Journal of Ethnopharmacology 176 (2015) 508–514

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Journal of Ethnopharmacology

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Ethnobotanical survey of traditionally used medicinal for infections of skin, gastrointestinal tract, urinary tract and the oral cavity in Borabu sub-county, Nyamira county, Kenya

E.O. Omwenga a,b, A. Hensel c,n, A. Shitandi d, F.M. Goycoolea b a Kisii University, School of Health Sciences, P.O. Box 408, 40200 Kisii, Kenya b University of Münster, Institute of Biotechnology and Biology, Nanobiotechnology Group, Schlossgarten 3, D-48149 Münster, Germany c University of Münster, Institute of Pharmaceutical Biology and Phytochemistry, Corrensstraße 48, D-48149 Münster, Germany d Kisii University, Faculty of Applied Sciences, P.O. Box 408, 40200 Kisii, Kenya article info abstract

Article history: Ethnopharmacological relevance: Different communities throughout the world have specialized and Received 14 July 2015 profound knowledge on the use medicinal plants for various diseases. However, the detailed information Received in revised form on the respective use may extinct in near future as this knowledge is passed only orally among gen- 16 November 2015 erations in most of the communities. Accepted 16 November 2015 Aim of the study: The present survey aimed to document the use of medicinal plants by traditional Available online 17 November 2015 healers from the Kisii community, Borabu sub-county in Nyamira county, Kenya, to treat infections of the Keywords: urinary tract, oral cavity, gastrointestinal system and the skin and to evaluate the social context in which Ethnobotanical survey the healers work and practice. Infections Materials and methods: Validated questionnaires were applied to 50 traditional healers in the study Kenya region, followed by interviews and structured conversations. Information on the relevant traditionally Borabu sub-county used medicinal plants and their use were documented, including sampling and identification of voucher Medicinal plants specimens. Results: The ethnopharmacological survey revealed 25 medicinal plant species belonging to 19 families. It got evident that most of these species will be extinct in the near future unless appropriate measures are taken, as it turned out difficult to collect some of the wild growing species. Elaeodendron buchananii Loes, marginata S. Moore, Acacia gerrardii Benth., Balanites orbicularis Sprague, Solanum renschii Vatke and Orthosiphon hildebrandtii Vatke have not been described before for its medicinal use. Among the 25 species collected from the various regions of Borabu sub-county Urtica dioica L. was the only medicinal plant that was collected from all regions. In contrast Erythrina abyssinica and Rhus natalensis were found in only two regions of the study area. Conclusion: The traditional medicinal use of the reported plants for infections should be documented and a great need of awareness from scientists and local government for improved preservation or field cultivation of some species is obvious. & 2015 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction interest in documenting the use of medicinal plants by native peoples from different parts of the world (Mahwasane et al., 2013). “Traditional medicine” is to be understood as the sum total of WHO further estimates that about 80% of the world's population is the knowledge, skills and practices based on theories, beliefs and dependent on traditional medical practices for some aspect of experiences indigenous to different cultures that are used to primary health care. The reliance of this large population could be maintain and improve health, as well as to prevent, diagnose, and due to the fact that the population has a relatively good accessi- treat physical and mental illnesses (World Health Organization bility to the plants, good affordability of the herbal material as (WHO), 2008). The World Health Organization (WHO) has a keen compared to conventional drugs and the extensive local knowl- edge and expertise among the local communities (Omwenga et al., 2012). Abbreviations: GUT, gastrointestinum; UTI, urinary tract infection; WHO, World The African continent has a long history concerning the med- Health Organisation n Corresponding author. icinal use of plants and in some African countries more than 70% of E-mail address: [email protected] (A. Hensel). the rural population relies on medicinal plants as a source of http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2015.11.032 0378-8741/& 2015 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved. E.O. Omwenga et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 176 (2015) 508–514 509 remedies (Sam et al., 2013). In Kenya various communities utilizes to 29 °C with an average normal temperature of 19 °C. The study plants for both food and therapeutic purposes and this ranges site, which is mainly represented by rain forest vegetation is rich from one community to another as Kenya is a multi-tribal country in evergreen vegetation. The dominant neophytic tree species in (Jeruto et al., 2008). For instance it has been documented that the area are Eucalyptus spp., which are widely planted in wetland about 85% of the Samburu community of Northern Kenya utilises areas. The inhabitants of the study area are the Kisii community medicinal plants for medicare (Omwenga et al., 2009). This pre- and they are rich in their traditions and cultures. Most of its in- valence of use of medicinal plants could be attributed to poverty, habitants practice agriculture as the main occupation and several inadequate and inaccessibility to health care facilities, strong cul- crops are grown in the study area like maize, millet, tea, legumes, tural beliefs and practices among many other aspects (Omwenga vegetables, potatoes, bananas and fruits. Dairy, poultry and fish et al., 2012). farming is also practised in the study area. Each community has a set of indigenous knowledge and prac- tices especially in medicinal plant use. Therefore there is a great 2.2. Research permit/Informed consent need to document this indigenous knowledge that has been pas- sed from one generation to another orally for centuries without Research permit was sourced from the Ministry of Higher the aid of writing as traditional healers do not keep written re- Education, Science and Technology Borabu Sub-county office, cords. The lack of written ethnopharmaceutical information may Kenya. The informed consent was obtained orally from all re- jeopardize its transfer of the next generations as it may be de- spondents prior to the interview. It was made clear to the re- pleted or become extinct (Offiah et al., 2011; Sam et al., 2013). spondents that their information was purely for scientific studies Documentation can also play a key role towards conservatory as- and not for any commercial use; the identity of the respondents pects of such species of medicinal plants that could have been proven scientifically to be effective in the management of given was not to be exposed. diseases. There is also a need for continuous scientific research on the rationalized effectiviness of such medicinal plants as they have 2.3. Ethnobotanical data collection been found to be keys in the discovery of new lead structures (Simbo, 2010; Ampitan, 2013). The fieldwork was performed between July and August 2014. A The following ethnopharmacological survey aimed to identify total of six research assistants who were well trained on the in- and document the medicinal plants commonly used by traditional tention of the project plus the leading researcher (E.O.O.) con- healers from Borabu Sub County in Nyamira County in Kenya to ducted the fieldwork. All surveyors were allocated to the different treat infections of the gastrointestinal system, the skin, the urinary sites of the studied region. Structured questionnaires and inter- tract and the mouth cavity. Some of these diseases have been views were used to obtain the relevant data from the traditional grouped as the leading causes of death and disability in Kenya. For healers. Borabu sub county was subdivided into the following re- instance in 2009 diarrhoeal diseases accounted for 6% as the gions: Esise/Ekerubo, Memisi/Kineni, Mogusii/Mwongori/Isoge, leading causes of death and disability (Government of Kenya Raitigo/Riangongo/Chepngombe, Mecheo/Tidereti, Nyansiongo/ (GOK), 2010). Also in the annual development plan 2014/15 of Manga, and Kijauri/Nyandoche Ibere. Ethnomedicinal information Nyamira County Report, skin infections, including wounds, are on the plants used in the treatment of infections of gastro- grouped as one of the most common diseases in thecounty intestinal, skin, urinary tract and oral cavity were obtained by (NCADP, 2015). These facts rationalize the selection of the selected consulting the traditional herbalists in the seven regions of the diseases for the present study. study region. The questionnaire was divided into two sections, The distinct study region in Kenya was chosen due to the fact namely: (a) dealt with demographic information such as age, sex that the local inhabitants frequently use medicinal plants, re- and duration of practice and (b) dealt with the information on the commended by professional healers, for their own health and for treatment of the infections of interest. Gifts were handed over to their domesticated animals. They still adhere to their people's age- the respondents as it was realised that the majority of them were old traditional beliefs and customs, and, as such, the inhabitants not willing to readily give for free the information on the various and especially the professional healers constitute an authentic medicinal plants they were using to treat the infections. In- fi source of data for the scienti c documentation. Also most of the formation regarding the local names of the plant species, medic- inhabitants living in the surrounding areas (e.g. West Mogirango, inal uses, parts used and methods of preparation were sourced and Kitutu Masaba and North Mogirango sub counties of Nyamira documented. County) to the study region tend to visit the study region for harvesting the medicinal plants. This is due to the fact that many fi plant species grow in the study area, which are in many cases 2.4. Plant collection and taxonomic identi cation extinct due to intensive deforestation. Plant samples cited by respondents of the questionnaires were collected and authenticated by the botanists and forest officer (Mr. 2. Materials and methods Evans Ontiri) of Kenya Forest Research Institute (KEFRI) Homabay, Kenya. Two voucher specimens per medicinal plant were collected fi 2.1. Study site in the eld, pressed and then dried prior to presentation to the botanists for plant identification. The other dried voucher speci- The study area in Kenya was Borabu sub-county (0°45′S35°00′ mens were mounted in a hard cover notebook and were deposited E/0.750°S 35.000°E), one of the sub-counties of Nyamira County. at Kisii University Herbarium-Kisii, Kenya. The botanical names of Mean altitude is around 1700 m in the range from 1250 to 2100 m the plant species were confirmed by use of the International Plant as the area has a hilly terrain. Other sub-counties of Nyamira Name Index (http://www.ipni.org) and the Plant List (http://www. County include West Mogirango, Kitutu Masaba and North Mo- theplantlist.org). Literature search within peer-reviewed scientific girango. It also borders the Bomet County. The study area has an literature and patent databases on the respective plants was per- s area size of 297.7 km2 with a population of about 127,350. Con- formed by using SciFinder data base, version 2014 (American cerning the climatic conditions the area receives up to 2300 mm of Chemical Society). Potential traditional use of the selected plants rainfall per annum and has ambient temperatures ranging from 10 was cross referenced to the data displayed by Neuwinger (1998). 510 E.O. Omwenga et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 176 (2015) 508–514

2.5. Data analysis (10%), office-related work (2%), and others (6%) beside their heal- ing activities. This information could be used in future if proper Data collected were analysed by IBM SPSS (version 21.0) and educational programs are installed. It might also help for improved Microsoft Excel™ 2010. plant conservation for medicinal plants that are becoming extinct as most respondents are farmers as it will be easier to propagate plant species for medicinal use and help the farmers to plant and 3. Results and discussion manage them in their own farming area. Such a sustainable medicinal plant management has recently been successfully in- An ethnopharmacological survey was carried out in the various stalled within a collaboration between ICIPE-Kenya and the Ka- regions of the Borabu sub-county in Nyamira County, Kenya. Fifty kamega-Kenya local inhabitants for controlled cultivation of different traditional healers were randomly selected from the se- Mondia whytei and Ocimum kilimandscharicum (KENyan Climate ven regions of the Borabu sub-county (Esise/ Ekerubo, Memisi/ Change and Adaptation Research Group, 2015) Kineni, Mogusii/Mwongori/Isoge, Raitigo/Riangongo/Chepngombe, A significant number of the respondents have been in the Mecheo/Tidereti, Nyansiongo/Manga, and Kijauri/Nyandoche practise for a longer period. For instance, those who have been Ibere) and data collection was performed by using structured practising medicinal plant therapy for more than 40 years form the questionnaires and interviews. The majority (54%) of the profes- largest group (20%) of the respondents (Table 1). This is a positive sional healers are women. This is not surprising because the indicator as the profession requires longer experience especially in community believes that women should take care of their people diagnosis and therapy of the patients but also in medicinal plant in terms of health. This finding is in contrast to recent ethno- identification and therapeutical use. pharmacological studies e.g. in one study from West Africa (Agyare Most of the respondents (48%) treated at least two of the type et al., 2014) were men-dominated healer communities have been of infections the study was interested in (Table 1), while 18% described. treated all kinds of infections. It became clear that healers do The majority (30%) of professional healers in the study area understand the major symptoms of the different infections. For were aged 60–69 years old (Table 1). The age range 40–59 years instance, for skin infections the majority of the respondents (38%) also represents a considerable percentage (20%) of the total deduced at least two of the common symptoms such as skin ru- respondents. shes (28%), inflammation (10%) or pimple development that may The level of education does not increase the potential qualifi- contain pus (6%). For oral cavity infections the majority of the re- cation to practise as a traditional healer (Table 1). Only 2% of the spondents (24%) indicated that if the buccal cavity epithelium and respondents had a university degree, while the majority (20%) has the tongue has a whitish stubbornly adherent coating then it is a upper primary education. The healers who were illiterate ac- typical indicator of an infection. This could be true as most yeast counted for 18% which is much lower compared to those with infections especially of the buccal cavity have such characteristics basic education. This is a positive indicator as by higher education (Kayser et al., 2005). Twelve percent of the respondents also in- level of the healers it will be easier in future to apply scientifically dicated that if the gums are swollen it could be a good indicator for proven methodologies in their daily healing business. an infection (Kayser et al., 2005). It was also clear that most of the The majority of the respondents (2% of non-respondents) were respondents (22%) have a clue of the various symptoms of an oral herbal practitioners (62%), followed by traditional healers (28%) cavity infection. However a great number (26%) did not respond to and divine healers (8%). It might be assumed that the amount of this ailment and therefore it is clear that it could not be a common divine healers in reality might be much higher as within the study disease in the area of the survey. If present, it could be the oral region people still fear witchcraft and if one is suspected to be a candidiasis that infects the young children especially when they witch there are high chances that he gets burnt together with his are under the age of 5 years. or her belongings. Therefore this could have influenced the way Forty percent of the respondents indicated that they have a the traditional healers responded to this interview question as good understanding of gastrointestinal infections. Respondents divine healers are usually associated to witchcraft. indicated that GUT infections are characterised by stomach ache A majority of the respondents (84%) do not carry out the pro- (16%), diarrhoea (12%), and stomach clumps (12%) amongst other fessional healing as their only source of income. Most of the re- symptoms. spondents (18% of non-respondents) do farming (64%), business Almost the same response was observed among the urinary

Table 1 Demographic, educational and business background of traditional healers (n¼50) in Borabu sub-country, Kenya.

Period of practising years 0–56–10 11–15 16–20 21–25 26–30 31–30 440 [%] 10 10 12 12 16 12 8 20

Age distribution Age [years] 20–29 30–39 40–49 50–59 60–69 470 No answer [%] 6 5 19 19 29 10 3

Level of education Illiterate Non-formal Lower primary Upper primary Secondary school Tertiary college University No answer education school school [%] 18 11 13 19 18 11 2 3

Type of infections treated Skin infections Oral cavity Stomach infections UTI Almost all these At least 2 of these No answer infections infections infections [%] 5 5 7 9 16 45 2 Table 2 Synopsis of the medicinal plants collected from Borabu sub-county in Nyamira County, Kenya.

Botanical name (Local name) Plant family Frequency* Plant part Plant use Method of plant Documented use inliterature Literature reference used application in regard to infections

Urtica dioica L. (Rise) Urticaceae 18 Leaves Skin and stomach Poultice, ashash Antibacterial, antifungal, Asgarpanah and Mohajerani (2012); Kukric et al. (2012); infections diuretic Dar et al. (2012a), Dar et al. (2012b), Ceyhan et al. (2012); Saklani and Chandra (2012); Khare et al. (2012); Hussain et al. (2011) Asparagus africanus Lam. (Ekerobo Asparagaceae 15 Roots Skin infections, Poultice, decoction Antiplasmodial, sexual diseases Debella et al. (1999); Oketch-Rabah et al. (1997); Neu- ekiagarori) UTIs winger (1998) Oxalis corniculata L. (Enyonyo engare) Oxalidaceae 15 Leaves Skin infections Poultice Antifungal, antioxidative Lagnika et al. (2014); Aruna et al. (2014) Rubia cordifolia L. (Enguranguri) Rubiaceae 14 Leaves Skin infection Poultice Antibacterial Ibraheim and Gouda (2010); Ibraeim and Ahmed (2009);

Ibraheim (2002); Qiao et al. (1990) 508 (2015) 176 Ethnopharmacology of Journal / al. et Omwenga E.O. Cassia didymobotrya Fresen. (Omobeno) Fabaceae 13 Leaves Stomach, skin, oral Poultice Antimicrobial Boily and Van Puyvelde (1986) cavity infections Caesalpinia decapetala (Roth) Alston Caesalpiniaceae 13 Roots Skin infections, Decoction Antioxidative Wei et al. (2013); Pawar and Surana (2010) (Ekenagwa) UTIs Bischofia javanica Blume Euphorbiaceae 13 Roots Stomach infections Decoction Antibacterial Rajbongshi et al. (2014), Gupta et al. (1988) (Omonyagesagane) Erlangea marginata S. Moore 12 Leaves Skin, stomach, oral Poultice, decoction –– (Omonyaiboba) cavity infections Leonotis nepetifolia (L) R. Br. (Risibi) Lamiaceae 12 Leaves Stomach infections Ash Antimicrobial, antioxidative Sobolewska et al. (2012) Orthosiphon hildebrandtii Vatke (Eke- Lamiaceae 12 Leaves Stomach and oral Poultice, decoction –– bunga baiseke) cavity infections Wube et al. (2010); Githinji et al. (2010) Warburgia ugandensis Sprague (Esoko) Canellaceae 12 Bark Stomach and tooth Decoction Antiprotozoal (P. falciparum, T. Elaeodendron buchananii Loes (Rikanda) Celastraceae 10 Barkinfections UTIs Decoction brucei)–– Carissa edulis Vahl (Omonyangateti) Apocynaceae 10 Roots UTIs Decoction Antiplasmodial (P. falciparum) Kebenei et al. (2011) Clerodendrum myricoides (Hochst) R. Br. & Lamiaceae 10 Roots Stomach infections, Decoction Antibacterial, Antifungal, Mulaudzi et al. (2012); Muregi et al. (2004) Vatke (Omonyasese) UTIs Antiplasmodial Rhoicissus tridentata (L.f) Wild & Drumm Vitaceae 10 Leaves Stomach, oral cavity Decoction, Antibacterial, Antifungal, Lin et al. (1999) (Omosubo) infections ashdecoction Antiinflammatory Balanites orbicularis Sprague Balanitaceae 9 Roots UTIs Decoction –– (Omonyabitoti) Solanum renschii Vatke (Omotobo) Solanaceae 8 Roots Stomach infections Decoction –– –

Dichrocephala integrifolia Kuntze (Eken- Asteraceae 7 Leaves Oral cavity Poultice, decoction Antimicrobial, antioxidant, in- Zhu. (2012); Zhu et al. (2010); Kuiate et al. (1999) 514 genta mbori) infections decoction hibits α-glucosidase Toddalia asiatica (L.) Lam (Ekenawa Rutaceae 7 Roots UTIs Boiling, decoction Antibacterial, antifungal Madhavan et al. (2012); Karunai et al. (2012); Dur- ekiegarori) aipandiyan and Ignacimuthu (2009); Orwa et al. (2008); Ishii et al. (1991) Croton macrostachyus Hochst ex Delile Euphorbiaceae 6 Bark Oral cavity Decoction for Antimicrobial Lulekal et al. (2013) (Omosocho) infections garglegargle Spilanthes mauritiana DC. Asteraceae 6 Leaves Oral cavity Decoction for gargle Antibacterial and antiviral Cos et al. (2002) (Ekenyunyuntamunwa) infections Rhus natalensis Bernh. Ex Krauss Anacardiaceae 4 Bark UTIs Decoction Antimicrobial, diarrhoeal Mwangi et al. (2013); Korir et al. (2012); Kamatenesi et al. (Omosangora) infections (2014) AcaciaErythrina gerrardii Benth. abyssinica (Omokonge)Lam. (Omotembe) Mimosaceae Fabaceae 3 4 Bark Barks Stomach UTIs infections Decoction Decoction Infections Antiviral of the upper re- KokwaroMohammed (1976) et al. (2012) spiratory system Acacia nilotica (L.) Delile. (Omonyenya) Mimosaceae 1 Bark Stomach infections, Decoction Antibacterial, H. pylori urease Amin et al. (2013); Venkataswamy et al. (2010) Malaria inhibition

N/B: Frequency* – shows how many times a given plant was mentioned and recorded by the 50 healers. 511 512 E.O. Omwenga et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 176 (2015) 508–514 tract infections (UTIs). Fortytwo percentof the respondents seem A. africanus Lam. and O. corniculata L. were found in six regions to understand at least two symptoms of this infection. This in- of the study area. Erythrina abyssinica Lam. Ex Dc. and Rhus na- dicated that a person infected by UTI usually has a burning sen- talensis Bernh. Ex Krauss were the least cited medicinal plants as sation when urinating (10%), the pus or exudates oozes from his they were collected from only two regions of the study area. Fig. genitals (8%), bloody urine (8%), etc. This clearly demonstrates that S1 of the Supplementary Data displays the main origin of the the herbalists in the study region at least have a clue on the type of different plant species within the different regions in the study disease and should be able to prescribe or to apply the medicinal area. Kijauri-Nyandoche ibere region of the study area was the plants for treatment of patients with UTI. region where the most of the medicinal plants were collected A total of 25 medicinal plants were pinpointed by the healers (19%), followed by the Esise-Ekerubo region (17%). and collected for further identification (Table 2) from the various Concerning the use of the different plant parts the healers regions of Borabu sub County. Not all plant species were found in commonly harvest the leaves (32%), the roots (32%) and the bark all districts, leading to a clear regional representation of the dif- (28%). The herbal material can be used fresh or dried. ferent herbal materials (Fig. S1 of the Supplementary Data). The The study also revealed that the majority of the medicinal different species belong to the plant families of Lamiaceae (3 plants are extracted by decoction, but also the preparation of species, 12%), Asteraceae (3 species, 12%), Euphorbiaceae (2 spe- poultice seems to be common. Also burning of the plant has been cies, 8%), and Fabaceae (2 species, 8%) amongst many others. described in some cases and the resulting ash is subsequently The most frequently used herbal material are the leaves from applied in form of oral drinks or direct application to the skin Nettle, Urtica dioica. Despite the fact that only a few reports are (Table 2). available on a potential antibacterial activity of extracts from this It was realized that most healers tend to use similar medicinal plant (Kukri et al., 2012) anti-inflammatory effects for Nettle leaf plants and even the same method of preparing them for managing have been well documented in European medicine (for review see the same ailments. This is not surprising, as they are members of ESCOP Monographs (2003)). The roots from Asparagus africanus, the same community with the same traditions, culture and way of which were found in the present survey to be used for skin in- living. From the survey it gets clear that medicinal plant use is still fections and UTIs, have already been documented in African tra- present at a high level and the use and the knowledge should not ditional medicine also for use in gastroenteritis and infection of be eliminated from African communities. Most respondents the genital system (Neuwinger, 1998). The leaves from Oxalis cor- proved that medicinal plant use is common despite the emergence niculata and Rubia cordifolia are widely used in the study region for of the modern medicine. This could be partly because of the tra- skin infections, which might be explainable by the documented ditions and beliefs, and it also associated to the levels of poverty in antifungal and antibacterial activity of extracts (Ibraheim and such communities. Gouda, 2010; Lagnika et al., 2014;). Extracts obtained from the The identified plants are mainly collected from the forests roots of Caesalpinia decapetala for skin infections and UTIs could (64%), farms/gardens and forests combined (18%), forests and not get cross-referenced to published literature, which means that special farms for medicinal plants combined (8%), farms/gardens this traditional use has not so far been documented. In contrast, (4%) and special farms for medicinal plants (4%). However, the burned leaves from Leonotis nepetifolia are widely used in the majority of the respondents (84%) indicated that they have a study area for stomach infections, which again might be due to the problem with obtaining the medicinal plants in the wilderness. antimicrobial activity described recently by Sobolewska et al. This was confirmed by the study as most of the medicinal plants (2012). Decoctions from Warburgia ugandensis pinpointed for were not easily found as deforestation is rampant in the research stomach infections in the present survey are much better docu- area. In fact, in some cases it took even half a day to search for one mented in published literature for their antiprotozoal activity species. A good example was E. buchananii which the locals against Leishmania infections and trypanosomiasis (Wube et al., claimed to be 10 years ago a common plant. For future intensified 2010; Githinji et al., 2010). research is needed not only for a rationalized use of such medic- Interestingly, the survey displayed additionally six species inal plants but also for establishing optimized agricultural proto- which have not been published before on their scientifically vali- cols for farming. dated use for infectious diseases, namely: Elaeodendron buchananii The study also revealed that the respondents use organoleptic Loes, Erlangea marginata S. Moore, Solanum renschii Vatke, Bala- characteristics for identification of the plants together with nites orbicularis Sprague, and Orthosiphon hildebrandtii Vatke. knowledge on the typical habitat of growing (30%) as well as long According to the survey extracts from O. hildebrandtii are used experience with the plant (22%) or a combination of such char- to treat infections of the stomach and of the oral cavity. Interest- acteristics. No respondent showed any other method for identifi- ingly, it seems that there are three other species of this , O. cation of the medicinal plants other than the organoleptic char- aristatus, O. spicatus and O. stamineus, widely used in Europe for acteristics. The majority of the respondents (64%) also indicated UTIs due to spasmolytic, antibacterial and diuretic activity. It might that they have no problem to identify the plant species in the be interesting to compare this functional similarity also with that wilderness. However those who have some difficulties (24%) in- from O. hildebrandtii. dicated that some plants resemble one another (32%) and there- Summarizing, the majority of the medicinal plants identified in fore it becomes difficult to identify them easily. this survey should be evaluated in future for their efficacy in ad- The data collected were analysed quantitatively by use of IBM vanced pharmacological studies. The authors suggest to start an SPSS 21.0 to evaluate potential correlations amongst different application for African–Europe funding for validating this tradi- variables and parameters. For instance, there was a relationship tional use in advanced phytochemical and functional studies for between increasing level of education of healers and the type of pinpointing the respective active ingredients. This again should diseases treated (pr0.5). lead to the identification of potential new leadstructures and Borabu sub-county is a rich repository of flora and traditional molecular targets against different types of infections. indigenous knowledge but have not extensively been subjected to Among the 25 species collected from the various regions of the specific detailed studies on the various aspects of biodiversity Borabu sub-county, U. dioica L. was the only medicinal plant that and conservation. A detailed study is required to assess the status, was collected from each region and therefore the most cited utilization and conservation of the reported plant species. Also, medicinal plant (in good agreement with the many scientific there is urgent need to spread a highly motivated awareness and publications centered on this species). involvement campaign about the biodiversity conservation, and E.O. Omwenga et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 176 (2015) 508–514 513 the role and need of the local people in the protection of the en- Africa) for antimicrobial activity. J .Ethnopharmacol. 16, 1–13. vironment. Also the intense collection of medicinal plants by the Ceyhan, N., Keskin, D., Ugur, A., 2012. Antimicrobial activities of different extracts of eight plant species from four different family against some pathogenic micro- herbalists may promote extinction of the species.Also, it was evi- organisms. J. Food Agric. Environ. 10, 193–197. dent that the respondents were not ready to get the relevant in- Cos, P., Hermans, N., De Bruyne, T., Apers, S., Sindambiwe, J.B., Berghe, D.V., Pieters, formation until they obtained some gifts. This is not good as such L., Vlietinck, A.J., 2002. Further evaluation of Rwandan medicinal plant extracts – people may end up dying with the respective information that for their antimicrobial and antiviral activities. J. Ethnopharmacol. 79, 155 163. Dar, S.A., Ganai, F.A., Yousuf, A.R., Balkhi, M., Bhat, T.M., Bhat, F.A., 2012a. Bioactive could be crucial for the general community and the whole world. potential of leaf extracts from Urtica dioica L. against fish and human patho- This is compounded by the fact that the traditional herbalists tend genic bacteria. Afr. J. Microbiol. Res. 6, 6893–6899. to pass the information orally to the next generation. According to Dar, S.A., Yousuf, A.R., Ganai, F.A., Sharma, P., Kumar, N., Singh, R., 2012b. 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