A Brief History of Greek Helmets

Jesse Obert

Author: Jesse Obert

Source: AncientPlanet Online Journal Vol. 2 (2012), 48 – 59

Published by: Ioannis Georgopoulos

Available at: http://issuu.com/ancientplanet/docs/ancientplanet_vol.2

Jesse Obert

A Brief History of Greek Helmets

Warfare is a constantly changing aspect of human interaction. In Ancient Greece, an emphasis on camaraderie and communal reliance developed the concept of unit cohesion and specialization. Ultimately, Greece would become the birthplace of Western Military thought. The maturation of this mentality can be traced through the stylistic and technological progression of military helmets. Experimentations with helmet design illuminate the limitations and intricacies of warfare as it was developed in the ancient world. Though the development of any technology is nonlinear, studying the evolution of stylistic designs reveals how the unique style of combat in Greece changed war.

The history of the Greek helmet began in the 17th century BCE, when the Mycenaean Empire controlled Greece. At the time, the Boar’s Tusk Helmet was popular throughout the region. This conically shaped helmet consisted of alternating levels of boars’ tusks in a style and design that may have originated in Western Europe (Snodgrass 19). The tusks were sewn into a felt or leather cap which served as the base of the helmet. In all reality, the boar’s tusks would have shattered after a single blow, but were an improvement over leather or even felt (Everson 10-11). Additionally, the laces holding the tusks in place would have been exposed and vulnerable, so leather strands were probably tied between the alternating tusks in order to protect the laces (Everson 7).

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A Boar’s Tusk Helmet

Boar’s Tusk Helmets did not have a uniform design. Cheek guards were the first and most prominent addition to the helmet. They were formed from a single vertical series of boars’ tusks. Additionally, primitive versions of the iconic horsehair crest may have begun to appear on the boar’s tusk helmets (Everson 9). Another decoration, which only appeared in the Bronze Age, was the addition of bull’s or ram’s horns (Everson 9).

The Boar’s Tusk Helmet may have been a prestige item related to hunting prowess (Snodgrass 19). Hunting was a frequent theme in Mycenaean art, and boar was often the target. The Boar’s Tusk Helmet was an effective display of skill as each helmet required somewhere between forty and fifty boars (Everson 10).

As bronze forging techniques improved, bronze sheets began to be included in the Boar’s Tusk Helmet. The transition wass by no means a universal one and many Bronze Age helmets restricted bronze to accessories such as cheek guards (Snodgrass 25-26). When bronze was used on the dome of the helmet, it initially took the form of small bronze disks which were sewn or clipped onto the felt or leather cap underneath (Everson 39). Eventually full bronze helmets appeared, but these helmets were extremely thin and had to be attached to a cap (Everson 11).

The Warrior Vase, some scholars believe these Late Bronze Age soldiers are wearing leather helmets with bronze studs (Snodgrass 31)

http://heritage-key.com/greece/warrior-krater

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Near the end of the Bronze Age, neck guards began to appear in their most primitive form. They appear to have been a series of small interwoven bronze scales which draped from the back of the helmet (Everson 13). Additionally, horsehair crests became much more popular. These crests were rather simple and are often compared to the crests of Assyria and other Eastern states (Snodgrass 43).

Despite the wide scale collapse of the Bronze Age empires in the 12th century BCE, the Boar’s Tusk Helmet continued to be an item of interest. The basic shape was maintained through the following Dark Age and had a noticeable influence on later Greek helmets (Snodgrass 32). Though no Mycenaean helmets seemed to have physically survived, Homer references and describes one in the 8th century BCE (Homer X.306-310).

In the 8th century BCE, two new helmets emerged. They were made entirely of bronze and were products of advanced forging techniques. Their sudden appearance and widespread adoption is often attributed to the dominant form of combat in the 8th century BCE. This dramatic style of violence involved crowds of heavily armored men ramming into each other. At some point both sides would have a massive pushing contest all the while trying to stab the enemy with spear or sword. Though the details of Greek battle are heatedly debated, scholars agree that the Ancient Greek warrior was protected from head to foot except at their face, throat, and lower thigh.

The first helmet was named the Illyrian Helmet by later scholars because of its popularity amongst the Macedonians and non-Greek Illyrians. However, the name is misleading as the Illyrian Helmet was originally developed on the Peloponnese and quickly became popular throughout Greece. Similar in shape to earlier Bronze Age helmets, the Illyrian Helmet covered the entire head, cheeks, and even part of the throat. Although, the face was left open and the helmet was forged in two pieces which were soldered together along its peak (Snodgrass 52).

Jesse Obert

An Illyrian Helmet

Because the Illyrian Helmet was forged from two pieces, it was especially weak along the seam. The horsehair crest, which was already a psychological and stylistic asset, attempted to address the issue. When the crest ran from back to front it conveniently concealed and strengthened the crease atop the Illyrian Helmet. This style of crest quickly became a popular necessity, and for several centuries Greek crests almost exclusively ran from front to back (Everson 76).

The Illyrian Helmet had many weaknesses. The open face failed to address the dangers of intense close combat. Additionally, the forceful collisions involved in early Greek warfare made the structural weaknesses of the Illyrian Helmet a liability. The helmet was phased out and ultimately disappeared from Greece by the 5th century BCE (Everson 130). Interestingly, the Illyrian Helmet became a favorite of the Macedonians and Illyrians. These northern communities utilized light infantry, loose formations, and cavalry which all required the visibility of an open faced helmet.

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A later Illyrian Helmet with hinged cheek guards

The Corinthian Helmet, which appeared around the same time as the Illyrian Helmet, was immensely more popular. It was remarkably strong as it was forged out of a single piece of bronze (Snodgrass 51). In addition, the face was entirely covered by a long nose guard and two thick cheek guards which almost met over the mouth. However, the helmet left the neck vulnerable and was notoriously uncomfortable and heavy (Snodgrass 56). There was little to no padding, greatly restricted vision, and no ear holes. The wearer was partially blinded and practically deaf when he wore the helmet. This has led some authors to speculate whether the popularity of the Corinthian Helmet effectively postponed the invention of battlefield tactics as communication on the battlefield was almost certainly impossible (Hanson 71).

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A Corinthian Helmet

An additional issue with the Corinthian Helmet was the cost. Corinthian Helmets had to be made specifically for each soldier (Snodgrass 59). If the helmet did not fit tightly over the soldier’s head, then a glancing blow could turn the helmet in battle and completely blind the soldier (Hanson 72). This need for an exact fit meant that the helmet could not be passed through families or recovered from battlefields. In Ancient Greece, soldiers had to purchase their own equipment and some men must have chosen the cheaper Illyrian Helmet or maybe even a leather alternative.

By the end of the 6th century BCE, the Corinthian Helmet had been adapted to address its defects. The cheek guards and the back of the helmet were extended to rest on the wearer’s shoulders. This addition covered the neck and throat and dissipated the helmet’s weight. A ridge was added above the forehead encircling the peak of the helmet thereby allowing for extra padding and additional protection from glancing blows. Finally, large ear holes were cut into the sides of the helmet to allow for communication on the battlefield (Snodgrass 94). This solidified the helmet’s popularity in Greece, but by the end of the 5th century BCE the introduction of

Jesse Obert battlefield tactics and strategy had encouraged the Greek soldier to prefer more open helmets with better visibility.

A later Corinthian Helmet with a ridge around the peak of the head, but still missing ear holes

At the beginning of the 6th century BCE, the Chalcidian Helmet began to appear. This helmet attempted to address the visibility and comfort issues of the Corinthian Helmet while still providing adequate protection for the face. The Chalcidian Helmet had a rounded nose guard and two large rounded cheek guards. The eyeholes were slightly larger and two slots were left open behind the cheek pieces for the ears. At first glance the helmet looks like a rounded and lighter form of the Corinthian Helmet and may have been invented with that intention (Snodgrass 70).

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A Chalcidian Helmet

http://www.trocadero.com/stores/aphrodite1/items/1039970/item1039970.html

Like the Illyrian Helmet, the Chalcidian Helmet had a misleading name. It was named for its popularity in art from the city of Chalcis. However, the helmet first appears in southern Italy and seems to have been invented by Greek colonists (Snodgrass 70). These settlers needed a strong helmet that would enable them to defeat the light infantry and cavalry of the local Italians. The Chalcidian helmet may have given them the visibility they needed while maintaining the protective shape of the Corinthian Helmet. The helmet was popularized on the mainland by the Athenians who seemed to prefer lighter helmets with more visibility (Snodgrass 70).

At the end of the 6th century BCE, as Corinthian Helmets became less burdensome, a new helmet was introduced on the Western coast of modern day Turkey. The region was called Ionia and was considered Greek. The Ionians were known to combine eastern and western traditions to create hybridized technology, and the Ionian Helmet was no exception. It had a distinct neck guard and hinged cheek pieces. Additionally, the forehead had a large flat plate for extra protection. The cheek guards could be tied to the peak of the massive forehead guard, thereby leaving the face entirely open, or tied together at the chin. Though the absence of a nose guard or throat guard left the face less protected, the additional forehead guard and neck guard may have been reactions to a different style of combat (Snodgrass 65).

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A bottle representing the Ionian Helmet http://www.penn.museum/sites/Greek_World/pottery_big-49.html

The Ionians served in eastern armies as mercenaries and brought Greek combat to eastern battlefields (Herodotus II.152). At the time, battle in the Middle East relied much more heavily on missile weapons and loose formations. Ionian armorers may have added the thick forehead guard to protect the part of the helmet that stood out above the Greek warrior’s shield, and the neck guard to provide cover from missiles coming from above and behind the soldier. Nevertheless, the thick rounded cheek guards attempted to maintain the successful shape of the earlier Chalcidian helmet.

The Ionian Helmet was especially popular in Athens, but at the end of the 6th century BCE the Athenians begin to develop their own version, the Attic Helmet. The helmet originally appeared on artistic representations of Athena, but was eventually forged and utilized in battle (Snodgrass 69). In the century following the artistic introduction of the Attic Helmet, the Athenian military tended to avoid pitched battles. In the Peloponnesian War, 431 BCE – 404 BCE, the Athenians heavily relied on naval engagements and coastal raiding, both of which would have required lighter, more versatile equipment. In many ways, the Attic Helmet was an incorporation of the defensive success of the Chalcidian Helmet with the tactical benefits and stylistic popularity of the Ionian Helmet. This noticeable similarity to the Ionian Helmet and the

Jesse Obert

Chalcidian Helmet has led many scholars to argue that it should not be recognized as a distinct style (Everson 132).

The Attic Helmet was lighter than most Greek helmets and left the face completely open. The neck guard was shorter than the Ionian Helmet and left a significant amount of space for the ears. The cheek guards were hinged and sometimes they were even completely detachable (Snodgrass 69). Additionally, the cheek pieces were often fitted to each individual soldier’s face. This new style provided adequate protection and more visibility with a lighter guard. There was a forehead guard, though it was smaller than the guard on the Ionian Helmets. In fact, the forehead guard seems to have generally lost its practical application in favor of a decorative one. As warfare began to rely more and more on battlefield tactics and troop maneuvers, helmets became lighter and lighter. The Attic Helmet managed to survive this time of transition and became a regular preference amongst later soldiers, including the Romans (Everson 135).

An Attic Helmet, in this particular helmet the forehead guard is purely ornamental

http://www.thefakebusters.com/greek%20bronze%20helmets/ancient%20Greek%20hoplit e%20bronze%20helmets%201.htm

At the beginning of the 5th century BCE, a new style of helmet appears to have been brought into Greece from the north. The Thracian Helmet is named for its similarities to a

Jesse Obert popular style of hat in Thrace, the region along the northernmost coast of the Aegean Sea. This similarity along with the time of it’s introduction has led several scholars to suggest that the helmet, or maybe just the style, was brought to Greece by Thracian mercenaries in the invading Persian Army (Snodgrass 104).

The Thracian Helmet had a distinct brim over the face and eyes. This probably served as extra protection from missile weapons which began to reappear on Greek battlefields at the end of the 5th century BCE. Hinged and fitted cheek guards protected the face while still leaving plenty of space for the eyes and ears. The cheek guards on Thracian Helmets were usually elongated in order to provide additional protection for the neck and throat (Snodgrass 104-105). Additionally, the cheek guards were attached with leather straps to a hinge under the brim of the helmet. This would have protected the hinge while allowing it to be significantly lighter (Everson 139).

A Thracian Helmet

http://www.thefakebusters.com/greek%20bronze%20helmets/ancient%20Greek%20hoplit e%20bronze%20helmets%201.htm

Though the Thracian Helmet was present in 5th century BCE Greece, it was not as popular as the other helmets, such as the later Corinthian Helmet and the Attic Helmet. After the Persian Wars, warfare in Greece changed radically. The pattern of lightening the infantry’s

Jesse Obert panoply, which had been slow moving over the centuries, reached its peak in the 5th century and by the middle of the 4th century BCE some soldiers wore almost no armor and carried lighter, smaller shields. This noticeable trend in armor coincides with huge leaps in the understanding of battlefield tactics, troop specialization, and a sudden interest in military professionalism.

After Philip II’s military reforms in the 4th century BCE, nearly every soldier in the Macedonian Army wore a Thracian Helmet. Even Alexander the Great is said to have worn an elaborately decorated iron Thracian Helmet (Snodgrass 118). The military mindset at this time explains the immense popularity of the Thracian Helmet and Attic Helmet which provided good vision, hearing, and protection from missiles.

By its height, the Thracian Helmet tended to have a more forward rounded peak, in the Phrygian style. Occasionally, a horsehair crest decorated the top of the helmet, though crests in general had become significantly less common by the 4th century BCE. The Thracian Helmet continued to be popular amongst wealthier Greeks until the invasion of the Romans (Snodgrass 118).

A remarkably decorated Thracian Helmet with a Phrygian styled peak

http://www.thefakebusters.com/greek%20bronze%20helmets/ancient%20Greek%20hoplit e%20bronze%20helmets%2010.htm

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At the end of the 5th century BCE, the Boeotian Helmet was introduced. According to Xenophon, the Boeotian Helmet was the best helmet available for a cavalryman (Xenophon XII, 3). This literary reference has led many archaeologists to conclude that the Boeotian Helmet was originally invented as a cavalry helmet. Like the Thracian Helmet, the Boeotian Helmet was named for its similarity to a popular style of hat (Snodgrass 94). It had been a common image in art for centuries, as a felt version was often seen worn by Hermes, the god of trade and travel (Snodgrass 95). The Boeotian Helmet was one of the lightest and simplest metal helmets in Greece. It covered the top of the head and had a large all encompassing brim, but usually did not have cheek guards or a neck guard.

A Boeotian Helmet

http://www.thefakebusters.com/greek%20bronze%20helmets/ancient%20Greek%20hoplit e%20bronze%20helmets%201.htm

The Boeotian Helmet was light and efficiently protected the wearer from missiles. By leaving the face entirely open, a soldier could survey the battlefield quickly and without difficulty. He could freely communicate with his companions and not be hindered by the helmet’s weight. Though some cavalrymen may have strapped the helmets to their head to prevent it from falling off, the general lack of accessories made it significantly easier and faster for a soldier to prepare for battle. However, one of the most significant benefits of the Boeotian Helmet was its low cost.

Jesse Obert

The Greek military system usually relied on self-funded troops from the top tiers of the financial hierarchy. As the centuries passed and warfare became more advanced, armies became bigger and more manpower was required. The wealthy aristocrats had less of a presence in the military, and states were forced to recruit from and rely on their poorer citizenry. The influx of lower class soldiers, and the occasional state funded militias, created a huge demand for equipment that was both efficient and relatively cheap.

After Alexander the Great spread Greek culture and warfare across the Middle East, the region was gripped by large-scale wars between massive empires with huge armies of lower class citizens. This period is known as the Hellenistic era and lasted from the end of the 4th century BCE to the invasion of the Romans in the 2nd and even 1st centuries BCE. Massive, closely packed infantry dominated the battlefield and this new style of warfare required even lighter and cheaper helmets. At this time, the Boeotian Helmet became popular amongst infantry because of its low cost (Snodgrass 95). The Thracian Helmet and the lightest form of the Attic Helmet were still popular, but the most common metal helmet in Greece was arguably the simplest.

Like many of the later helmets, the Pilos Helmet was simply a metal version of a popular hat. The Pilos was a brimless traveling cap common throughout Greece. In the 5th century BCE, a bronze version began to appear and during the Hellenistic era it was a popular infantry helmet. Like the Thracian Helmet, the Pilos Helmet occasionally had a horsehair crest, though crests were generally unusual at the time (Everson 136).

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A Pilos Helmet

http://www.thefakebusters.com/greek%20bronze%20helmets/ancient%20Greek%20hoplit e%20bronze%20helmets%201.htm

The simplicity of the helmet may seem like a strange conclusion to the evolution of the Greek helmet, but several explanations have been proposed. Some argue that the advancement of battlefield tactics required that infantry have full vision and mobility (Everson 135). Another theory suggests that the lower class soldiers enlisted at the time could not afford the full panoply and so neglected the helmet in favor of a sturdy shield and weapon (Everson 136). Another argument suggests that the helmet was adopted because of a cultural competition instigated by the Spartans.

The first widespread adoption of the Pilos Helmet occurred in Sparta at the end of the 5th century BCE. Apparently, when they adopted the helmet they announced that “they had nothing to hide, no fear or passion in their faces” (Lendon 63). Before the Pilos Helmet was adopted in Sparta, they had predominantly used the Corinthian Helmet, which would have efficiently concealed their facial expressions (Lendon 53). The Spartans argued that by adopting the Pilos Helmet they were exemplifying their bravery. Some scholars argue that this boast put social pressure on other Greek communities essentially forcing them to adopt the Pilos Helmet (Lendon 63).

The Pilos Helmet provided unhindered communication, unrestricted vision, mobility, and a cheap alternative to contemporary metal helmets. As warfare became more complex and sophisticated it was the logical next step in the evolution of the helmet. Hellenistic combat relied

Jesse Obert on tightly packed groups working in unison; individual protection was sidelined in favor of troop maneuverability. Battles had grown from single clashes of small communities to complex engagements of huge empires.

When the Romans invaded and ultimately conquered Greece, they brought peace to the area. The center of military advancement moved to Italy, and many Greek helmets were phased out in favor of lighter and stronger Roman helmets. Nevertheless, the legacy of the Greek helmet became a symbol of the technological and cultural superiority of Classical Greece.

Further Reading Everson, Tim. Warfare in Ancient Greece. Stroud: Sutton Pub., 2004. Print. Hanson, Victor D. The Western Way of War. New York: Oxford UP, 1990. Print. Herodotus. The Histories. Trans. Aubrey De Sélincourt. London: Penguin, 2003. Print. Homer. The Iliad. Trans. Robert Fagles. New York, N.Y., U.S.A.: Viking, 1990. Print. Lendon, J. E. Soldiers and Ghosts. New Haven, CT: Yale UP, 2006. Print. Snodgrass, Anthony M. Arms and Armour of the Greeks. Ithaca, NY: Cornell UP, 1967. Print. Xenophon. On Horsemanship. Trans. H. G. Dakyns. Classic Reader. Blackdog Media, 27 Mar. 2003. Web.