the purpose, these figures with their full round not exist before as the Buddha was represented throuib \ i breasts and liips, attenuated waists, and the smooth texture of the like the stupa, Bodhi tree, Dharmachakra, foot-nrhS warm and living llesli emphasise physical charm as their substance, throne etc. With the birth of Mahayauism the and sensual appeal as their aim, further accentuated by such ges anthropomorphic representation was felt as the Buddb tures as an outward thrust of the hip, a slight turn of the head or be regarded as the saviour God. No one wL had seen hand and frankly eoquttish countenance. Indian art at this m flesh and blood was alive and therefore the Yogi sLted b period is found to be unreservedly addicted to everything- terres- neath a tree, in a padmasana gazing upon the end nf tk . " tial and the entire plastic sense is steeped in the physical. The profound meditation suited the purpose. The Tndli physical and worldly aspect of art, so clearly emphasised at of a Yogi or a great man had some distinctive marks on Mathura is seen in violent and boisterous frenzy in the contem (mahapunisha laksanas) and the Buddha images wer^ j porary art of Vengi in South India". With these distinctive marks. Thus the Buddha imae-e in tlie indigenous scliool of Matliura but was later adontpd Brahmanical Sculptures : SG^ndhara school and rendered in Hellenistic style Whe ^ i + The early Matliura sculptures relate mostly to Brahmanienl period, there was great demand for the Gandhara tvne religion. They deal both witli Saiva and Vaisnava 111^^ Of Mathura studio also produced them to meet the growinff d^m the Saiva .sculptures mention may be made of four armed "sivi Yet sculptures showing Hellenistic influence constitute few nn/? Siva a.s Ardhanarisvara, and Umamahosvara. Vaisnava between. melude the repi-cseiitetir,„ of Surya, Balarama, Krishnlaovat The Mathura Buddhas are distinguishable from the G!,r.^k dhana and a DasaUla scene. Snrya is represented as squattin^n type. The Mathura Buddhas are always in the motted red ""1 a car drawn by four horses. He holds some obioet in « i i ^ ? stone of Sikri. The head is shaven and there is no mark f Beliind his head is a nimbus witb rays around its ed^e Wh-u's iTTrna and moustache. The right hand is raised in abhava ^ peculiar is the small shoulder wings of the t ^ while the left is held near the-hip in standing images Ld these there are the representations of clenched in seated images. The breasts are prominent Tb Yaksa, wlio is pot-hellied (Kalodara) i« ron^' / Nagas. The part of the body is half covered ;and the right shoulder isT^®^ probable that this type became the model for HindTcanesha." ■r-

153 152 INDIA-SECOND CENTURY B.C. TO THIRD A.D. INDI.A-SECOND CENTURY B.C. TO THIRD A.D.

Bacbhanalian Group (Madhupana) : "by the Nagas at Mathura, Padmavati and Ahichchhatra and they Sratlmra Ijqs yielded many specimens of this type. Among were called the Bharasivas. They took their name, Bharasiya, them mention may be made oE Staey's Silenns group, Palikhera from the sivalinga worn by them on their arms and they chose Siva group and INIaholi group. The MahoU sculpture is in excellent pre as their national god, because he repre.sents the power of destroy- servation and reveals an unkuown standard of achievement of the ino- the enemies. To revive the orthodox religion, they celebrated Mathura artists during the Kiishana period.' This slab contains sculp ten Asvamedha sacrifices whose memory is commemorated in the tures on both sides. On the reverse the bowl is represented as resting Dasasvamedha Ghat at Benares. on the trunk of a tree. Tliere are four figures on the obverse The The "S^akatakas of Berar also helped the Bharasivas to a large middle one. a graceful female, is shown in half-kneeling posture. extent.' K. P. Jayaswal says, "had it not been for the Bharsivas She i.s evidently intoxicated. She has placed her left hand on the and the Takatakas there could not have come into existence the shoulders of a girlish figure holding a drinking cup, while her ^upta empire or the glorious age of Vikramaditya." He further right hand is held by a standing male figure, perhaps her husband asserts that the Nagas were responsible for the Nagari alphabet who also supports her. The fourth figure in the background a and Nagara style of architecture, Sanskrit learning as opposed to female attention, is shown in the attitude of Vismaya. ' the Prakrit of "the Buddhists and Ajanta painting. But Jayaswal's theories liave been severely ariticised by various scholars. Sir ^Herakles and the Nemean LioiT is another group of sculntures Richard Burns has shown that Jayaswal has not deciphered the which is the result of foreign influence. It is 2 feet 5 inS S cbin.s properly in tiie construction of the Bharasiva-'Vakataka The hero is nude 'except for a skin hung behind his back and genealogy. Many coins of the 1st and 2nd century B.C. have fastened by the paws round the neck'. His left baud is missing. been assigned to the 2nd and 3rd century A.D. Symbols have Ihe manes oi the lion show that it is typically Indian been read as numbers. Purther, there is no evidence The ,"We.stern influence in these motifs is indicated bv the that the Vakatakas were a ruling power before 250 A. D. The Sata- treatment of drapery, in stance and above all in the senevnl fpa vahanas, from 180 B. C. were paramount power in the south down tures of the composition. "But such motifs formed no part of the to 250 A.D. Similarly, the Manjusri Mulakalpa, a work of about Inchan art moTemeut m ^ite of their seenung popularity i "thL 8th century A.D. is only a Buddhist church history and its facts are period...... They are :nst passing fancies which may have touched not always reliable. Therefore, it is not possible to accept Jayas- the imagination of the Mathura artists but are of verv little im wal's theory of an organised federation or a Pan-Indian empire. port for the general history of Indian art." Most of Jnyaswal's suggestions about the Bharasivas do not To sum up, the Mathura school encouraged and fostered in- deserve serious consideration. digenous trends and traditions. When the citv onYn j foreigners it had to yield place to foreign trends Tn « S. K. Saraswati : "Extraneous influences naturally affeSed Mathura also in her artistic pursuits, but the prevailing dominant tradition continued to be Indian and • °-p alien idiom could change its basic character. Thus ^ queathed a rlcli jegacy to the development of Indian art in"subse'

queoit centuries. " suuse- ' « r 6. THE BHARASWAS -li'i ' I The history of Northern India during 3rd and +1,.. i of the 4th century A. D. was called the Dark Age of by V.A. Smith and other historians, when arehaeolocrica? bad not progressed much and very little importance was aftophfd to the Puranas and other literary sources. This is chall^n d i! IC. P. Jayaswal in his Imperial History of India from 150 300 AH Javaswal made use of coins, inscriptions and Buddhist worV + reconstruct the history of India before the rise of the Guntas tt has sbown that there was a powerful national reaction of ortLd^® Hinduism agmmst the foreigners Greeks, Pahlavas and Sakas eto A eoufederaey of republican tribes in north India, was organsied