ALEXANDER, Thomas Ley, 1908- THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN UNITED STATES FOREIGN POLICY AIMS RESPECTING THE FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY AND THE INFORMATION CENTER SERVICE (USIA) SUPPORT OF THESE OBJECTIVES.
The American University Ph. D ., 1964 Political Science, international law and relations
University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN UNITED STATES FOREIGN POLICY AIMS RESPECTING THE FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY AND THE INFORMATION CENTER SERVICE (USIA) SUPPORT OF THESE OBJECTIVES
by Thomas Ley Alexander
Submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of The American University In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree o f Doctor of Philosophy In International Relations
Signatures of Committee: Chairman: I A m m a * / 0 - fbu/JbA — Graduate Dean: s/lx/m .
June 7, 196M
The American U n iv e rsity AMERICAN UNIVERSITY W ashington, D. C. LIBRARY AUG 6 1964 WASHINGTON. D. C
# = 3oo(c PREFACE
This thesis attempts to reveal the West German attitudes which are supportive of United States foreign policy respecting the Federal Repub lic of Germany and to show what Informational materials the Information Center Service of the United States Information Agency were supplied and used by the United States Information Service, Bonn, Germany, during the year 1959 which were capable of the enhancement of United States foreign policy through the installm ent, or continuance of the a tti tudes* The study Is based on all readily available primary sources and Include documents and reports of the American Embassy, Bonn; documents of the West German Federal Government and Its agencies; reports of German political parties; The New York Times. Editor and Publisher. The Washington Post: German newspapers; reports of the U* S. Congress; statements of U. S. Government leaders; and other miscellaneous governmental and non-governmental s o u r c e s • Secondary sources are works In the field of International political communications, and on the I l l Federal Republic of Germany. The w riter was posted In the Federal Repub lic of Germany with the United States Information Agency from October, 1954, to October, 1956, and on the date of the submission of the thesis had been a staff member of the Information Center Service since October, 1956. Research methods have Included the analysis and evaluation of the data; conversations with German and U. S. officials In Germany and the United States. The thesis attempts to set down the signi ficant results of this research and to give the reader a picture of the application of one sector of the United States Information Agency operations to one nation in terms of selected West German attitudes relating to the foreign policy of the United States. The w riter is Indebted to Charles Lerche without whose guidance the Inquiry could not have been successfully completed; to Roland Ferusse for suggesting significant segments of research; to Mary Bradshaw who guided the w riter through the iv Initial difficult stages of the Inquiry; and to Abdul Said for his encouragement* Rita Shea, the United Statos Information Agency officer for the Information Center Service European program, made available the Agency's files containing source m aterials on the USIS German program. Elizabeth Randles, the book program officer for USIS Germany at the time of the inquiry, provided source mater ials from USIS Bonn, Germany, which provided much of the substance of the study. TABLE OP CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE I. INTRODUCTION...... 1 Purpose of the Thesis ••••.. 1 Limitations of the Problem .... 2 Definitions of the Terms Used • • 3 Organization of the Thesis .... 3 Sources, Methods, and Treatment . 5 I I . THEORY AND PRACTICE OP INTERNATIONAL POLITICAL COMMUNICATIONS .... 7 Factors In West German Society Which Govern the Establishment of and Maintenance of Attitudes. 32 The Influence of Group Structures on Attitudes In Western Society. 33 I I I . THE UNITED STATES INFORMATION AGENCY...... ilO Origin and History of the United States Information Agency . . . 40 Objectives of the Agency ...... 50 Organization of the Agency .... 51 IV . THE INFORMATION CENTER SERVICE . . . 65 Organization ...... 65 Vi CHAPTER PAGE Cultural Operations Division • • . • 66 Informational Media Guaranty Division • ••••••••••• 81
Exhibits Division ...... 85 Bibliographic and Publications Divisions • ...... • • . • • 93 V. THE FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY. . . . 99 The Basic Law ...... 99 West Germany and E u ro p e ...... 100 Organization of the Government . . . 104 Political Parties in the Federal Republic ...... 105 Cultural Emphasis in West Germany • 108 Labor Unions ...... 119 P olitical Problems Confronting the Federal Republic ••••••• 121 V I. UNITED STATES FOREIGN POLICY AIMS RESPECTING THE FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY...... 125 To align West Germany with the United States as against Neutralism or Soviet Bloc Orientation • • • ...... 126 v ll CHAPTER PAGE To Assure Continuing West German NATO P articipation and Support ...... 128 To Insure the Maintenance and Growth of the Federal Republic of Germany as a Democratic State. 129 To Encourage West German Participa tion in the Western European C o a litio n .•••••••••• 131 To Stimulate West German Responsibi lity for Assistance to Non- Industrial Nations • ...... 132 V II. WEST GERMAN ATTITUDES WHICH CAN CONTRIBUTE TO UNITED STATES FOREIGN POLICY AIMS ...... 135 To Align West Germany with the United States as Against Neutralism or Soviet Bloc
O rientation ...... 136 To Assure Continuing West German NATO Participation and Support • 144 To Insure the Maintenance and Growth of the Federal Republic of Germany as a Democratic S ta te ...... 147 viii
CHAPTER PAGE To Encourage West German Participation in the Western European Coalition ...... 149 To Stimulate West German Responsibility for Assistance to the Non-Industrial Nations . 151 V I I I . THE GERMAN FATHER AND FATHER SURROGATE IN WEST GERMANY .... 155 IX . INFORMATION CENTER SERVICE SUPPORT FOR UNITED STATES FOREIGN POLICY OBJECTIVES ...... 167 The U. S . Can Be T ru s te d to F ulfill its Commitments .... 170 The U. S. is M ilitarily Strong, Economically Viable, and Scientifically Advanced • • • • 175 Democratic Practices Assure A chievem ent o f Alms .... 187 The Federal Republic and West European Coalition ...... 191 Other Attitudes •••....• 192 Other Informational Materials • . 201 ix CHAPTER PAGE
X. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS...... 203
BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 214
APPENDIX ...... 228 APPENDIX A. Theodore C. Streibert Letter to the President of the United States, Dwight D. Eisenhower • 229 APPENDIX B. Organizational Chart of the United States Information Agency (1959) ...... 232 APPENDIX C. Organization Chart of the United States Information Service In the Federal
Republic of Germany, 1959 • • 233 LIST OF TABLES
TABLE PAGE
I* United States Information Agency A p p ro p ria tio n s . . . 64 CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
The United States Government since the estab lishment of the Federal Republic of Germany in 1955 has been confronted with the necessity of develop ing and maintaining a strong alliance with the Republic, as a sovereign state, in order to further the national interests of the United States. A strong West Germany, disposed to support the foreign policy of the United States, has been a political condition on which the security of the West partly r e s t e d . A major element of the problem are the views which the West German holds of areas relating to American foreign policy. It was and is the task of the American government, through the United States Information Agency, to try to create and maintain attitudes which might effect German support for American alms. Purpose of the Thesis. It w ill be the purpose of this study to review the general theory and practice of international political communica tions as a means by which a state can buttress its security; to show the development since 1945 of international political communications in the United States Government; to explain the opera tions and functions of this government's inter national communications operation, the United States Information Agency, as it was until August,
I 960; to examine the operation of one of the five principal sectors of the United States Information Agency, the Information Center Service; to present a brief description of West Germany society; to reveal-the desirable attitudes in West Germany for support of the principal aims of American foreign policy respecting the Federal Republic of Germany; to disclose what seem to be the factors in West German society which condition the acceptability of the desired attitudes; and to show what new in formational materials were used by the United States Information Service, Germany, during 1959 which were supplied by the Information Center Service were in support of the desired attitudes. Limitations of the Problem. Theoretically, there is no lim it to the number of problems which could be examined. But in the Interests of reason 3 able length, the problems studied are restricted to permit adequate treatment of selected elements. ^t Is not the purpose, therefore, to examine the operations of the other elements of the Agency; nor of the USIS operation conducted by USIS Bonn except where it applies to the specific problem; nor w ill the study be lim ited to an assessment of impact of the Information Center Service media but w ill try to shed some light on the attitudes which enhance American foreign policy so that more attention might be given to the materials which support them. Definitions of the Terms Used. Few terms are used which are unique to the present Inquiry or used in a restricted manner. When, in the opinion of the Investigator they do occur, they w ill be defined when employed. Organization of the Thesis. Though the the sis as a whole deals with the United States Infor mation Agency in West Germany > the focus of the study is the question of what concepts must exist in the West German mind if the Federal Republic of Germany is to support United States foreign policy. Subsidiary questions which the study w ill try to answer are what Informational m aterials were supplied and used by the United States Information Service in West Germany which could support these concepts; and what factors in West German society condition the establishment of these concepts, or b e l i e f s . After a short Introduction (Chapter I), the thesis reviews the theory and practice of inter national political communications, presenting some basic principles Involved (Chapter II). Next the operation of the United States Information Agency is shown with a short history of international political communications operations in the United States Government (Chapter III). Chapter IV analyzes the Information Center Service, one of the five major Services, of the ASency, while Chapter V briefly describes the pic ture of contemporary West German society. Chapter VI w ill present the five principal foreign policy objectives of the United States re specting the Federal Republic of Germany. Cited sources are public pronouncements of former President Eisenhower and President Kennedy. Chapter VII attempts to develop stated attitudes, which, when held by the West Germane can produce behavior in them which would support the specific objectives presented in Chapter VI. Chapter VIII w ill examine the cultural factors in West German society which Influence and govern the establishment of attitudes. Sources of these findings were: Ellhu Katz and Paul F. Lazarsfelds's Personal Influence. The Free Press, 1955; Erich Fromm's Escape From Freedom,Rinehart, 1941; and Bertram Henry Schaffner's Father Land. Columbia University Press, 1948. Chapter IX by the method of selection, pre sents descriptively the book titles which the Information Center Service supplied which seem to have supported the desired attitudes in West Germany in 1959. Sources, Methods. and Treatment. The data used in the preparation of this thesis are derived almost exclusively from primary sources. These have been enumerated in the preface. The data were examined for its accuracy, consistency and reliability and then submitted to officials of the United States Infor mation Agency for checking. The data are accurate In the opinion of these officials who also agree that the thesis contains no information which would compromise the security df the United States. All conclusions, except those attributed to the United States Information Agency are solely those of the writer and do not necessarily represent the views of the Agency. CHAPTER II
THEORY AND PRACTICE OP INTERNATIONAL POLITICAL COMMUNICATIONS
This chapter w ill include a discussion of the meaning of international communications in terms of the universality of mankind and the relationship between American foreign policy and international political communications. Requisites for a governmental international political communica- catlons program are presented; a comment is made on the United States and the Soviet Union as a current sample problem in international political communications. International communications can be con sidered an exchange of meaningful symbols between peoples of different cultures.^ The framework within this concept in which the United States Information Agency operates is set forth in the National Security Council's recommendations which
1 M. M. Willey and S. A. Rice, Communication Agencies and Social Life (New Yorks Mcdraw riin Book dompany, in c., 1^33)* P* 6 . 8 were accepted by President Elsenhower In August, 1953* The recommendations state the purposes of the Agency which have not been altered by President K ennedy: The purpose of the United States Information Agency shall be to submit evidence to peoples of other nations by means of communication techniques that the objectives and policies of the United States are In harmony with and w ill advance their legitimate aspirations for freedom, progress, and peace*
The purpose In the above paragraph Is to be carried out primarily: 1. By explaining and Interpreting to foreign peoples the objectives and policies of the United States Government* 2. By depicting Imaginatively the correlation between United States policies and the legitimate aspirations of other peoples of the world* 3* By unmasking and countering hostile attempts to distort or to frustrate the objectives and policies of the United S t a t e s • 4* By delineating those important aspects of the life and culture of the people of the United States which facilitate understanding of the policies and objectives of the Government of the United States.2
2 The Agency In B rief. A Report Prepared by the uHIFed siatesHCnformatIon Agency (Washing ton: United States Information Agency, I960), p . C-2. Another way of stating these purposes is that the United States Government uses communica tion techniques to: ( 1) show that the human quali ties of the American people are common to those of other peoples, despite cultural differences;
( 2 ) develop an understanding among foreign peoples of the central values of American culture; and (3) develop a realization among foreign peoples that even though the American cultural values differ from theirs, the American values are compatible with universal human qualities.3 Cooley provided an Illum inating exposition on the universality of human qualities when he wrote that human nature is the quality which dis tinguishes man from the lower animals. ** People belong to mankind at large and not to any particular
3 Robert C. Angell, "International Communica tion and World Society." Reader In Public Opinion and Communication, edited by iernard Berelson and Morris Janowitz tGlencoe, Illinois: The Free Press, 1953)» pp. 369-380. President Dwight D* Eisen hower, Speech before foreign educators, September 16, 1959. 4 I b i d . race or time. The same drives, Ernest G riffith suggests, are shared by all mankind: sex, hunger, altruism , mysticism, self-preservation, need for recognition, gregariousness, activity, desire for deference, and struggle.^ Human nature can be re garded as a permanent element of society. The fact that men seek honor, dread ridicule, defer to public opinion, cherish their goods, and are generous are timeless human characteristics. This timelessness Is seen, for example, In modem man's enjoyment of the Hebrew scriptures, Homer, and the tales of the American Indian. The universality of human nature manifests itself strongly when people meet face-to-face.^ a photographic exhibit circulated world-wide by the United States Informa tion Agency from 1956 to the present time entitled "Family of Man" Illustrates the concept of the universality of mankind. Consisting of five hundred photographs
5 Ernest G riffith, American University, Washington, D. C. Lecture, April 12, I960. 6 Angell, o£. c lt., pp. 375-376. n selected by the Museum of Modem Art, the exhibit depicted the happiness, sorrows, weaknesses, and strengths of peoples of most cultures. Wherever it was shown from the more sophisticated to the prim itive peoples, it received almost unanimous appreciation. The events surrounding birth, marriage, and death were shown in some of the photographs and received sim ilar appreciation from the illiterate to the Far East, to the literate of Scandinavia. American foreign policy is rooted and has been rooted in national interests but with the realization that they can be secured only in a poli tically stable world order, based on moral order. President Kennedy, for example, in his special mes sage to the Congress on May 25, 1961, said: We stand for freedom . . . We are not against any man—or any nation—or any system—except as it is hostile to freedom. We stand, as we have always stood from our earliest beginnings, for the independence and equality of nations. He related the purpose of the United States Information Agency to the achievement of these objectives later in his remarks when he added: 12 All that I have said makes It clear that we are engaged In a worldwide struggle In which we bear a heavy burden to preserve and promote the Ideals we share with all mankind, or have alien Ideals forced upon them. That struggle has highlighted the role of our Information Agency. The decision-makers of American foreign policy have believed that a politically stable world order cannot be realized without a universal appreciation that all people are sim ilar enough to have common objectives. Several utterances by President Elsenhower Illustrate this: Our greatest hope for success lies In a universal facts the people of the world, as people, have always wanted peace and want peace now. (Message to Congress, January 9» 1958). Again, before the Indian Parliament, on December 10, 1959* President Elsenhower said that ” • • • people In the world today . . . recognize that only under a rule of moral law can all of us realize our deepest and noblest aspirations." United States foreign policy decision makers might agree that men are embarked on the high seas of existence loaded with mankind's painfully acquired treasure. This circumstance of Imprisonment makes all men, otherwise different, 13 partners in the enterprise of replacing evil with good, good with better. This, they might agree, Is the meaning of man's relationship with one another, and the reality of peace. President Elsenhower said on July 11, 1955, at Pennsylvania State College: If we are to have partners for peace, then we must first be partners In sympathetic recognition that all mankind possess In common like aspirations and hungers, like Ideals and appetites, like purposes and frailties, like demand for economic development. He said In presenting the Atoms for Peace Award In Washington, D. C. on October 24, 1957, that "science Is a priceless heritage of the past. We, as trustees of that heritage, have an obligation to Increase It for the benefit of prosperity." To emphasize the central values of (American) culture Is to emphasize, as Toynbee explains, the core of (American) c u l t u r e What the culture's manifestations are Is not as Important, In attempting
Arnold J. Toynbee, A Study of History. Abridgement of Volumes I, VT, by b .T . Somervell (New York: 75xford liniversTFy Press, 1947), pp. 12-47; 241-243. I 2* to explain one people to another, or In showing the universality of mankind, as It Is to show what a people consider most valuable. Catlln writes that to explain only what Americans do, for example, Is like trying to rewrite the Bible by adding Pickwick Papers. Hence, he holds that the United States should explain what we stand for, not what we do.
So far In this Chapter an attempt has been made to clarify two objectives of the United States Government's International communications opera t i o n : ( 1 ) to show that the human qualities of the American people are like those of other people; and (2 ) to develop an understanding among foreign people of the central values of American culture. / The third objective is the hardest to accomplish: to develop a realization among foreign peoples that though the American values differ from theirs, those values are nevertheless compatible with universal human qualities.
George C atlln, What Does the West Want? (London: Phoenix House, Ltd., 1957), pp. !>5-60. People of one culture are likely to equate different alms of one culture with crueltya In humanity, or Immorality unless It can be shown why these alms exist.9 some cultures, for example, permit poligamy, Immoral to others* Others, such . as the B ritish, allow extensive government owner ship of business and public services, viewed by others as "socialism"• To the Hindu, cattle are sacred; to the Americans, food. Hanks Illustrates a cultural difference In the Burmese parental Inconsistencies. Warm affeetlon may be quickly
replaced by Indifference . 10 So to accomplish this third objective, as with the first and second, the U. S. communicator must be able to answer two ques tions affirmatively: (1) Is the.fact or concept which Is selected for transmission acceptable to
the receiver ?11 and ( 2 ) Does the receipt of the fact
9 Angell, oj>. c lt. 10 L. M. Hanks, "The Quest for the Individual Autonomy In the Burmese Personality," Psychology, Vol. 12, No. 3, P. 290.
^W illiam Albig* Modern Public Opinion (New Y ork: M cGraw -Hill”5o'olc~Co. I n c . , 195E) , pp. 326-327. 16 or concept contribute to world stability? If International communications means the exchange, or transm ission, of meaningful symbols between foreign peoples, it must encompass three kinds of transm itters. These are personal contacts, point-to-point communicators, and the mass media. Hersh defines the mass media as those tools of communication employed to transmit ideas to large a u d ie n c e s . 12
Personal contacts are those made by face-to- face personal units: professors, students, tour ists, business man, m ilitary personnel, and gov ernment representatives. Point-to-point communica tors are mall, cable, and telephone. Mass media are wire and wireless press dispatches, radio, motion pictures, musical recordings, newspapers, magazines, exhibits, and books. International communications originate from private, commercial, or government sources, each conducted for different reasons. Private communi cations are point-to-point contacts between
12 Charles Hersh, American University, Washington, D. C. Lecture, July 21, 1959* 17 Individuals, s-uch as those Initiated by teachers, students, and local individuals or groups. Com mercial communications originate with news agencies, entertainment producers, publishers, and business firm s. Governmental communications can embrace all of those activities, in addition to official repre sentation to the host government to which it is accredited. For the interest of the communicator to be served, the communicator transm its only that which serves the communicator.13 Private persons communi cate with each other for their own ends which do not necessarily serve the state. Nor do letter- w riting, commercial newscasts, tourists' conversa tions, and commercial motion pictures always project the true image of a culture. Especially when these informal communicators, or communication processes, are controlled, such as by the Soviet Union, they do not reflect the true image of a culture. They mirror only those elements of the culture which the
13 Crane Brlnton, The Temper of the Western World (Cambridge: Harvard University Frees, 19^3), pp. 106-1Q7. 18 state desires to project. In the case of the Soviet Union, It distorts or fabricates aspects of Soviet culture to aid Its foreign policy objectives. It could be said that It seems necessary for a state to select from masses of events messages for transm ittal which would support Its objectives. If It Is a moral state, such as the United States, those messages are truthful; If It Is an amoral state, such as the Soviet Union, Its messages do not relate to truth. They are selected for trans mission with two criteria In mind: Cl) w ill they serve the national Interests; and (2) w ill they receive credence. Not, are they the truth. Technological developments In communications have m ultiplied the number of messages and Increased their speed. The proliferation of messages from private and commercial sources causes confusion, Inaccuracy, and distortion. The result Is the establishment of a variety of stereotypes. Hence, If International communications are to serve the Interests of the state, the state must select messages for transmission which w ill advance Its 19 alms; It must organise an International communica tions operation* This means that the government must group messages under subjects, or themes, which when transm itted w ill explain areas of thought which unexplained could cause other nations to withhold support of a state's foreign policy* The state must construct and organize transm itters which can send these messages* It must select the receiver, or audience, to which the message is to be sent* It must analyze the cultures and ascertain the attitudes of the audiences on the subjects selected for transmission. This is necessary first to Insure that the form ef the messages are acceptable to the audience; and second, to ascertain which false images, or stereotypes, need to be corrected* Some Images, though false, may be considered harmless and would not be selected for correction* Upon the selection by the state of the stereotypes which It believes need to be corrected, the state then transmits the concepts. Finally, it must attempt to measure the extent to which its messages have corrected and Improved the image* Brlnton examples a typleal stereotype existing In Europe. Europeans tend to think of the United States in the 1920*s. They are still back with Sinclair Lewis and H. L. Mencken. . • . Time, we hope, w ill remedy this lag.I1*
But neither time nor non-governmental inter national political communications, motivated as they are by different Interests and reflecting stereotypes of their own, can remedy this "lag" nor supply the pure picture of American culture. The United States Government has attempted and rejected complete reliance on commercial channels and operators to perform these tasks.15 There have been no discoverable public opinion surveys revealing desires of the American public regarding a government versus a non-government program. However, it can be assumed that the
14 I b i d .
^Testimony of Assistant Secretary George V. Allen, First Deficiency Appropriation B ill. 80th Congress, 2d Session, pp. lO&9-i But a circumstance of a "divided world" is not the root of a requirement, although it intensifies it, for an orderly, purposeful inter national communications program. The purpose is not lim ited to countering Soviet propaganda advances. If there were no communist threat, it s till seems necessary to invoke and develop methods of international commu nications. Butterfield suggests that if the Soviet problem could be erased today, another equally "Conference on World Tensions," Editor and Publisher. Vol. 93, No. 21, May 21, I9b0, citing the resolution of the Journalists Committee, p . 16. 22 serious one would surface tomorrow.17 Carr cautioned that "power over opinion is • • • not less Important for political purposes than m ilitary and economic power."1® The use of international communication techniques to support foreign policy Is not modem although the concept has been refined Into formal governmental Instruments within the last century. Louis XIV used communication techniques to persuade Strasbourg to come under the French crown.^ The Russians had to be muzzled at the Brest-Litovsk meeting. They were making their speeches "out the window" to Influence foreign diplomatic representa tiv es.2® The George Creel Committee, a World War I 17 Herbert B utterfield, History and Human R e la tio n s (New Y ork: The M acm illan company, 1052j, p. 31. ^®E. H. Carr, The Twenty Years C risis. 1919- 1939 (London: Macmillan Company, 2nd edition, T9S6 ) , p . 168. 19 H ilaire Bellock, Monarchy (London: Cassell and Company, Ltd., 1930)»P. 208. 20„ "Proceedings of the Brest-Litovsk Peace Conference," Department of State (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1918), p. 177. 23 counterpart of the Office of War Information of World War II, could be named as the first official United States government International political communications operation. Lord Northrop*s psycho logical warfare pamphlet-dropping operation from England has been credited with helping to crumble The German front in World War I .21 The development of fast communication techniques has driven states to adopt international communication programs as an instrument of security. For example, President Elsenhower said in his speech before the Foreign Service Institute on June 12, 1959» that . . . we are so tied together now with com munications that when a man has a bad temper in Moscow o r In B u c h a re st . . . we lo o k a t our reports to see whether lt*s going to have an effect before tomorrow morning. • . * Seconds after a citizen In Little Rock strikes a Negro, the news Is heard around the word. Lacking background on the causes, or with embellishments by rival nations, peoples are likely to conclude that a state which breeds violence Is a state to be feared, or hated. World public opinion can be crystallized, and the nation could find Itself without International s u p p o rt. This Is not to say that a nation's foreign policy must be. swayed by the winds of world public 21 G. G. Bruntz, "Allied Propaganda and the Collapse of German Morale In 1918," Public Opinion Quarterly (January, 1938), p. t>4. 2H opinion. F irst, because one cannot always discover the state of world public opinion at a given time on a given subject. Second, a state may desire to Ignore an adverse climate of world public opinion on the gamble that opinion w ill become more favor able; that is, short term objectives might seem more Important than a temporary unfavorable public opinion. Stronger nations, such as the United States and the Soviet Union, with some impunity, can discount un favorable opinion. Weaker nations tend to swallow their opinions rather than voice them on moral Issues such as nuclear testing if they fear a slap from the stronger nation which administers the punishment for the expression of their antagonisms. In every human community acts occur which, in themselves, if multiplied constitute a threat to the security of others. Butterfield wrote that a man is both evil and good; that violence is characteristic of human behavior.22 Acts of violence occur between members of a family, between one family and another, between villages, cities, and between nations. The more separated (in culture, distance, and language) the elements of human society are, the more the 22 Herbert Butterfield, Christianity. Diplomacy and War (New Y ork: A bington-dfokesbury Press, 195577 P« 42. 25 misunderstanding. . Knowledge produces under standing. Understanding does not necessarily bring friendship for understanding can Intensify hatred as with the Nazis. But if foreign peoples understand that the American philosophy is rooted In a belief in moral order, derived from the Judeo-Chrlstlan doctrine, perhaps they can tolerate aberrations in American behavior. If American behavior is to be understood, if foreigners are to believe that Little Rock incidents do not reflect an attitude which threatens their security, if these acts are not to be interpreted as the usual behavior of Americans international, com munication techniques are necessary. If, for example, a community of people learns that a man has been killed in an electrical chair prepared for that purpose and this was its total Information, it would fear the government that caused it. However, to prevent world enmity, the state could explain that the victim had been found guilty by his peers of murder and condemned t to death. Though the foreign culture might reject 26 oapltal punishment, tolerance might replace e n m ity . The ideological war between the United States and the Soviet Union is a transitional part of the basic problem whloh confronts nations in their pursuit of their individual national i n t e r e s t s . It la not the purpose of this study to examine the causes of the USA-USSR conflict, to suggest solutions, or predict outcomes. Nor is it the problem to explore the motivations of the foreign policy of the Soviet Union. But because both sides employ international communications to advance their aims, it would be inappropriate to omit a lis t at least of the Soviet propaganda th e m es. The Soviet Union through International communication actions seekB to persuade the peoples of the undeveloped nations that their basio wants can best be satisfied through ties with the Soviet Union. It seeks to persuade all peoples that international tensions oould be reduoed if it were not for western Intransigence; that the Soviet Union wants peace, the West does not; that the Soviet Union wants and practices peaceful coexistence while the United States rejeots it; that the Soviet Union seeks nuclear disarmament and the Vest does not; that the Soviet Union, in forty years, has demonstrated the viability and superiority of socialism over demooraoy; and that Amerioan atrooltieB against the Negro reflect the Amerioan baslo philosophy of intolerance and disregard for the colored r a c e s . As for the future of Soviet propaganda behavior, it may depend on the issue of the marriage between Soviet dialeotical materialism and Soviet national interests. Churchill said that the aotlon of Russia "... is a riddle wrapped in a mystery inside an enigma."2^ The United States Information Agency has been accused of being too anti-communist; others 2^Communlst Propaganda. Office of Researoh and Intelligence, United States Information Agency (Washington: 1958), PP. 18-30. ^B ritish Broadcasting Commission broadcast, Ootober 1, 1939* 28 have complained that It Is not anti-communist enough. 25 The United States Government has be lieved, however, that the attacks of the Soviet Union must be answered; that one of the ways by whioh the purpose of the United States Information Agency can be aohieved is " . • .b y unmasking and countering hostile attempt to distort and frustrate the objectives and policies of the United States.”26 Positively, the United States is faced with the task of explaining that the American government is responsive to the w ill of the American people, people whose behavior is consistently guided by a philosophy the aims of whioh are human needs; and that the elements of Amerioan behavior whioh seem inconsistent with this philosophy are exceptions and errors which the United states recognizes as e r r o r s . 27 25pritz G. A. Kraemer, "What u . S. Propaganda Can and Can't Be," Journal Stanford Res ear oh Insti tute. Fourth Quarter,- 195$, Vol. 3, p. 153. ^President Elsenhower, October 28, 1953. • . . the Government of the United States . . . is responsive to the will of the people . • ." President Elsenhower, Press conference, January 29, 1959. "... America's historic objectives have Several reasons have been suggested which lim it the ability of the United States Govern ment to accomplish fully its objectives. Most Americans have not equated their personal alms with the international polltioal communication objectives of the Government. Americans resent federal control of functions traditionally oon- duoted by private enterprise. Americans do not believe their security rests, even in part, upon foreign understanding of their culture. Some be lieve a democratic government's international communication operation at most can only reinforce a favorable image and retard a growing unfavorable one; that actions speak louder than words; that not every aot of a government can please all nations, nor can it be made to appear in the interests of everybody. Others stereotype these beliefs into a simple dislike for the United States Information Agency.2® always been human dignity, human peace, human prosperity. ..." President Eisenhower, West Point M ilitary Academy speeoh, June 7, 1955. "Because we are human we err. But as free men we are also responsible for correcting the errors and imperfections of our ways." President Elsenhower, Message to Congress, January 9, 1959. 2®Kraemer, on. c it. . pp. 152-153. "Flunking the Tests," The Wall Street Journal, July 27, I960. 30 Consideration has been given, however, to making the United States Government's international politloal communications operation a more meaning ful one. The United States Advisory Commission in Information in its 15th Report to Congress recom mended that the total U. S. effort in the informa tion, cultural and eduoational fields would be more economically and effectively administered in the 1960's if integrated in one independent agency of the government with Cabinet status.29 Vioe President Nixon in his acceptance speech to the nomination by the Republican party for President said . . . the complex of agencies whioh have grown up through the years for exchange of persons, for teohnical assistance, for information, for loans and grants—all these must be welded together into one powerful eoonomlo and ideologioal striking force under the direct supervision and leadership of the Vice President of the United States.30 Senator Kennedy in his campaign seemed to envision a broader and more purposeful organiza tion. In oalling for a new frontier in government, 2pU« Advisory Commission on Information. Advanoe Release: For Monday Morning Papers, April A, I960. ^Washington Post. July 30., I960. 31 Senator Kennedy said that . . . we are moving into a new era—-and the Old concepts will not do. The old plans of organization will not do. . . Once again we must commit ourselves to great ends. Once again we must take uncer tain risks—sail uncharted seas—explore unoonquered territory.31 He said that " . . . to a large extent our hopes for the future rest on our.comparative efforts (with the communlstc] . . . in propaganda. • . . "32 In June, I960, Senator Kennedy said in the United States Senate that . . . We have an information service . . . But . . .w e have failed to appraise and re evaluate (this tool) in the light of our changing world position. Ve have failed to adapt to the formulation of a long- range, coordinated strategy to meet the Soviet program for world domination. . . . We are forced to reply upon pleoemeal programs, obsolete polioles and meaningless s lo g a n s • The Democratic platform itself called for . . . a more sensitive and creative direction to our overseas information program. And we w ill overhaul our admini strative machinery so that America may • . . 51Speech at Seattle, Washington, September 6, I960. ^2John F. Kennedy, "We Must Climb to the H illtop," Life Magazine (October 22, I960). 32 • • • at long last speak with a single confident voice to the w o rld . I . FACTORS IN WEST GERMAN SOCIETY WHICH GOVERN THE ESTABLISHMENT OF AND MAINTENANCE OF ATTITUDES Since this study Is concerned with messages originating with the United States for transm ittal to a western people, It Is useful to examine some of the factors In western society which condition the acceptance of these thoughts. The assumption Is made that It Is necessary for the communicator to know, and to take into account, the cultural characteristics of any society if he Is to be successful In installing sets of attitudes. For any society has cultural structures peculiar to It Into which must fit the new attitude considered for transm ittal and Installation. Mead describes this concept as "different types of social organization provide different types of avenues for purposive technological change."^3 ^Margaret Mead (ed.), Cultural Patterns and Technical Changes (New York: tfhe New American Library of world Literature, Inc., 1955)* p. 17. 3 3 Culture In this survey Is defined as learned behavior which a group of people who share the same traditions transmit to junior members of the society. It includes the arts and sciences, religion and philosophies, family relations, and political practices.3* I I . THE INFLUENCE OF GROUP STRUCTURES ON ATTITUDES IN WESTERN SOCIETY Characteristics of a community*s social structure reveal its susceptibility to attltudlnal changes. Lazarsfeld has suggested that the study of effect can be conducted by examining the character istics of an audience—>to determine the potential effect for a given message.33 What are the roots of western social struc ture? In Escape from Freedom Fromm suggests that western man, freed by the Reformation from Church dictatorship, found himself alone and required to 31* Ibid.. p. 12. 35 Ellhu Katz and Paul F. Lazarsfeld, Personal Influence (Glencoe, Illinois: The Free Press, 1^5^J, p p . behave according to unknown dictates except those which he could provoke within himself. This he was unable to do; so he sought protection, and solace from anxiety. Luther's premise was that since man was Inadequate he could achieve Inner peace only through dependence upon God. His emphasis was upon Individual aloneness, except f o r God o n ly . The condition of aloneness was Intolerable; man's anxieties were Intolerable. He needed pro tection from aloneness. The protection he sought was available—In human society—In one of two principal ways: (1) through submission to a new kind of dictatorship; or (2) through submission to group direction, expressed In modem behavior as conformity to group Ideals, attitudes, and standards of behavior. Man hated himself as a result of Intolerable anxiety. To ease his self-hate, man craved outside love. To achieve outside love he was forced to Join a group. His payment for group membership was an acceptance of its beliefs.36 ag Erich Fromm, Escape from Freedom (New York: Rinehart and Company, Inc., 19^1), p. bb. He took refuge In communities of public opinion. This Is the power of group membership respect Ing opinions: man believes what his group tells him to believe. As Fromm suggests, he accepts the attitude handed him by his group as group rule. For him to deny group beliefs Is to deny the group, denying himself. This means that he would be once more alone, confronted with fears, leading a guide- less life, full of intolerable anxieties. "One can be sure of himself only if he lives up to the expectations of others. Western society has provided a kind of re lationship between humans represented by the group phenomenon: a system of tightly constructed units within a society which furnish emotional comfort for Its members and which demand adherence to group- selected attitudes and rules for behavior. If attitudes are to be changed, they must be changed so as not to disturb the structures man has estab lished to protect himself from aloneness and anxiety the group structures. The question to whleh this conclusion leads is: what are the characteristics of any western group, and specifically the Germans, which require acceptance of any given attitude and which can trigger changes In attitudes? According to Roper, In terms of the sectors of people which contribute to the maintenance or alteration of attitudes, society consists of the Great Thinkers, Great Disciples, Great Disseminators, Lesser Disseminators, Participating Citizens, and the Politically Inert.^® For example, If Einstein was a Great Thinker, a half dozen leading scientists following his leadership might be his Great Disciples scientific publishers, the Great Disseminators; teachers, the Lesser Disseminators; university students, the Participating Citizens; and the un informed public the Politically Inert* Roper suggests that changes in attitudes in these six groups are caused by suggestions from the group above, not mass media*39 Lazarsfeld's Ohio Study on voters' decisions In a Presidential / election showed that voters tended to conform to the political climate of the community; that Is, they favored the Issues the groups already favored. Influences of group leaders accounted for vote decisions rather than the mass media. The mass media Influenced the group leaders who influenced the Politically Inert.1*0 The Great Thinkers adhered to or changed their views as the result of Influence by the mass media. "Persons,11 then, according to Lazarsfeld, "especially opinion leaders, can be looked upon as another medium of mass communi cat ions , m1*1 And he concludes In part that changes in attitudes "cannot be accounted for without reference to . . . social environment and to the character of (man's) interpersonal relationships.Mi*2 The key to change of attitudes in western society lies in the power of any idea to penetrate the group. The group changes Its attitudes depending 38 upon the manipulation of those attitudes by forces within the group* It has been shown that group membership, and acceptance by the group, Is the most powerful force In modem western society: that the assault of the group by ideas through non personal media Is effective in changing an attitude only when Interpersonal relationships are Involved. By this is meant that a group w ill accept an outside suggestion that it change Its view if the new idea does not conflict with what the group believes is right and if its leaders can be shown the idea harmonizes with what they consider correct and culturally acceptable. This chapter has reviewed contemporary thought on the subject of International political communica tions and has attempted to show some of the major problems Involved In transm itting concepts from one people to another. The point has been made that a state cannot rely on an Informal, unorganized transmission of ideas by various elements of its society to transmit messages which support its foreign policy objectives: the state must select the specific messages which It believes w ill render 39 specific support to specific objectives and it must undertake to transmit these messages. It has been suggested that cultural factors in the receiving state must be recognized, especial ly the group structures in western societies, if the ideas which are transmitted are to be accepted. CHAPTER III THE UNITED STATES INFORMATION AGENCY The purpose of this chapter Is to present a setting for the problem of tracing the strands (and noting the beginning) of the United States Government's International political communica tions operation. Beginning with the political situation in 1938, developments are followed through the Department of State operation until the establishment of the United States Information Agency as an independent agency in August, 1953* The second part of the chapter w ill present a brief description of the organization of the Agency as it existed in August, I960. This pre sentation sets the stage for a detailed analysis of one element of the Agency, the Information Center Service, the focus of the investigation, which w ill be presented in Chapter IV. I . ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES INFORMATION AGENCY The United States Information Agency was established on August 1, 1953* with the acceptance by the Congress of the President's Reorganization Plan No. 8 which was submitted to the Congress on June lt 1953.1 The Plan established the United States Information Agency as a separate government organization of the Executive Branch. The Plan transferred from the Department of State to the new Agency many of the functions vested In the Secretary of State by Public Law 402, including responsibility for the Information pro grams relating to Germany and Austria and for information programs related to other government agencies. Hence the Agency is governed by the Acts of Congress, by the Executive Orders of the President, and by Its own administrative regula t i o n s . Theodore Strelbert, Director when the Agency was established, wrote the President describing his view of the Agency p r o g r a m .3 ^Executive Order 10477,August 1, 1953. 2 ^United States Information and Educational Exchange Act of as amended (PT~L. 7^4. 79th Congress, approvecTAugust 13, 1946; 22 U. S. C. 801 et seq.) ^See Appendix A. 42 The United States Information Agency did not suddenly appear In 1953 as the first Government Information program. It traced Its lineage from the Creel Committee on Public Information operating from April 1917 u n til March 1919 which was engaged In a "monumental program of Information and volun tary censorship In World War I."1* Ignoring the growing forces of world propa ganda symbolized by the Ideological struggle of the Spanish Civil War, the United States Government waited until 1938 to recognize these forces.5 it was a negative move although It foreshadowed the United States Information Agency. Congress, con ceiving world propaganda as a possible threat to the security of the United States, enacted legis lation requiring foreign propagandists and domestic agents of foreign principals to disclose the names of their employers and the nature of their operations. 4 Charles S. Steinberg, The Mass Communicators (New York: Harper and Brothers, l^B ), p. i■/. 5 Charles A. H. Thomson, Overseas Information Service of the U. S. Government (Washington: Brookings Institute, p. 2. The United States through the Department of State in 1939 explored the possibilities of international broadcasting facilities—-thirteen in all-operated by the Columbia Broadcasting Company.8 Simultaneous ly, the Department of State organized the Inter departmental Committee for Scientific and Cultural Cooperation and a Division of Cultural Cooperation, aimed at improving relationships in Latin America, through the use of Informational activitiesWith the threat of war in 19^0, the Office of the Coordina tor of Commercial and Cultural Relations between the American Republics replaced the former Depart ed ment of State Information organizations.0 Executive Orders of July 30, 191*!* and March 23, 1 9M5 , changed the title twice and expanded its work. It functioned under its last title , the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs, until the President dissolved it on August 31, 19^5.9 Four months before Pearl Harbor the President appointed Colonel William B. Donovan Coordinator of Information with Robert E. Sherwood as Donovan's man to direct a new operation, the Foreign Informa tion Service.10 This Service put the Voice of ^Thomson, o j j . clt•, p. 3. 7Ibid. 8Ibld.. p. 4. 9Ibld. 10Ibid. America, later to beoome a part of the united States Information Agency, on the air in early 1 9 4 2 .11 In June 1942, the war Information activities of the Government, including those of the Foreign Information Service, were consolidated into a new organization, the Office of War Information, under the direction of newsman Elmer Davis, authorized by Executive Order 9182, June 13, 1942.12 The Office of the Coordinator of Information beoame the Office of Strategio Servioes.1^ To clarify the responsibilities of these two offioes, the President issued Executive Order 9312, March 9, 1943, giving the Office of War information the overseas propaganda program, outside the Western H em isphere, s u b je c t to a m i l i t a r y t h e a t e r comman der^ operational control 11fhe Agency In B rief. A Report Prepared by the United States information Agenov (Washington United States Information Agency, I960), p. B-l. 12Executive Order 9182, June 13, 1942. •^The Aaenov in B rief, on. olt. 14 Executive Order 9312, M a rc h 9, 1943. H P eace in 1945 d o s e d th e O ffio e o f War information and the Offioe of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs. The Department of State then organized its Offioe of International information and Cultural Affairs with William Benton as Assistant Seoretary of State for Public and Cultural Affairs to administer the program. Faced with the obligation to plan a long time information operation, and oonfronted with war time hold over Information operations, Benton reshaped and out the program. He moved all radio activities into the New York Voloe of America offloes. This reorganization meant paring foreign broadcasts to twenty-four languaged from a wartime h ig h o f 3>200 live programs weekly in forty lan guages. He reduoed the Offioe of War Information overseas wireless 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 daily word newsfile to 2 0 ,0 0 0 words per day; he eliminated all the wartime foreign language magazines except the Russian- language Amerlka.1^ His new program was a nine point operation from which the United States Infor mation Agency was to derive its heritage. The •*•5Ib id . . p. 6 . •^Agency in Brief, on. clt., p. B-2. 46 program was: (1) to provide for the exchange of foreign and American students, scholars, technicians, and other experts; (2) to maintain and service Ameri can libraries abroad; (3) to transmit a daily wire- lees bulletin to State Department missions contain ing official Government comment; (4) to supply missions with news and feature m aterial, including background information on current American political thought and action; (5) to transmit to missions exhibits and film -strips for noncommercial use; (6) to con tinue publishing and distributing the bi-monthly Huselan-language magazine, Amerlka: (7) to acquire and transm it to missions documentary and newsreel films about the United States; (8) to maintain a staff of publlo affairs officers in missions abroad to provide information about the United States; and (9) to operate a world-wide short-wave broadcasting s y s te m .1*^ Thomson says that neither the Secretary of State nor the President was interested in the new Offioe of International Information and Cultural A ffairs.18 Less so seemed Congress. Reduced ^Thomson, op. c it., p. 192. l8Ibld.. p. 204. appropriations in 1947 caused the Offioe to be replaced by the Offioe of Information and Educa tional Exchange. Some overseas libraries were closed, others given to foreign governments. In formation personnel were dropped. The Congress appropriated for fiscal year 1948 operations thirteen million dollars for the whole program.^9 But anxiety over world conditions was increasing. After congressional argument the Smlth-Mundt b ill was passed on January 22, 1948.20 The Department of State reorganized the offioe again in April, 1948, splitting the program into two offloes; the Office of International Information which was constituted by an Executive Offioe, a secretariat of the United States Advisory Commission on Information, a Program Coordinator, four Special A ssistants, and three mass media divisions; and the second, the Offioe of Educa tional Exchange, which had the responsibility for the exohange-of-persons program.21 19Ibld. . p. 208. 20 United States Information and Educational Exchange Act of 1948. op. c lt. 21Thomson, og. c it., p. 236. 48 The Smith-Mundt Act outlined the peace time role of the United States Government *s inter national political communications program, describ ing it as one means of increasing mutual understand ing between the people of the United States and the people of other countries. The nature of the functions proscribed are essentially the same as those posited by Benton in his nine-point program and are those conducted by the United States Information Agency.22 Ambassador George V. Allen, in January, 1948, replaced William Benton to head both the new offices, International Information, and Educa tional Exchange. The penultimate reorganization came in January 1952 when the Department of State consoli dated the two offices under the International In formation Administration. The Administrator reported direotly to the Seoretary and Under secretary of State.2^ In 1953 the Government's overseas Information 22Ibid. . p. 1 9 2. ^Agency in Brief, on. cit.. p. B-3. program was examined by the President's Committee on Foreign Information A ctivities, headed by William H. Jackson. The Committee recommended that all overseas Information activities be consolidated into one service within the Department of State. At the same tim e, President Eisenhower's Advisory Committee on Government Organization, led by Nelson Rockefeller, recommended an independent informa tion agency, a recommendation accepted by the 2 ii Jackson Committee. . The United States Advisory Commission on Information, headed by Dr. Mark A. May, also recommended a single information agency. Senator Bourke B. Hickenlooper's Subcommittee on Overseas Information Programs said that if an independent information agency were to be established, the educational exchange program should remain in 25 the Department of State. 2^Ibid., p. B-4. 25 United States Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Overseas Programs of the United States. Report ko. <»db, tHjrd Congress, 1st session. (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1953), p. 208. 5° The establishment of the United States Information Agency in 1953 as a separate and inde pendent agency then, was a result of concurrences by most committees which has considered the problem, I I . OBJECTIVES OF THE AGENCY The Agency set for itself tasks Intended to satisfy President Eisenhower's directive or purposes published in August, 1953* It would present timely considerations on informational aspects of national policy before the Operations Coordinating Board and, on invitation, before the National Security Council. It would design information programs and employ communication techniques which could be used by the overseas offices of the Agency, United States Information Services, hereafter called U.S.I.S. in this study, to support the foreign policy of the Government. These included the mass media, such as press and publications, radio, televidion, motion pictures, and exhibits. Moreover the Agency would prepare programs for special events. These would include a national election or a Geneva Conference which would require world transmission. The cultural program was conceived as a broad Agency responsibility under the 26 Agency in Brief, op. c it., p. C-2. President's directive. Ibis meant the maintenance of overseas libraries, reading rooms, and cultural centers where travelling American artists could appear and whlbh could provide meeting places for local natlonal-American friendship societies. The Agency was to support cooperative overseas under takings with other government agencies, such as the Atomic Energy Commission which during 1957 worked with the Agenoy to organize, produoe and show exhibits on the United States efforts to develop greater peaceful usee for nuclear energy. Finally, the Agency committed Itself to maintain overseas information service posts, United States Informa tion Services. I I I . ORGANIZATION OF THE AGENCY The Agency produoed a booklet In January, I960, with a second printing in July, I960, in which it reviewed its existing organizational opera tion. This booklet provided the Agenoy viewpoint for this section of the inquiry.28 The Director of the United States Information Agenoy, on August, I960, was George V. Allen, holding the rank of Career Ambassador. In addition to directing the operations of the Agenoy, he parti cipated in policy-making activities of the Executive Branch of the Government with frequent, personal reports to the President, and attendance at the National Security Council meetings. When informa tion matters were on the agenda of Cabinet meetings he attended. His thirteen-member staff participated in the Planning Board of the National Security Council. They were assigned as liaison officers with other Government departments and agencies. The Direotor and/or his Deputies met regularly with the Secretary of State and other State Depart ment officials. At the Executive level of the agency was the Office of Policy and Plans which obtained from the Department of State guidanoe on foreign policy. This information was uBed to develop guidance to United States Information Services abroad. Following the President's direotive, the Office of Polioy and Plans in August, I960, con centrated on specific subjects to be explained by overseas field offices. These subjects in cluded American science, atomic energy, disarmament, 53 International communist activities, United Nations affairs, American women, and religious a f f a i r s . Four Assistant Directors, one for each geographical area, acted for the Director in each respective area: These areas were the Far East, Near East-South Asia and Africa were Included in the Near East area responsibility—Latin America, and Europe. The Assistant Directors decided on the oontent of the information programs in their areas, the methods used to carry them out, and arranged for any evaluations of their Impact. Their responsibilities required that they spend most of their time observing field operations which Included consultations with United States Information Servioes officers and the American ambassadors who as the President's representatives directed all Government operations in the field. Assistant Directors consulted with leaders of the host countries to gain foreign views of the o p e r a tio n . To assist each Area Director, country desk officers were assigned to study the particular information and cultural problems related to the 5* country or countries for which they were respon sible. They reviewed and recommended to the Assistant Area Director changes, when required, in objectives, programs, plans, and new projects. It was their task to oonsult with the Media Ser vices, elements of the Agency which supplied materials to overseas establishments, on the suitability of these products for eaoh country. Each Area Office staff Interpreted and applied United States Government and Agenoy policy on informational and cultural objectives to its area. Moreover, personnel requirements for the area, and special projeots were area staff respon sibilities. The largest part of the Agenoy's activities at the time of this study were located in the overseas establishments. Headed by a Public Affairs Officer who reported to the Chief of Diplo matic establishment—either Ambassador or M inister— , the USIS country unit developed its individual program. The Public Affairs Officer was a member of the country team, headed by the Chief of Diplo matic establishment, and was assisted by a staff of Amerioan and foreign national employees• often 55. referred to as "locale". The normal complement of a Public Affairs Offloer staff lnoluded a Cultural Officer, and an information Officer with additional subordinate American personnel and local employees. The complexity and number of a USIS staff varied. For example, USIS Stockholm might employ five Americans and twenty locals; USIS Bonn twenty-seven Americans, one hundred-forty six locals. The headquarters of a country USIS establishment was located at the capital but branch USIS offices for the larger countries were established In key oities of the nation. The USIS establishment In the Federal Republic of Germany examples a larger USIS operation with which this study will deal In detail. USIS Copenhagen is an example of a post with no branches. The principal activities of a USIS post were: 1. Conducting contacts with host government officials, editors, w riters, educators, and business l e a d e r s • 2. Initiating and maintaining cultural contacts with local groups and participating In timely oultural events depiotlng achievements in American scholarship, music, drama, and the other a r t s . 56 3. Preparing press, photo, radio, and motion picture coverage of special events of mutual interest to the United States and the peoples of the foreign oountry. 4. Producing and providing television program materials for use by local television s t a t i o n s . 5. Supplying American news and feature materials to the press and local groups. 6. Produoing and distributing magazines, pamphlets, leaflets, posters, and photo displays to select groups. 7* Showing motion pictures through theatrical outlets, television, and private groups. 8. Showing exhibits to explain such aspects of the United States as its foreign policy, its history, Its culture, and its scientific develop m ent. 9. Presenting appropriate books and periodicals to key individuals and institutions. 10. Operating American libraries for the general public as well as special readers. 11. Encouraging and assisting local universities to establish courses in Amerioan s t u d i e s • 57 The Agency's five Media Services developed and supervised the broadcasting, cultural informa tion, press and publications, motion picture, and television programs to support Agency and USIS oountry objectives* These Servioes produced and acquired media products and equipment for shipment to USIS field offices. These materials could have been in response to field requests; or they may have been sent to support a special event which the Agency believed couia serve a United States Govern ment objective. Each Media Service Director parti cipated in Agency programming and, with the concur rence of the Area Assistant Directors', the Office of Flans, and the Office of Administration, supplied the required media materials to the field. The five Media Servioes in August, i 9 6 0, were the Broadcasting Service, the Motion Picture Service, the Frees and Publications Service, the Television Service, and the Information Center S e rv lo e . The Broadcasting Service used the medium of the radio to transmit Informational material to foreign peoples, short, medium, and long wave broadcasts being employed. Additionally, the Servloe shipped recorded m aterial to USIS establishments for placement on looal radio stations. In August, I960, the Voice of America, as the Servioe is oommonly known, was broadcasting in thirty-seven languages for approximately 565 hours a week. This compared with forty languages broadcast by the Office of War Information; and twenty-four when William Benton assumed charge of the Offioe of Information and Cultural Affairs in 19^5* The content of the material was any Bubject which the Agenoy believed would advance the Agency's objectives. The Motion Pioture Service planned, organized, directed, and coordinated the motion picture program to support Agenoy objectives. Its aim was to produoe or acquire three kinds of films for shipment to USIS organizations. These were documentary film s, whloh concentrated on subjects which explained Amerioan life, eoonomy, foreign policy; subjects dealing with communism, newsreel, topical and special films, such as visiting foreign dignitaries of special interest to certain countries, were also used. Frequently the Servloe distributed test films to Public Affairs Officers for comment and 59 evaluation. Agency films were recorded in as many as forty-one major languages and ten minor ones, the Servloe maintained 7,798 projectors and serviced 289 USIS film libraries. Commercial theaters, television and non-theatrical facilities, such as educational institutions, civic organizations, USIS information centers, and USIS trucks were the end-users of films distributed by the Motion Picture S e rv lo e . The basic elements of the Press and Publica tions Service were the fast transmission of news service and the slow media activities. The Agency defined its fast transmissions operation as one which supplied news coverage of ourrent developments in America foreign policy, Including full texts of major speeches and policy announcements, news of ourrent oultural and scientific advancements, analyses of ourrent eventB, and m aterials ?exposing communist evils,11 Sent by radio teletype, this material was tailored to meet what was considered to be the interests of eaoh geographic audience. Called "perishable m aterial", this news was transmitted to eighty-six USIS posts. The slow media, as defined by the Agency, represented feature articles, photographs, picture stories, oartoon strips, pamphlets, magazines, and other ready-to-use m aterials. The Press and Publications Servloe, conceived as a Service that provided printed material which would further United States interests abroad, was organized to supply anything to print which would further Agency objectives. The Television Service, formerly belonging to the Radio Broadcasting Service, was the newest Service m the Agency when this study was completed. It was responsible for supporting the Agency*s use of this medium of mass communications in achieving Agency objectives In countries overseas. Like the Motion Picture Service, the Television Service was engaged In producing and acquiring programs, or elements of programs, whloh would serve Agenoy objectives and which oould be offered by USIS Installations to television outlets overseas. The criterion for the selection of content was the same as those of the other servioes: aspects of American life whloh were believed to support the foreign policy of the United States. Since the fifth Agency Service, the Information Center Servloe, w ill be the focus of the study and w ill be examined In Chapter IV, its purposes are merely summarized: It furnished USIS posts with books, magazines, exhibits, music soores, and other cultural materials In the promo tion of oultural activities which could contribute to a support of the Agency's objectives. Six staff offices completed the Agency organization pattern. These performed special functions, advisory in nature rather than opera tional. They were: 1. The Office of Private Cooperation whloh encouraged private participation on the part of the American people in achieving Agenoy objectives. The Offioe worked through community and university a ffi liations, overseas public relations programs of private business, and publishers of books and magazines. It considered the President's People- to-People program a cornerstone of its operations• 2. The Office of Research and Analysis provided operational research analysis needed in forming Agency plans and programs. Designing and directing original research on foreign attitudes and opinions, the Offioe made a substantial t)2 contribution to the present study through its research findings on the image of American society of the Federal Republlo of Germany. The Agenoy*s documentary and reference libraries were managed by this office. 3* The Offioe of the General Counsel con ducted legal affairs and Congressional liaison for the Agency. This included the interpretation of laws and regulations pertaining to the work of the Agency, drafting of legislation, and advising the Director on legal matters. 4. The Offioe of Fubllo Information was responsible for relations with the domestic—Ameri can—public and press. These functions consisted of answering public mall, preparing news releases and features to the American press, radio and other media on matters which were of special Interest to the American public. It prepared the semi-annual reports on the Agency for the Congress, the only Congressional function not performed by the Office of the General Counsel. 5* The Offioe of Security directed and executed all security operations of the Agency, including investigations on physical and personnel 6 3 security matters. 6. The Offioe of Administration was res ponsible for housekeeping servioes of the Agenoy; budget matters; contracts and procurement; fin ances, including accounting and payment of domes tics (United States residing personnel); personnel reorultment, examination, selection, and career development; training; and field inspection. The principal buildings of the United States Information Agenoy were located in Washington with its headquarters at 1776 Pennsylvania Avenue, North West. The total square feet of the fifteen Washington buildings occupied by the Agency at the date of this inquiry were 386,620. Four Agency buildings were located in New York City with 192,908 square feet occupied. Table I shows the amounts of money that have been appropriated by the Congress each year since the Agency was established on August 1, 1953* The amounts requested by the Agency for fiscal year 1961 is also given. TABLE I UNITED STATES INFORMATION AGENCY APPROPRIATIONS Fiscal Year Total Appropriations 1954 # 84,217,000 1955 77,299,000 1956 87,336,630 1957 113,000,000 1958 97,617,000 1959 118,923,000 1960 11*3,307,300 1961 (Request) 120,300,000 29 p . G -3. CHAPTER IV THE INFORMATION CENTER SERVICE I . ORGANIZATION The fifth media service of the Agency, the Information Center Service, had an authorized personnel complement of 216 people at the time of this inquiry. Its purpose was to advance the Agency'8 objectives through supplying guid ance to officers in the field such as cultural officers, information center directors, English teachers, and librarians and to coordinate the Agency's cultural programs with the overseas cultural activities of other United States government cultural programs, suoh as the exchange of persons program operated in Washington by the Department of State. This Service was engaged in the actual supply of "goods" or materials to overseas instal lations of the Agency. These materials were accepted by the poets as raw materials and organized and fed into the local information program by the Public Affairs Officer to support objectives. Materials were books, magazines, musioal recordings, scores, 66 lyrics, English teaching materials, library equipment, exhibits and displays. Finally, the Information Center Servioe promoted and supported programs for the commercial sale abroad of selected books in English—books which the Agency believed would support one or more objectives. Organizationally, the Service consisted of the Office of the Direotor and five operating elements: (1) Cultural Operations Division, (2) Bibliographic Division, (3) Publications Division, (4) the Information Media Guaranty Division, and (5) the Exhibit Division. I I . CULTURAL OPERATIONS DIVISION The Cultural Operations Division had an authorized personnel complement of fifty-six persons and was organized into eight branches, the European, American Republios, the Near East, the Far East, the Program Services, Music, English Teaching, and Cultural Services branches. Specifically, the responsibility of the Cultural Operations Division was to provide general support to the information oenters overseas, their librar ies, and the binational oenters, and information 67 oenters Jointly supported by the United States Government and the country in which they were lo c a te d . The Cultural Operations Division accom plished its support duties by purchasing and supplying posts with books, periodicals, news papers, maps, and all printed items, as well as library furniture and equipment. It selected and shipped to the field musical materials and back ground information for lectures on America. Organized in part into geographical area branches, the Division conducted regular planning conferences with the Area Assistant D irector's officers to help assure that the kinds of materials it sup plied were needed by the posts.1 On September 9» 1959, the Agency said in part that the purpose or the English teaching program was to capitalize upon worldwide Interest in the English language, wherever feasible, by conducting English classes, by cooperating with national schools in their English teaching programs, especially through seminars or workshops for teachers of English, and by introducing American 1Agency in Brief, on. o lt. , pp. D-8-D-9. 68 English teaching materials in foreign programs.2 The long range goal was the promotion of understanding of the United States and the American people and the enlargement of the English-speaking community which, aocordlng to the Agency shared "... access to a common fund of basic informa tion, ideas, ethlos and attitudes.M3 it was believed that the English teaching program, spon sored and conduoted by the Agency through its posts abroad, could "... facilitate effective communication, mutual understanding, and a sense of solidarity. . ."4 The immediate goals of the program were to provider a working knowledge of Eng lish to important audience groups; to utilize the opportunity provided by the eagerness of some foreign nationals to learn English by establishing regular contacts with American teachers and exposing foreign students to American teaching 2United States Information Agency, English Teaching. USIA CA-641 (Washington; Circular Airgram sent to all USIS Posts, September 9, 1959), P. 1. 3 4 Ibid. Ibid.. p. 2. 69 m aterials and methods. Hie Agency suggested to USIS overseas posts that they use all Agenoy facilities and materials to accomplish these alms—in an inte grated manner—which would lnolude press, radio, television, films, the library, exhibits, and lectures. Posts were cautioned not to oompete with local school programs nor with English teaching operations operated by the United Kingdom. The Agency believed that there was, however, such a demand for English language instruction that any USIS program would not interfere with the British. So that British and American English teaching programs could complement eaoh other, the Agenoy asked posts to submit proposals to Washington for coordination before discussing details with their British counterparts. The Agency went on to explain that there were many program activities into whioh English teaohlng oould be built. -For example, it was suggested that there were at least seven kinds of possible English instruction activities. Formal olasses in binational centers or official United 70 States Information Centers could be given for special groups, euoh as m ilitary, or university students, or labor groups; or, oourses could be offered to the general public. A second activity suggested was indirect, or sponsored English language instruction through cooperation with local schools. Such oooperation could lnolude advisory services on curriculum and textbook selection, assistance in the preparation of teaching m aterials, inspection of classroom work, if requested, and conducting teacher-training institutes.3 Workshops and seminars were a third aotivity. Cooperating with a ministry of eduoatlon, with a British oultural operation, suoh as the British Council, the post might help arrange for instructors and materials for use in these seminars. As a fourth aotivity, it was believed that the post might answer the need for more language instruction—again indirectly—by the introduction of American English teaching materials into a complete secondary or state university school system. This would be accomplished through consul- 5Ibid.. p. 4. 71 tation with school officials and the presentation of sample English textbooks and kindred m aterials. To supply formal acknowledgement of language accomplishment, the Agenoy felt that a fifth suitable activity was the use of the University of Miohlgan Certificate of Proficiency in English language; or, the University of Pennsylvania Examination in American C ivilization. Informal activities were suggested as a sixth approach,. such as practloe in listening, repeating, and translating American radio, tele vision, and film programs. Finally, the Agency thought that both formal and informal use of USIS press material were helpful souroes for vocabulary testing and improvement. To accomplish the aims of the programs and to provide the means for operating the activities, the Agenoy told its USIS establishments that it was prepared to supply equipment. Moreover* the Agency authorized posts to employ and pay local resident Amerloans as teachers. Materials offered ranged from a simple bibliography of English language teaching m aterials to classroom laboratory equipment, books, readers, and appropriate audio 72 visual equipment for classroom teaching aids. Low-priced books were envisioned as a boon to the program. The New York Times had noted that the Agenoy hoped to increase the American publication of such books in the Far East and Africa from 1,300,000 to 1,468,500.6 The Agency called attention to the availa bility of its travelling field consultant on English teaching who would assist posts with their programs and said that its Voice of America program was beginning a fifty-lesson program serieB. On March 13, I 9 6 0, the Agency reported a worldwide total enrollment of 173*000 students in its English classes with 2,500 regular teaohers. During the period from June 30, 1958, to July 1, 1959* seventy-seven English teaching seminars had been arranged or sponsored by USIS posts. As for the geographical distribution, the largest program was looated in Latin America with 125,000 students enrolled, 1,600 regular teachers, and thirty-five seminars conducted. The Near East followed with * 25*000 students* the Far East with 16,000 students, Africa and Western Europe with 3*700 students ^The New York Times, March 22, 1959. 73 e a o h .^ The Agency noted in Its 14th Review of Operations which reported Agency activities from January 1 to June 30, I960, that: The Agency sought to open new avenues to understanding of this country through the teaohlng of English to individual students in 55 countries. . . . At Agenoy seminars in Latin America, the Near and Far East, Afrioa and Europe, local teaohers of English improved their knowledge of modern instruction techniques and were Introduced to American textbooks and visual aids. One such aid, a motion picture called Growth of a Language, was oompleted by USIA for use in the seminars. . . • In Mogadiscio . . . USIS worked out a series of 20 Somali-English lessons for radio broadcast and for class use. The tapes, the first "Somalized" approach to English teaching, improved the effectiveness of the English classes in which about 150 Somali Government employees studied. . . . classes for Boy Scouts in Burma . . • classes for Journalists in Tunisia. During a January seminar for English teaohers in Arequlpa, Peru, an earthquake shook up the oountryslde but did not keep the teaoherB away from the English sessions.8 ^English Teaohlng Programs FY 1959. United States Information Agenoy (Washington: April 13» I960) (Mimeographed Report). u U. S. Information Agenoy, 14th Review of Operations. January 1-June 3o. i960 "(Washington: Government Printing Office, I960), pp. 17-18. 74 A second media-type operation of the Cultural Operations Division was the Musio Branch. Its objective was to expose foreign audiences to American music. The Agenoy told all USIS posts on March 27> 1956, that it believed that while foreign leaders might believe Americans were skilled musloal performers, these leaders also believed that the Americans laoked the musloal oreativeness they prized in their own cultures* It was the responsibility, said the Agenoy, of posts to develop a strong musical information program to Inform foreign opinion moulders of the creative competence, particularly in the field of composition, of American musicians. That the program should meet with ready acceptance by intellectuals was the Agency's view. Posts were instructed to include a music information program in their operation. To aid USIS establishments to carry out the guidance, the Agency said that there were six . kinds of American musio, either in recorded or published form whioh posts could utilize. These were classified as: (1) serious American musio, 75 such as the work of Aaron Copland; (2) folk music; (3) Broadway musicals; (4) Jazz; (5) semi- popular music; and (6) popular music. The Agency had shipped to most posts operating in capital cities one hundred recordings of the latest oom- mercial releases covering these six kinds of music and had mailed collections of study scores embracing the same general range. The purpose of the March, 1956, message was to set the objective of the Agency's music program, to identify the kinds of available music materials, and to suggest activities which posts might develop. As for the use of recordings to advance the general aim of the music program, the Agency said that recorded concerts oould be organized consisting of the standard repertoire but that each concert should Include at least one outstanding work. To make these concerts meaningful, w ritten program notes should be provided. Moreover, the program should be conducted by a person, either resident American or a local citizen, whose musical compe tence would command audience respect, said the Agenoy. Loan of records was indicated as another 76 useful program technique on the same kind of basis as books. Individual listening was suggested when earphones and space were available. Recordings could be presented as gifts to important local musicians, the Agenoy reminded the posts, but gift records would have to be ordered especially for this purpose. This procedure was necessary to acoount for the distribution and to budget for its recording program. Scores and printed musio were to be used in the same way as recordings. They could be loaned to students and musicians, or studied at the information center. If local musicians desired speciflo compositions not in a post's collection they could be requested from the Agency. Earlier the Agency had stocked seleoted posts with deposi tories of full-sized conductor's scores and player's parts. These, said the Agency, could also be loaned without fees. However, neither the Agenoy nor the post would negotiate performing rights. This was the responsibility of the performer and could be accomplished through local performing rights societies or by direct arrangements between 77 the conductor and the American owner. For oroheatral and operatic materials requiring rental fees, the Agency had told posts nine months earlier that It would obtain these mat erials and pay their rent, providing posts sub mitted details such as the date of performance, number of performances, number of parts required, and whether admissions would be free or pald.^ Finally, the Agency told the posts that USIS Information center musio activities, however satisfactory, were not the end. The Agency's objectives would be served if local orchestras and performing groups regularly Included American m u s ic .10 Before the Issuance of these instructions, posts had been conducting a variety of musical operations.11 ^United States Information Agenoy, Request for Oroheatral and Operatic M aterial, USIA CA-203 (Washington: Circular Airgram sent to all USIS Posts, August 5, 1955). 10United States Information Agency, Musio P rogram . USIA CA-10 (W ashington: C ir c u la r A irgram Sent to All Posts, March 27, 1956), pp. 1 - 5 . 11For a description of these see David S. Cooper, "American Musio—The Government's Cultural Ambassador," Music Educators Journal (September- Ootober, 195*)* On February 24, I960, the Agenoy inaugurated its "Info-Not98—American Musio" service which con sisted of musical articles, pamphlets and photographs on the current Amerioan musio soene. It was contem plated then that this would be a quarterly service. The material oould he used for display in the in formation centers; for inclusion in program notes; or for publication in looal newspapers in connec tion with musical events conducted by the informa tion center. The purpose, s&ld the Agency, in part was to "emphasize • • . information which is of continuing importance in illustrating artlstio creativity and breadth of American public partici pation in musical life."12 "Info-Notes Number One Package" contained; (1) a thirty-five card set of five-by-seven Inch cards eaoh carrying a photograph and biography of an Amerioan composer or performer published by Music Journal. 157 West 57th Street, New York, New York; (2) fifty three-by-eight inch two-color 12 United States Information Agency, "inf o-Notes—Amerioan Musio," USIA CA-2138 (Washington: Circular Airgram Sent to All Posts February 24, I960). folders on other American musicians with their photographs and lis t of works; (3) Otto Bostel- mann's booklet, Bohemian Composers Group, published by Otto Bostelmann, 1209 North Clark Street, Los Angeles, California, January, I960; (4) a set of booklets on other Amerioan performers and composers, published by Boosey and Hawkes, 30 West 57th Street, New York, New York; and (5) several Agency mimeo graphed background papers. Among them were "A Bernstein Suite", "The New Musio", "Jazz", "The Broadway Musloal", "Music in American Life: A Basic Paper", and "The American Composer Today". Then in September, I960, the Agency sent its third instruction on the music program to the field. This Instruction attempted to explain the use of Amerioan Jazz. The Agency said that it was "con cerned" about the fact that some world areas con sidered Jazz a prim itive and undisciplined musio form. The Agency told posts to stop using Jazz music to attract audiences; rather, it should be used for Itself in its true historical context: that Jazz should be explained as an art form and as a significant aspect of Amerioan music, respected by leading musicians throughout the world. 80 Speoifically, posts were to explain that Jazz had developed a new kind of musician, a con servatory-trained artist; that Jazz was a highly sophisticated folk art; and that Jazz In the year I960 was not the property of any one olass or raoe hut a symbol of democracy. It could be explained a s . . . a fusion of many different oultural elements In which the Individual can express himself freely, acoordlng to his own skill and talent, within a framework of mutual respect and consideration for the Integrity of others in the group.13 David Cooper reported his observations of the Agency's music program In Europe in uAmerioan Music in Europe", writing that he . . . returned to the United States with renewed admiration for the work of USIS overseas staffs are doing in music . . • Five years ago a request for performance m aterials of an Amerioan work was a most exolting novelty. Today {ghere arcj almost daily requests for scores and p a r t s .... I was encouraged to see the emphasis our postB place on including Amerioan musio in the programs of young Amerioan artists they use in various countries. Gone are the days when an American pianist oan get by with a workman-1Ike performance of the Pathetlaue ^united States Information Agenoy, "Policy Guidance on the Use of Jazz in USIS Programs", USIA CA-834 (Washington: Circular Airgram to All Posts, September 29, I960), p. 2. 81 Sonata and an armful of Chopin Etudes* The critics simply won't be bothered to come. They w ill however review programs that contain substantial American compositions• The Agency does not have, at the time of the present inquiry* a detailed summary of its musical operations throughout the world as con ducted by its posts. It did ask one European post, USIS Bonn, on September 29, I960, to submit a report on its music activities. Speci fically, the Agency wanted reports on perform ances of American music by local German g r o u p s . I I I . INFORMATIONAL MEDIA GUARANTY DIVISION The Informational Media Guaranty Division, known in the Agency as the IMG, has conducted a unique operation to provide assistance to American media firms who wish to do foreign business with countries with a shortage of U. S. dollars. The ill David S. Cooper, "American Music in Europe," Musical Courier. CLV (June, 1957)* p p . 1 0 -1 1 . ^U nited States Information Agency, Evaluation Reports on Music Program (Washington: Despatch sent to t/sT2’ Monn, September 29* I960). 82 IMG represented a cooperative venture between Amerioan business and Amerioan government which sought to accomplish two major aims: (1) assist Amerioan business to expand their overseas trade; and (2) to further the national Interests by providing foreign peoples with a greater supply of Informational materials on the United States.16 Authorized by the Congress in 1948, the program was transferred to the Agency in 1953 from the Department of State's Mutual Security Agency. IMG at the time of the present study helped American exporters of books, periodicals, motion pictures and other Informational media to sell their m aterials, through commercial channels, in foreign countries which otherwise might have found it difficult to purchase these items. The law, however, required that firms which sought oontraots with the government which guaranteed return of sales in dollar currency be engaged in producing or distributing materials which supported the national ^Inform ational Media Guaranty Program. United States Information Agenoy (Washington: June, 1959) (Off-set Type), pp. 1-2. interests. Support was limited to American firms. The IMG- Division would review applications submitted to insure that the goods offered for sale complied with Interests of the U. S. Government. M aterials were not eligible which advocated or supported unlawful purposes; whioh conveyed, dlsseml nated or reinforced communist propaganda; porono- graphlc sensational, or was cheap or shoddy.1? An American exporter desiring to sell goods abroad filed his application for an IMG contract with the Agenoy, the IMG Division of the Information Center Service. Endorsed by the Agency, the applica tlon was referred for approval to the foreign c o u n try . If approved, the term of selling being speoified, say for one year, and the firm applying for an IMG contraot for $10,000 worth of business with a fee of one percent for administrative costs, the firm would begin exporting. It instructed its buyers to pay a local bank, in currency equi valent to U. S. dollars, invoioes which represented goods purchased. As the Amerioan firm received 84 notification from the foreign bank of these deposits, it applied to the IMG Division for conversion to U. S. dollars. When approved, the Agenoy would resell these currencies for dollars to American governmental agencies. As of January, I960,' almost half the infor mation m aterials under the IMG program were books (fifty-four percent); periodicals, nineteen per cent; motion pictures, twenty-two percent; and miscellaneous m aterials, such as teaching aids and maps, five percent.1® IMG contracts were in foroe in twenty-nine countries. Guaranty coverages in the prinolpal countries in which the coverages have operated for 1958 and 1959 were: Guaranty Coverage Fiscal Year Fiscal Year 1558 E52 Burma . • • $ 139,400 $ 100,000 Chile . . . 4 00.000 Indonesia . 1,000,000 1 , 2 50,000 Israel . . 600,000 500.000 Pakistan • 6 00,000 4 00.000 Philippines 3 ,700,000 3 , 000,000 Poland . . 700,000 800.000 S p ain . . 800,000 700,000 Taiwan • • 450,000 4 50,000 ^American Ideas Abroad. The Amerioan Book Publishers Counoll and The Magazine Publishers Association, January I960, p. 4. 85 guaranty Coverage Fiscal Year Fiscal Year 1958 1359 Turkey . .... 1,499,070 1,100,000 V ietnam .... 1,132,000 750,000 Yugoslavia . . . 849,916 850,000 19 The extent to which the IMG program has or has not advanced the alms for whloh It was created Is not the subjeot of the present Inquiry since It has not operated In the Federal Republic of Germany. One committee Inquiry, however, stated: The subcommittee finds that the IMG program is a small but useful operation. Its annual expense to the United States Government to date • • • makes it one of the least costly programs oonduoted by the United States abroad. The program, however, Is beneficial far out of proportion to its oost. . . . In conclusion, the subcommittee urges that the Informational Media Guaranty Program be continued as an important adjunct to the Information program. It has been a worthwhile undertaking whloh deserves further support by the Congress until foreign exohange is freely convertible everywhere. 20 IV. EXHIBITS DIVISION The third Division of the information Center Service, the Exhibits Division, had an authorized ^Inform ation Center Service, United States„ Information Agenoy (Mimeographed, December 9, 1958), P* 8 * on American Ideas Abroad, on. o lt. . p. 13, citing United States Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Informational Media Guaranty Program (Senator Mike M ansfield, Subcommittee Chairman). 86 personnel complement as of January, 1959, of thirty-six persons and was organized Into three branohes, Development, Operations, and Design and Production. The purpose of the Division was to provide display stories and components to the field which would advance the aims of the Agenoy. Technical guidance, in addition, was a responsibility of the Division to field posts whloh built their own exhibits. The duties of the Development Branch were to recommend current themes for exhibit design and construction. 3he basis for its recommendations were informal and formal intelligences; that is, official reports from USIS posts, interviews with returning field officers, and the results of public opinion surveys oonducted by the Agency's Office of Intelligence and Research. The Development branch maintained liaison with the Agency’s Office of Public information, providing information to that Offioe on effectiveness of exhibits shown in the field, or on a new exhibit being constructed for shipment overseas. The core of the Branch's res ponsibility was to help assume that Agenoy exhibits, emphasized themes which supported Agenoy objectives. 87 Its recommendations were made to the Chief of Exhibits Division, The Operations Branch was responsible for the flnanoial accounting of all exhibit expenditures, for the shipment and circulation of exhibits built by the Agency, and for administrative problems of the Exhibits Division. The Design and Production Branch was to arrange for the production of exhibits which had been approved by the Chief of the Division. This did not ordinarily involve the actual manufacture. It Involved letting of contraots to commercial designers and builders, and step-by-step super vision of the research, design, and construction to assure that the finished product not only had visual appeal but also carried the message in ten d ed . Each June the Development Branoh customar ily submitted a recommended lis t of exhibits for the ooming flsoal year. This list contained titles of exhibits, the objectives for each exhibit, the recommended form and size, the geographical area for which the exhibit would be sent, a description, and an estimated oost for each item. The proposal 88 was linked to the fundB available for the up- oomlng flsoal year but did not necessarily res trict itself to funds anticipated. For example, the Development Branch, believing that the need for exhibits, based on field requests and needs expressed by weaknesses in some aspect of the American image in some areas, might reoommend new exhibits costing $800,000. Its program the pre vious year may have been allowed $450,000. How ever, its obligation was to recommend a program designed to meet needs rather than to match an expected Agency allotment. When the Chief of the Division approved the annual proposal, making any changes he con sidered appropriate, the proposal would be sub mitted to the Division's Project Board, a committee oomposed of the Chiefs of the Development Branoh, Operations Branch, and Design and Production and the Executive Seoretary. The proposal would be studied in terms of capability and feasibility, and submitted to each Area Director for approval. The Area Directors allotted funds for the develop ment of an annual proposal, funds generally less than the proposal. The approved proposal would 89 be resubmitted to the Project Board for the assignment of production priorities and time tables for construction delivery to the field. The Development Branch then would w rite a narrative treatment of each exhibit for guidance to the Design and Production Branch; submitted the exhibit guidances to the Chief of the Division for approval which were then sent to Design and Production for letting of contracts. Prior to completion, the Production Branch Informed the Operations Branoh of the nearing completion of an exhibit. With this information, the Operation Branch would offer the exhibit to USIS posts. The message described the exhibit, explained what the exhibit was Intended to accomplish, and the space It would require. It would ask the posts when and If they wanted to show the exhibit. Based on these replies an Itinerary would be established for the exhibit and each post which requested the Item would be informed when It might expect the display and to which post It should ship the exhibit after it has been shown. The balance of the work of the Division was a day-to-day supply to the field of exhibit i 90 m aterials—and special exhibits not programmed in the annual proposal—requested by world-wide p o s ts . The categories of exhibits thematically fell under science* disarmament* economy* fine and applied arts* government and political science, education* labor, agriculture, architecture, and special subjects. They could take several formats: the pavlllon-aize, the medium-animated* the photo panel, the paper show, the do-it-yourself kit* models and components, and loan collections of fine and applied arts. Recent Agency budgets for exhibits show a decline in funds allocated. For Fiscal Year 1957 more than two m illion dollars were devoted to the construction of new exhibits; for 1958 about $800,000; 1959 about $700,000; and in I960 the Agenoy allotted $515,000. In February, 1957, the Agency mimeographed a memorandum for use in Congressional appropria tion committee hearings which explained the philo sophy of the exhibits program: The exhibits medium is unique in its ability to assist the Agenoy in accomplishing its objectives. Through their visual appeal 91 exhibits oreate an immediate impact and their physical reality makes them a particularly convincing tool. Exhibits present their message in a simple, direct fashion understandable to the uninformed viewer and yet they attract and Interest even the most sophisticated audience through aotual technical equipment, models, or art objeots. Each exhibit is an event which not only attraots large orowds but also serves as a fooal point from which the other media oan radiate the Agenoy's message throughout the area. Exhibits oan be placed not only on Agenoy1 s premises abroad; they are weloomed by local universities, publio schools, govern ment offloes, factories, trade unions, fairs, museums, and libraries. They reach all classes of people in places where they live, work, study and play. All exhibits prepared by the Agency are offered the posts which then asks their selections in terms of their particular oountry objectives but within the framework of the Agency's objectives.21 The Agency estimated that more than twenty- one million people saw its overseas exhibits in one twelve month period, from June 3 0 , 1956 to July 1, 1957* It said that sixteen million of these people attended soience exhibits, three million viewed exhibits on American economics, and three million saw exhibits which explained Thomas L. Alexander, "The Exhibits Program," United States Information Agency (Washington: February 22, 1957), p. 1. (Mimeographed). 92 Amerloan artistic, educational, or recreational life. Major titles were: (1) Science: "Open Skies for Peace", "Atoms for Peace", and "Space Unlimited"; (2) Economy: "Trade Unions in the U.S.", "Peoples Capitalism", and "Plastics in America"; and (3) American artistic, education, and recreational life: "Family of Man", "Asian A rtists in Crystal", "Sports in the USA", "Music in America", and "Highlights of Amerloan Painting", By areas,.the Hear East, South Asia and Afrloa accounted for seven million viewers; Western Europe,, seven million; and the Far East, the third seven m illion. In the summer of 1959 the American National Exhibition was mounted in Moscow. This exhibition, which attracted more than three million spectators during its six weeks run, was not an Agenoy opera tion but was coordinated by the Agency's Director, George V. Allen. The Agency with other government agencies in cooperation with private organizations and firms organized and caused the exhibit to be designed. (The Chief of the Exhibits Division, Mr. Robert Slvard, drafted the original thematic treatment for the exhibition and supervised the 93 Installation and presentation of significant elements, including the fine art section). The Agency has not prepared a complete statistical study of its world-wide overseas exhibits operation since 1957. How significant the Agenoy views its exhibits program, however, may be deduced from the fact that it devoted fifty percent of its comment to exhibits in its last official review of operations. V. BIBLIOGRAPHIC AND PUBLICATIONS DIVISIONS The Agency called the Information Center Service book program the mainstay of the Agency's cultural program oltlng one hundred sixty-one USIS information libraries and ninety-two reading rooms operating in seventy free world countries. Two and a half million books represented the collection of which one third were in local languages. The Agenoy estimated that its annual circulation was 22 eight million books. To maintain and service this library opera tion with book m aterials, fifty seven persons 22U. S. Information Agency. 14th Review of Operations, o p . cit., p. 14. represented the authorized complement In January 1959 and were organized into two Divisions, Bibliographic and Publications. The Bibliographic Division was responsible to the Director of the Information Center Service for the evaluation and reoommendation of books for the Agency's overseas program, the extent to which books were to be dis tributed to the field, and for providing the field with bibliographies on selected subjects. To help assure that the books offered for field library shelves and circulation would support Agenoy ob jectives, the office of the Chief of the Division had to maintain a continuing and first-hand know ledge of Agenoy policy as transm itted by the Offloe of Plans and the Offioe of Security. Two branches, each with special duties, conducted the work of the Division, the Appraisals and Bibliographies Branches. The Appraisals Branch handled current publications, and reviewed about three thousand five hundred books annually from which it selected approximately eight hundred forty for field choices. American book publishers supplied free copies of issues as they were published, some on 95 request by the Agency, others arriving unsolicited. Small publishers, such as university publishing houses, shipped all their new publications for review. Books were scanned by Agency personnel and by consultant reviewers. The criteria for seleotlon were: (1) to explain the objectives and policies of the United States Government; (2) to delineate important aspects of the life and culture of the people of the United States, lnoluding evidence of their cultural achieve ments and spiritual tradition; (3) to strengthen the free world's wayB of life or to combat communism; (4) to demonstrate America1s interest in the heritage and legitimate aspirations of other peoples; and (5) to provide useful Information about scientific and technical developments to which the United States has made a contribution.23 Books had to be well made and possess eye appeal to achieve approval. Each book oould receive several kinds of ratings. "General promotion" meant widest possible use in all field oenters and reading rooms; "limited use", meaning that the book had appeal for speciflo geographical areas or purposes, such as helping to form an art or scientific book collection; "conditional ^2* Information Agency Annralaftl Form. 1A-15 (Rev. )~5-l-58 (Washington: Government Printing Offloe). use", recommended for marginal use; and "rejection", or not recommended. Committee meetings were held weekly to review the recommendations of the Appraisals Branoh. Geographical area representatives of the Cultural Operations Division would comment on hooks recommended, or rejected. Final approval rested with the office of the Chief of the Informa tion Center Service. With approval, the title was listed to the field, stating Its availability, in English. Simultaneously, an approved title would be considered for translation Into local languages. USIS posts, upon receiving bi-monthly lists, would submit their orders to the Agency. World-wide orders would be compiled, books purchased, and the books shipped to posts. Posts were not restricted to these approved lists. They might request other titles. If these books had not been seen by the Agenoy, they would be reviewed and if disapproved, the poet might still get the book, with sufficient Justification. But the Agency would te ll the post the book had been rejected and why. The Bibliographies Branoh, unlike the 97 appraisals work, selected books on speolfic subjects, regardless of publication date, which had been requested by individual posts. Moreover, the Branch initiated and prepared subject biblio graphies for world-wide field distribution on themes whioh the Agenoy believed it should empha size, given a current political or national interest s i t u a t i o n . The Publications Division arranged for the development, translation, and promotion of standard, abridged, and low-prioed books for overseas use. This lnoluded advice to the American book publish ing industry on foreign potentials for the publica tion of American books. The Division could oontraot with authors and editors for the writing and publi cation of works whioh would advanoe the Agency's objectives. The Information Center Service support in books, magazine subscriptions, newspaper subscrip tions, government documents, and miscellaneous publications for the years of 1957 th ro u g h i 960 w ere: Magazine Newspaper Govt M iso l. Sub- Sub- DocuDocu- P u b li- Year Books sorlPtlons sorlotions ments cations 1957 375,692 3 8 ,6 6 2 649 123,690 196,091 503 21,594 15.171 During the same four years the Agency arranged ror more than twenty eight million copies or American books to be translated and sold on foreign markets in fifty foreign lang uages; participated in commercial programs which provided for the production and mass distribution through foreign -commercial channels more than five million copies of ten to fifteen cent priced English language American books; and six million copies of these low priced books in local languages, mostly In India, Pakistan, Japan, and Turkey. oA c Information Center Service, op. c it., p. 3 . 2 5Ibid.. p. 4. CHAPTER V THE FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY This chapter presents a brief view of Western Germany—the Federal Republic of Germany— since May, 1955• For with this background the focus of the present inquiry becomes more meaning ful; one can better visualize the kind of society which the agency's books—discussed in chapter nine- penetrated through the post's information centers and reading rooms. I . THE BASIC LAW Western Germany became a sovereign Federal Republic in May, 1955, constructed on the Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany, the constitution. Its temporary or provisional capital is in Bonn, and its permanent capital, Berlin. The Federal Republic, population 52,000,000, is a state which expresses its dedication to wefttem democratic principles in a number of ways. Its constitution reflects this dedication. A publication for distribution in the United States by the German Embassy, 100 Washington, D. C., selected highlights of the constitution oalling attention to human rights features in the Basic Law; such as, the dignity of man; equality of man before law; freedom of religion; freedom of press; freedom to assemble peacefully; and freedom of workers to ohoose their place and type of work. The articles provided for "universal, secret, equal and dir ect" elections of members of the legislative body, the Bundestag.^ I I . WEST GERMANY AND EUROPE Rapidly the Federal Republic has assumed a major role in the affairs of Western Europe. Only half the size of France, stretching as it does from Schleswig-Holstein on the North Sea to the tip of Bavaria in the Alps, the Republic has grown faster industrially than any other western European nation. The rate of growth in 1956 was 10.1 percent, against 8.3 percent in France, 7.8 percent in the United Kingdom, and 7.2 percent ^The First Ten Years. 1949-59. The Federal R ep u b lic o f Germany (New Y ork: The Roy B ern ard Company, Incorporated, n.d.), p. 18. 101 in Italy.2 The Republic produced 24.5 million tons of crude steel in 1957, against the united Kingdom's 22 m illion tons, and Franoe's 14.1 million tons.3 The economic growth since World War II has been described as "spectacular."21' The Republic's participation in the family of western nations has been equally marked. In addition to her entry into the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1955* she has played a participating role in the field of European integration, supporting the European Coal and Steel Community, Euratom and the Common Market. The Government of the Republic has stated in part that with these organizations "comes a vision of the future where no nation, at least in Western Europe, can oarve out its own destiny in a unilateral fashion."^ 2Helmut Arntz, Facts About Germany (Bonn: Federal Government of Germany, i960), p . 7 0. 3 I b i d . . p . 90. ^Federal Republic of Germany. Department of State (Washington: August, 1960), p. 17. (Mimeographed). 5 The First Ten Years. o p . clt., p. 104. 102 The Republic*s position in western Europe Integration is in contrast to its history of con flict with France under Prussian leadership after 1870-71; and the erosion of the Weimar Republic before the H itler regime whioh was finally brought down by the Allies resulting in a split Germany. The fact that the Federal Republio considers Itself the legal guardian of all Germany, despite the Soviet occupation of East Germany, and that it does not recognize the claim of the East German Government is well known. The Republic, for exam ple, calls the regime the "so-called German Demo cratic Republio", and has gone to great pains to explain the Soviet "... conversion of Central Germany into a Soviet satellite State, with its orushing effeets on personal freedom, property and the standard of living. . . . The nam ing of Berlin as the permanent oapital of Germany, though s till oooupied in one sector by the Soviets, is a symbol of West German hope and dedication to the eventual reunification of ^Arntz. on. c it., p. 19. 103 Germany • The fact that nothing appears practi cal, for the moment, for the solution of the pro blem has not. deterred continued West German outcry of the problem, well supported by other western states.7 Moreover, the Republic has not allowed Its claim to the eastern provinces of Germany, or " • • . the territories of the German Reich as it is existed on December 21, 1937, lying to the east of a line defined by the rivers Oder and Neisse. • • to be forgotten.B ut these claims are not characterized by the belligerencies one remembers of former German lost territory. The Republic has stated that ” it gives no thought to regaining by force—territories detached from the German Reich"; Instead, "... new boundaries can only be established by a freely-negotiated peace treaty.”? 7 William Grewe, Germany and Berlin (New York: The Roy Bernard Company,"Tnc., l£6o), PP« 7-38* Christian A. Herter, Review of Geneva Negotiations on Germany (Washington: Government Printing drfice, August 5, 1959). pp. 2-8. o Arntz, oj). cit., p. 22. ?Ibid., p. 24. 104 I I I . ORGANIZATION OP THE GOVERNMENT The Federal Government Is parilamentary In form, based upon Its democratic constitution, and employs the principle of federalism. Legislative authority is exercised by a two-chamber parliament; the Bundestag, or lower chamber, consisting of 497 deputies elected for four years; and the Bundesrat, or Federal Council, consisting of forty- one appointed members from ten states.10 The executive branch of the government is headed by a President and a chancellor, or prime m inister. The cabinet or "government”, as it is usually known, is made up of the chancellor and his seventeen ministers. The president, elected for a five-year term, serves as the head of state, the symbol of authority, but the real power is exercised by the Chancellor who is elected by the lower chamber on the proposal of the President.11 10Federal Republic of Germany. op. d t . , p . 3. ^Arntz, op. clt.. chart following p. 48. 105 The Republic's Judiciary consists of a Federal Constitutional Court, a Federal High Court of Justice, and high federal courts in the spheres of ordinary administrative, financial, labor and social Jurisdiction. The Federal Constitutional Court, roughly performing the functions of the Supreme Court of the United States, consists of twenty-four members serving in two panels of twelve each. The functions are to Insure uniform inter pretation of the Republic's constitution thereby protecting the rights of the individual as defined in the Basic Law.12 IV . POLITICAL PARTIES IN THE FEDERAL REPUBLIC The Federal Republic cannot be accurately viewed apart from its Chancellor, Dr. Konrad Adenauer. An information book published and dis tributed by the German Embassy in Washington does not seem to exaggerate the esteem of the man in western political circles: The Federal Chancellor, now [May, i 9 6 0] i n h is 85th year, controls all sectors of German politics to such an extent that both the general elections of 1953 and 1957 can well be regarded as "Adenauer 12 * Federal Republic of Germany . o p . c l t « p. 4. 106 plebiscites." The dominating, even over powering impact of the man who determines the "guiding principles of the government policy", as set forth in the Basic Law, has not only assured the remarkable recent stability of German politics, but more or less created the Germany of today, so much in fact that people often speak of West Germany as a "chancellor-controlled democracy." And yet, when Konrad Adenauer, already in his 74th year, was first appointed by the 1949 Bundestag to form the Federal Cabinet he achieved the required minimum of "Ayes" with only one vote to spare.13 Chancellor Adenauer at the time of the present investigation was the leader of the govern ment party, the coalition Christian Democratic Union, known as the CDU and the Bavarian sister party, the Christian Social Union. It was composed of catholics^ protestants, and members of all economic classes. Unlike the second principal political party, the Social Democratic Party with its heritage in nineteenth century (Marxist) prin ciples, the CDU/CSU could be considered new on the German political scene. It contains a mixed bag of constituents content to remain with a party which to them contains current, meaningful appeals: (1) defense of the Federal Republic through alliances with the other Atlantic powers ^ F ritz Rene Alleman, "A Guide to German P olitics," Meet Germany (Hamburg-Welllngsbuttel: Atlantlk-Brucke, May, i960), p. 15# 107 through European Integration; (2) a private enterprise economy to stimulate rebuilding of the nation and resurgence of imports; and (3) a gradualist approach to the reunification of Germany by peaceful, treaty-negotiated means. The second political party, already men tioned, was a fifty-year old party in I960 which though founded in Marxism eschewed the dogma of dialectical materialism for a philosophy which advocates a moderate, welfare state based on national planning.11* It has been supported by the laboring and lower middle classes which have resented m ilitary Involvement—NATO has been their focus of resentment—but who accept the Republic's NATO treaty commitment, now that the Republic has agreed. e The third ranking political party is the Free Democratic Party, supported by conserva tive, spedal-interest protestants, usually professionals or upper middle class proprietors or manufacturers. They are more nationalistic and tend to a doctrine of you-can-do-business- 1^Federal Republic of Germany.' op. c it., p. 16. 108 ^ with-the-communists• V. CULTURAL EMPHASIS IN WEST GERMANY Indicative of the emphasis which culture has received in the Federal Republic is the number of pages devoted to the subject in the publications on Germany handed out to the public by the German Embassy in Washington. More than half the total words described some phase of German culture.1** This preoccupation with cultural life is expressed in the booklet, The First Ten Years, in the article, "Revival of the Arts": The German public is profoundly concerned with the arts. Most cultural activity, particularly in the performing arts which require elaborate establishments, is supported by the tax paying public through state and city governments. • • By the war's end in 1945» the arts showed a remarkable recovery, outpacing . . • political and economic recovery. Music and art . . . as vital as daily bread to the Germans.17 Two hundred operas were being produced each year in sixty opera houses in forty-five cities by I960. Three thousand singers are regularly 15I b i d . ^ Facts About Germany, op. c lt. The First Ten Years, op. cii. M eet dermany. op. c lt. 3-7The F ir s t Ten Years. op. c lt. . p. 28. employed; ballet dancers number 750, and there are 3*300 orchestra musicians fully employed. The present w riter during his three-year period of official duty in Bremen* Germany* from 1953 to 1956, was unable to purchase tickets through normal outlets to the Bremen city opera within three-days before an opening curtain* and per formances were heard discussed by clerks as well as men who removed household garbage* Modern German architecture received its inspiration in the 1920's from two architects, no longer in Germany* V alter Gropius and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe. It was a new approach for Germany* one which broke with tradition to inte grate the arts with architecture. German archi tecture in I960 has been described in part as characterized in the main by clean, func tional lines. Unnecessary expense and display are avoided. Solid construction and tried, if modern, features are favored before imaginative innovations. Symbolic of the interest* however, in modern architecture is the aim of the College of Archi tectural Design in Ulm which is dedicated to advancing the theory of the Barhaus of Mies van der Rohe and Gropius into a fused harmony between 110 culture and modem civilization or u tility . 1-8 Moat cultures have contributed to the world of literature and the German culture has given its share. The Hildebrandslied. about 900 A.D., is the only surviving fragment of old German folk poetry, and tells the tale of the father whose son opposes him in mortal combat. There is Hans Sachs, 1517* with his carnival play; Luther with his translation of the Bible in 1521 which has been credited with establishing a model for German prose copied by later German w riters; and the giant of German w riting, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe; his contemporary, Emanual Kant with his Critique of Pure Reason. There is Schiller and Heine; Karl Marx who bequeathed the world communism. The philosopher, Nietzsche, Thomas Mann of the early twentieth century, and Peutchwangner are stars one remembers from the German w riting w orld.^ But in 19^5 the Germans found themselves in political and economic ruin with twelve years ^ A m t z , 0£. clt.. p. 226. ^"German L iterature,” The Columbia Encyclopedia (second edition). — — I l l of no literature except H itler's Mein Kampf. a work they wished to forget. For most young Germans the richness of German literature was unknown. German publishers were faced with the task of republishing some of the German classics which had been destroyed by the National Socialists. West German publishers were aided In this task by by German Academy for Language and Poetry, Darmstadt, and the Academy for Learning and Literature, In Mainz. Seven or eight annual literary awards are sponsored by cities and states, book publishers, radio stations, and literary groups. The best known awards are the Peace Prize, sponsored by the book trade, the Hansa Goethe Prize, and the Jacobi Prize. In book titles per capita per year, however, the Federal Republic ranked fifteenth among the major nations: for example, for every one-thousand persons In 1956, the number published In Switzer land was elghty-two, In Norway seventy-seven, In the United Kingdom forty-one, and In the Federal Republic of Germany thirty-tw o.20 • The Government named w riter Gunther Grass as Its leading novelist o f i9 6 0 . 20Amtz, oj>. clt.. p. 223. The p o s it io n o f th e German woman i s t r a d i tionally one of domesticity. Amtz suggests that even the high percentage of women engaged in outslde-the-home work, half the total female popu lation between the ages of fifteen and fifty, does not Indicate any professional ambition but that they work for the sake of the home and the family. Many women, he w rites, continued work even after the war to replace destroyed household goods.21 O th er German w r i te r s say th a t German women a re leaving the traditional kitchen for the factory and office because of the need: there are four and a half more m illion women than men; almost one million women are not living with their husbands; and there are three and a half million single or divorced women In the Federal Republic of Germany.22 It would appear that economic and social factors could slowly squeeze German women Into public and industrial life which would mean a change in th e t r a d i t i o n a l co n cep t o f th e r o le o f women in Germany, I.e. "kitchen, church, and children." Imma von G uenther g iv e s an illu m in a tin g view of the i 960 German working woman, represented 21Ibld. . p. 226, 22The First Ten Years, oj>,. c lt. . p. 74. 113 by a w ife w orking as a c le a n in g woman to in c r e a s e her husband's wages. She writes: The Sohmldt's don't want a cheap piece of utility furniture but rather a com fortable and even elegant couch; therefore they have waited so long. "For two long years we have now paid cash for everything we bought," Frau Schmidt told me proudly. "The radio set was the last pleoe we bought on the Installment plan. For the time being we do not want a TV set. We would have little time to watoh the programs. In the evening, my husband likes t£o read the newspaper but even this he cannot find time to do." In the morning at 7 AM she takes her bike and leaves for a . . . Job which keeps her away from home four to five hours a day. She adds another DM 130 ($30.0^ * * * per month to the Income of her husband. She uses almost all her earnings to buy clothing for the ohlldren and for smaller household purchases, and she paid for new uurtalns and a sewing maohlne. I asked Frau Schmidt about her housekeeping allowance. "For my household I spend DM 80 a week", she said. "We use up all our weekly Income. We eat well, one may even say we eat very w ell," she added. ,nWe consume three and a half pounds of butter a week and for Sundays I spend ten to twelve DM for meat." She prepares many preserves and the first vegetables In the spring come from the f a m ily 's own g a rd e n . . . . In the life of this couple, ohlldren rank first by far. . . • Both are particularly proud of the 12-year old boy. They don't want him to be an apprentice for four years and a journeyman as his father was, just 114 to end up as a plain worker.2^ More than ninety-six percent of the popula tion belong to.the proteBtant or cathollo ohuroh.2^ The Basic Law Insures religious freedom.25 Religion for the West German seems deeply significant. Re calling the persecution of the Jews, ex-Presldent Heuse is patron of the society for Christian-Jewish Cooperation. What opposition there was to the H itler regime came mostly from the ohurohes and A the fact that the protestant and oathollcs, so far as they were able, stood side-by-slde In the Inter nal fight against National Socialism has increased their mutual understanding.2^ From age six to eighteen, school attendance in 1960 was compulsory in the Federal Republic. Education was conducted by and was the responsi bility of the States of the Federal Republic but the general principles, organization and ourrioula, . 23 Imma von G u en th e r, "How Does th e W est German Average Worker Live? Meet Germany. op. o lt., p p . 6 5 -6 6 . 2^Arntz, ojg. c lt. . p. 180. 2*5 The Bonn Constitution (New York: The Boy Bernard Company, Inc. n.d.), pp. 63-64. 2^ A rn tz , oj>. o l t . . p p . 1 8 4 -J8 5 . ii5 were similar in the states. About eighty percent of all ohildren received their education at the elementary school level; that is* through the end of age fourteen. From there they went 'either to a vocational school or high school which could lead to university matriculation. In 1958 there were approximately nine million children—under age nineteen—in German schools with a total of 238,000 teachers. Higher education of the Federal Republic in the 1959-60 term saw 200,000 students enrolled in the twenty-six institutions of university and technical school level. These were built for 140,000 students. Fifty-two percent was engaged in the field of social science, seventeen percent in technical subjects, sixteen percent in the natural sciences, and fifteen percent were studying medi cine, dentistry, veterinarian soience, or pharmacy.?? The Government of the Federal Republic has described the higher education problem as "catastrophic". The State, already struggling with the reconstruction of a country In ruins, with social benefits for refugees £ 3 m illio n 2^Arntz, o£. c l t . . p. 56. 116 by September, 19581 , war Invalids, prisoners and other sections of the population, and also occupied with rearmament, was not in a position to expand these institutions fast and far enough. . . .28 The philosophy of higher education in the Federal Republic has been desorlbed as one dedi cated to the "freedom of research and of teach ing"* guaranteed by the Basic Law, or federal Constitution. Jurgen Fischer explains that this means not only that the university teacher is free to teaoh what he wants, and to oonduot the research he wishes but that the university Itself is free from political interference. He emphasizes that this is in the tradition of the western world's principle that teaching and research shall be f r e e . 29 Veit Valentin asked in his work, The German Peonle. what would be the attitude of the German youth toward H itler and would it eventually become anti-H itler? He wondered in 1946 whether the former H itler Youth would hate, abominate, and despise the memory of the Fuhrer, his tyranny, 28 Meet Germany, on. o it., p. 87. 2 9 j u r g e n Fischer, "The Universities and the Reform of Higher Education the Federal Republic," Meet Germany, on. o it. 117 his war, and his atrocities, and if the German youth would make the best possible use of the lessons taught by H itler—use them for the future good of Germany?^0 Former H itler Youth are now the young middle aged adults of the Federal Republic who seem to have inaugurated major plans for the new youth of Germany to insure that they w ill remember. That it is their aim that German youth should be headed toward freedom and democracy has been made clear in the stated philosophies of publio educa tion. An organization called the "Federal Germany Youth Ring", in which the youth-rlngs of the ten states and West Berlin are combined, counted its membership in I960 as five m illion voluntary mem bers. The purpose of the organization was to make possible for young people a life which will be healthy in social, moral and cultural respects and tend towards strengthen ing demooraoy and further international under81 anding, A Federal Youth Plan, in its twelfth year, was underwritten in 1958 by taxed funds at a cost of $11 million. Its activities called for youth 30 Veit Valentin, The German People (New Yorks Alfred A. Knopf, 1946), p. 674. hotels, care for Eastern European youth refugees, and political education of youth.31 The elder people of West Germany apparently intend to Insure that their youth will know the riches of their concept of freedom. Arntz cites the ob jectives of youth legislation in the Federal Republic as • . • based fundamentally on the right of youth to claim protection from the harm civilization oan do; on the granting of assistance to young people in the orises of their years of development; on the edu cation of adults in the protection of youth; and on the duty incumbent on the state to look after the interests of boys and girls, not only in school but also outside. . . • Young people see once again an attainable aim in life and in their work. Free communi ties are growing, and their educative work is visibly taking firm root. The apathy towards the State which young people felt in 19^5 and immediately afterwards is changing into an observant, and in part already active, interest.32 W riting on German youth, Wald suggests that the German youth is determined to look behind the scenes of politics and that he has a keen sense "for any contradiction between words and deeds, appearances and facts. • .". He says active ^Arntz, o£. c it., pp. 176-178. 119. interest In Daohau, the popularity of the play on Anne Frank among German youth means that the German youth is asking direct, awkward questions which the adults must answer. Wald notes it is a good s i g n . 53 V I. LABOR UNIONS Ludwig Rosenberg, member of the Managing Executive Committee of the German Trade Union Federation, writes that the aim of the trade union movement in the Federal Republic is to •- • • rebuild Germany after the most somber period of her history |Into| a nation where democraoy is not Just a form of adm inistration but a way of life —-where the rights of the individual are seoure and where true individual freedom and respect for democratic institutions prevail. If this is the aim of the German labor movement, one of every five adult Germans are active advo cates: there are six million members of trade unions in the Republic.5^ Deeply rooted in Germanic history, the labor movement seems an organic part of German culture. It counts its formal beginning from 53siuard Wald, "Democraoy at the Cross- Roads," Meet Germany, on. o it., p. 37. 5^Arntz, oj>. oit. . p. 159. 120 Ferdinand Lassalle's organisation, the General Association of German Workers, which Las s a l l e helped organize in Leipzig in 1863.^ By 1933 there were three labor groups going, the socialist, the Christian, and the "liberal*' unions. Wiped out by National Socialism, replaced by the Nazi- Labor-Organization, the movement has resurfaced with new strengths. The German Federation of Trade Unions, Deutsoher Gewerksohaftsbund. fam iliarly known as the DGB, in i 960 consisted of sixteen unions. The six m illion union members included eighty-one percent skilled and unskilled workers, ten percent office staff, and nine percent government workers, or civil servants. About forty percent of the workers be longed to unions, seventy-five percent of the oivil service, and twenty-five percent of the clerical or white oollar workers.36 An indication of the depth of interest in labor and how it is a part of the life of the West German can be seen when labor union membership percentage in the Republic is 3 5 . ^ V a l e n t i n , oj>. o i t . , p . 4 5 7. ^Arntz, on. oit.. p. 159. 121 compared with membership in the United States. Eighteen m illion American workers in I960 were organized with fifty peroent of the blue oollar worker union members, only thirteen percent of the civil service, and a small ten percent of the white collar worker members of a trade union.37 V II. POLITICAL PROBLEMS CONFRONTING THE FEDERAL REPUBLIC German public opinion is somewhat more understandable when one knows the political prob lems which confront the Federal Republio. These problems are four-fold: (1) security and reunifies* tlon; (2) disarmament and rearmament; (3) refugee Influx; and (4) special, Internal pressure groups. The foreign policy basic objective of the Republic, oommop. to all states, is security; but added to this is the desire for reunification. Certainly the ultimate objective of the govern ment, supported at least by the western states, is to reach a final peace settlement which will leave ^Department of Labor, Directory of National and International Labor Unions In the United States. Bulletin No. 1267 (Washington: GPO), pp. 1, 7-14. 122 Germany united and free. There Is common agree ment on these goals but differences on how to achieve them. Against an International belief that dis armament is a requirement for peace, there exists the need for Germany to rearm. Growing from this dilemma several questions appear. How can the Federal Republic protect herself from a crossfire between the United States and the Soviet Union in any future war? Shoftld the Republic approve or disapprove sta tioning of United States missies on German terri tory? Would a policy of armed neutrality aid the solution of reunification better than alliance with either the Soviets or the West? Does continued sup port of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization by the Republic k ill the chances of reunification? Refugees continued to pour into the Federal Republic from the Soviet Zone with 144,000 request ing emergency admission in 1959, 204,000 in 1958, and 280,000 in 1936. This pressure has meant t crowded housing, education, and social welfare facilities, to say the least. The fourth problem relates to special int erest groups, those sectors of the public which have alms peculiar to them. They have been des cribed as organized labor, farmers, and the bene ficiaries of social security. Although the groups are not mutually exclusive, their aims seemed sufficiently different to separate. Organized labor, aggravated by rising prices, desire a greater distribution of the benefits produced by industrial productivity. Observers of the West German labor scene see labor pressing management for greater benefits. The farmers, comprising about one-eighth of the population, are politically well organized and call for larger subsidies from the Federal govern ment. 38 They belong mostly to the CDU, the govern ment political party, and because they vote as farmers, their call is being harkened to .39 The third major pressure group was con stituted at the time of the present inquiry, by all those who received social benefits. Various figures are given for those who receive some kind 3& A m tz, 0£. cit•, p. 66. 39Federal Republic of Germany. op. c it. , p. 23. 12M of sooial welfare benefit In the Federal Republic. Government sources stated that In I960 more than forty percent of the federal budget was devoted to social welfare benefits and that soolal Insurance sickness benefits covered more than a million persons, or about one third of the whole adult population.4® Other sources are more conservative and suggest that the total number of persons receiving some kind of sooial welfare benefit was about ten million. The present study waB not one which was principally concerned with these questions. But enough indication is given here to.show that sooial welfare is a principal concern of the West German and that, according to authoritative sources, he is pressing for more a i d . 41 4 0 A rtn z , 0£. cit.. pp. 162-169. 41 Federal Republic of Germany, o p . o i t . , p. 23* CHAPTER VI UNITED STATES FOREIGN POLICY AIMS RESPECTING THE FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY It Is the purpose of this chapter to cite the principal objectives—five in number—of United States foreign policy toward the Federal Republic of Germany and to submit public evidence of their existence. It w ill not be the purpose to evaluate the usefulness of these objectives nor to argue their validity. The objectives will be pre sented, as factual conditions, formulated by Mr. Elsenhower when he was president; and also stated, and formulated, by President Kennedy. For it is the President of the United States, as head of state, who is responsible for the establishment of American foreign policy. These components of American foreign policy— as they apply to the West German Federal Republic— are presented so that the necessary attitudes which can contribute to successful implementation of the objectives may be related later in the inquiry. Once the objectives are drawn out, some attitudes can be suggested which support each aim without which the 126 United States plan might fall* The foreign policy of any nation exists primarily for the security of the state. Foreign policy alms, then, represent what a head of state believes w ill best serve the needs of the nation. These needs can be defined as territorial inte grity; preservation of the nation’s cultural tradl*? tions, or way of life; and economic health, meaning the satisfaction of the physical needs and wants of the people. The first of the five principal objec tives of the United States toward the Federal Republic is: I. To align Vast Germany with the United States as against neutralism or Soviet Bloc orientation. The American posture since the defeat of Germany has been one which has carefully wooed West Germany into the Western camp. There have been no diplomatic nor occupation efforts on the part of the United States which did not make clear that the United States desired West Germany as an allied community and power. This objective—to bind the Republic to the United States as a bulwark against aggression—is of course applic able to any foreign state, and is not reserved for 127 the Republic of Germany* It is in the interest of the United States, were it possible, to make an alliance with every nation* But it is espe cially needful in the case of the Federal Republic standing as she does between the potential aggres sor, the Soviet Union, and the more western heart land of Western Europe. The Republic's strengths and skills, her natural resources, make it doubly important. This policy has been enunciated in a number of ways by both Mr. Eisenhower and President Kennedy. President Eisenhower's statements of August 26, 1959, when he visited Chancellor Adenauer, the Elsenhower-Adenauer Statement of March 15, I960, issued from the White House, and President Eisen hower's statement following the return from Bonn of Under Secretary Dillon and Secretary Anderson all carry the note of continued desire for alignment. The statements of President Kennedy sim ilarly make this objective clear, especially the. Washington Kennedy-Adenauer Communique of April 13, 1961. One Kennedy comment, in this connection, is worth noting. President Kennedy, following his reading of the 128 Ke nne dy - A de n aue r jo in t communique said : "His [Adenauer's] accomplishments have been extraordinary In binding the nations of Western Europe together, In strengthening the ties which link the United States and the Federal Republic."1 Specific points made w ill be presented in the dis cussions of the other four policy objectives. These objectives, of course, stem from the objective for alignment and In fact spell out how the alignment can be cemented. Or, put another way, the achievement of the other four objectives would represent an accomplishment of alignment. II. To assure continuing West German NATO participation and support. On March 15# I960, without specifically mentioning NATO, the Eisenhower- Adenauer Statement carried the line that "... The President reiterated the support of the United States Government • . . for a strengthening of Atlantic economic cooperation." President Kennedy approved the text of the statement of April 13# 1961, Issued 1 The New York Times. April 14, 1961. « 129 after a two-day conference with Adenauer, asserting that United States policy had ‘not changed with the new adm inistration. As regards NATO, the statement emphasized, said the New York Times in part "the Importance of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization and ... • its future role, Including the need for closer cooperation among Its members in a l l areas.Specifically the Kennedy-Adenauer Communique said that The President and the Chancellor reaffirmed their support of NATO as the keystone of the common defense of the North Atlantic area. They underlined the conviction of their Governments as to the necessity for the alliance to maintain and develop further all m ilitary means required to enable them to deter effectively a potential aggressor from threatening the territorial lntegry or Independence of an ally.3 III. To Insure the maintenance and growth of the Federal Republic of Germany as a democratic state. Although all efforts have been made by the United States, In company with other allied nations, to achieve this objective, President Elsenhower as late as August 26, 1959» re-emphasized this aim .2I b id . ^The New York Times. April 14, 1961, citing the Kenne3y-X3enauer communique of April 13# 1961. 130 as an American objective: In my country the name of Adenauer has come to symbolize the determination of the German people to remain strong and free. In the Implementation of that determination the American people stand by your side and send through me to you, the German people, their very best wishes L for your successful efforts In this matter . 4 Again on March 15# I960, President Elsenhower applied the concept of a democratic action to the resolvement of the Berlin question In the White House-released Elsenhower-Adenauer statement which said in part that "They further agreed that the preservation of the freedom of the people of West Berlin, and their right of self-determination, must underlie any future agreement affecting the city."5 The Kennedy-Adenauer Communique of April 13# 1961, was spotted with phrases which underlined the concept of the Republic as a free and democratic s t a t e : The President and the Chancellor reaffirmed the position of their governments that only 4 The New York Times. August 27 , 1959# citing the Elsenhower statement of August 26, 1959. 5 The New York Times, March 16, i 9 6 0, c i t i n g the Elsenhower-Adenauer statement of March 15# I960. through the application of the principle of self-determination can a just and enduring solution be found for the problem of Berlin. And: "... the reunification of Germany In peace and freedom . . ." And: • • • the frank and cordial atmosphere in which the talks were conducted have contributed significantly to deepening ties of friendship and understanding between the two countries and to the^strengthening of the free world com m unity . 6 IV. To encourage West German participation in the Western European coalition. To leave no doubt that the United States expected West German participation, the Elsenhower-Adenauer White House statement of March 15$ I960, said in part that "The President reiterated the support of the United States Government for the goals of the European communities." The document went on to say that the two heads of governments felt that the result could be that there would "be a major contribution to a general lowering of world trade barriers."7 6The New York Times. April 14, 1961. ^The New York Times, March 16, 1961. 132 Sim ilarly, President Kennedy approved the inclusion of a comment in the Kennedy-Adenauer Communique, April 13* 1961, which referred to an agreement on Western European coalition: "The important role of the European Economic Community as a powerful and cohesive force in the core of the Atlantic community was stressed." Reporting agreement on the role of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Develop ment, the statement said: The President and the Chancellor welcomed the prospective establishment of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development as constituting a step of vital importance in the development of the A tlantic community. The new possibilities which it opens for economic cooperation and economic policy coordination and the means of achieving closer interdependence wefce also discussed.8 V. To stimulate West German responsibility for assistance to non-industrial nations. President Elsenhower issued a statement on November 28, i 9 6 0, showing his interest in this objective. The occasion was the return of Secretary of the Treasury, Robert B. Anderson, and Under Secretary of State, Douglas Dillon, from their mission to West Germany: 8The New York Times, April 14, 1961. 133 The American delegation expressed appreciation of the decided speed-up and greater flexibility of a proposed German program for development aid to developing countries, recognizing fully the major importance of this new program recently introduced by the Federal Republic of Germany•9 Twice the Kennedy-Adenauer Communique of April 13» 1961 stressed this concepts "Their informal conversations have included among other things • • • aid to developing countries. ..." Again In the same communique: The President and the Chancellor agreed on the Importance of a concerted aid effort by the Industrial free world nations In an amount commensurate with their respective resources and on a basis corresponding to th e t a s k . 10 This chapter has briefly set forth the five principal foreign policy alms of the United States respecting the Federal Republic of Germany and has submitted evidence from selected unclassified documents which serve to show that these five objectives are 9 The New York Times. November 29, i 9 6 0, citing President Eisenhower's statement of November 28, I960. 10 The New York Times. April 14, 1961. 134 Indeed current major alms of the United States In their relationship with the Federal Republic. Chapter VII w ill examine the attitudes, by foreign policy objective, which seem desirable for West Germans to hold if these objectives are to be r e a liz e d . CHAPTER VII WEST GERMAN ATTITUDES WHICH;CAN CONTRIBUTE TO UNITED STATES FOREIGN POLICY AIMS Chapter VI presented the core objectives of American foreign policy respecting the Federal Republic of Germany. The general purpose of the work of the United States Information Agency Is to bring about attltudlnal conditions In a given country which would help achieve the objectives of the United States Government. While other government agencies, and other factors, can and do enhance or Impede the advancement of these foreign policy objectives, the United States Information Agency Is Involved with the establishment of attitudes which In themselves cause a state to behave in such a way that the desired objectives are achieved. It w ill be the purpose of this chapter to present the attitudes which when held by the West Germans can produce behavior which supports the specific alms of the United States respecting West Germany which were described in Chapter VI. Accept ing the definition of an attitude to be an enduring disposition to act In a given manner toward an attltudlnal object, the.product of this kind of Inquiry can be useful to the United States Govern ment* For If sets of attitudes beneficial to the United States can be described and set forth, the operations of any element of the United States Information Agency can be evaluated In terms of Its usefulness to the United States Government; that is, the work of the Agency can be assessed as specific support—or as non-support, as the case may be—for the given set of foreign policy objectives which the United States believes w ill obtain for It the values It most requires* To go one step further, It would be possible to eliminate, or add, USIA activities as they are seen In relationship to their support for American foreign policy* Presented under each United States foreign policy objective are attitudes which, if held by the West German population, could result in positive behavior favorable to the objective* I* To alien West Germany with the United States as against neutralism or Soviet bloc orienta tion. Three attitudes seem to be linked to this objective. First: That the United States Is 137 powerful In m ilitary strength. Is scientifically advanced, and economically stable. Why such an attitude would support American policy seems clear. If the West Germans as a public, believes the United States Is strong In aspects of Its life which can support their own objectives, and that the United States somehow can be persuaded to use these strengths for the achievement of West German objectives, then the West Germans w ill seek a continuing alignment. Which of these sub-attitudes are likely to contribute more to the alignment with the United States seeks? This Is the kind of question on which a judgment needs to be made in order to select com munication content, or themes, for transmission to the West German people by the United States Informa tion Agency through USIS Bonn. One can assume that the desire closest to the hearts of the West Germans Is continued political independence. The Immediate Insurance against the Soviets is m ilitary assistance, supported by m ilitary competence. It Is necessary that the United States be constantly viewed as a nation which not only possesses high m ilitary compe tence but Is disposed to use It to protect the 138 sovereignty of the Federal Republic of Germany. A belief In American scientific and economic strength Is primarily necessary to in still, especial ly because and when these factors are associated with military strength; that Is, It is necessary to show, for example, that the United States progress In nuclear weapons compares favorably with that of the Soviets, and that the United States economy can support continuing progress In this field. Economic and scientific strength, when shown, are most ef fective, for this objective, when these concepts Are related to military ability. Something must be said about the esteem of American cultural values In terms of Its value to the United States foreign policy. It could be said that the West Germans would support the United States If they believed that Americans painted fine pictures, composed music pleasing to the German ear, wrote books satisfying to the German reader, treated their minorities kindly, built buildings esthetlcally appeal ing, established German-acceptable rules of conduct f o r t h e i r women and c h ild r e n , and w o rsh ip p ed a Christian God. The present Investigator does not assign high usefulness—as American foreign policy support features—to these attitudes, except where they are associated with the foremost needs of the West German. In fact, It could be suggested that the German might desire an alliance with the United States even If he held a poor view of American domestic behavior and creativeness, provided he believed that the United States would help guarantee his political Independence.. A woman attacked In a dark alley does not care, or have time to think, what are the cultural achievements of the policeman who collars her assailant. A case can be made, however, for the need to have the German believe that the American behavior Is motivated by a belief In the same kind of God cherished by the German. For this belief has a direct bearing on German confidence in American m ilitary support. Truth, honesty, are human moral factors, attributes of the Judeo-Chrlstlan faith, which if practiced, assure that the Americans are likely to back their statements to support West Germany In m ilitary o o n f l l c t . The assignment of a low weight to the importance of creating a German belief In high American cultural achievement by the Inquirer does not mean that he does not consider this attitude as eventually desirable for United States purposes* If the German did not rate his political Integrity above other objectives, his high regard for American cultural behavior would be more Important--as an attitude which could generate friendliness* The emphasis on sub-attitudes regarding American compe tence in science and economic progress also would be different* The United States would want to show that these aspects of American achievement are potentially useful to the German*s comfort through such exchanges as trade, and information on science in agriculture, automation, and Improved treatment o f th e 1 1 1 . The second attitude which can support this foreign policy aim Is the belief In the Implementation of the first attitude; that Is, not only does the United States, as a trustworthy nation, have the m ilitary competence to support West German alms, backed by scientific and economic strength, but It also w ill support them* This attitude can be stated 141 as: The United States will support the Interests of the Federal Republic, broadly presented as political Integrity of the Federal Republic of Germany, Berlin freedom, and West German pros perity. Hence the corollary of competency to support Is manifest willingness to support. This Is based on the assumption that a nation which believes that Its Interest w ill be and are sup ported by another state, a state whose support Is strong enough to advance those interests, w ill seek to maintain a continuing alignment with the nation from which support Is expected. During the period when the w riter was assigned to USIS Germany, 1954-56, It was Ambassador Conant's constant desire that the West Germans be told, periodically and recurrlngly, that the United States would do all possible to bring about German reunification. United States Senator Alexander Wiley stated at a press conference arranged by the w riter in Bonn, in November, 1955, that the United States would maintain troops in the Federal Republic as long as they were wanted to Insure the political integrity of the Republic. That no one, Including the Germans, has suggested a way by which German reunification could be achieved Is not significant. The fact that Germans yearn for reunification Is a fact of German national Interest. This happens to coin cide with American belief of rightness but this moral conviction Is not, In Itself, sufficient justification for proposing the Installation of an attitude that Americans favor reunification. What does make it an Important attitude for American foreign policy Is that the United States could hope to secure the partnership of the Federal Republic If the Republic believes the United States Is committed to a policy of aiding German reunifica tion, a national Interest. United States Information Agency officers who have served In West Germany feel that West Germans react physically to Soviet probes Into West Berlin. German interest in the security of West Berlin, and hopes for free elections In East Berlin, represent the factors which stand behind German alms for the Integrity of Berlin. If the United States hopes to secure a continuing alliance with the people of West Germany, it is necessary that the Germans believe 143 that the United States w ill use appropriate measures to help guarantee these expressed needs. Good will on the part of the United States for the welfare of the German people can result, the Germans feel, in continuing economic viability of the Federal Republic, meaning West German pros perity. It seems necessary, therefore, that the Germans understand that the United States Is inter ested In their economic stability and w ill employ reasonable means to assist in the maintenance of this stability, as well as economic growth of the n a tio n . A third attitude which if held by the West Germans would support United States desire for a strong alliance with the Federal Republic Is: The United States considers the Federal Republic of Germany an equal partner. Arising from defeat with the establishment of the Federal Republic in 1948, the nation has not only achieved sovereignty but also has made good gains as a democratic, stable economic society. The Republic has assumed Western community responsibi lities, and the people seem aware of their power 144 and of the reliance other western nations place upon them* It Is natural that the Republic expects to be treated as an equal partner. It also Is natural that German nationals resent condescension, whether administered by American nationals residing In West Germany or by diplomatic actions of the United States Government. Consequently It Is under standable that it is in the interest of the United States for Germans to believe the United States considers them equal partners In accomplishing mutual objectives. II. To assure continuing West German NATO participation and support. West German attitudes which could contribute to this foreign policy objec tive are also derived from the hopeful satisfaction of German needs. Three basic attitudes are involved, one relating to prestige by association; another, a quid pro quo arrangement; and the third, protection of the Republic*8 political integrity. The first attitude may be stated as: Member ship In North Atlantic Treaty Organization can help assure the Federal Republic that other nations w ill aid her if she Is attacked by the Soviet Union. The 145 question of German need for security has been discussed (supra). A belief that membership Is useful In an organization which has as its objec tive the protection by m ilitary action of any of Its members if attacked seems a necessary attitude to maintain in West Germany. This kind of attitude needs to be nourished, If the Republic Is to con tinue a strong NATO supporter. Internal, anti-NATO attitudes in the Republic have been strong. Although the Social Democratic Party has dropped Its opposi tion to NATO, having formerly believed that NATO membership was a deterrent to eventual reunification, and has eschewed Its "German Plan" of reunification through disengagement, It cannot be assumed that the position w ill not be renewed either by the Social Democratic Party or by other Influential elements. NATO must have continuing basic appeal to the West Germans, an appeal which Is constantly related to the very security of the Republic. The second attitude capable of bolstering American foreign policy respecting NATO membership is one of reciprocity; that Is: If West Germany supports NATO—as the United States wants—then West 146 Germany can expect In return American support of German Interests and needs* This Is a matter of common trading, tit for tat. The West German need for American support has been presented. It does not seem to be a matter which requires further elaboration, except to say that one should not avoid the subject simply because it is a cold blooded method of gaining German support for NATO. Worth encouraging Is an attitude which appeals to pride and prestige; pride, In being formally associated with other powerful nations in recognition of the nation's new essential worthiness, strength, and civilized character; prestige, through member ship in an elite organization, a country club. The attitude: The North Atlantic Treaty Organization Is an elite club of esteemed nations; the Federal Repub lic by membership Is recognized as an elite, respected n a tio n . No one could delude the West Germans that their membership is desired only because they are a respected nation. They are well aware of their commit ments, as members. But membership is but one other way, It seems to the w riter, by which the West Germans can be recognized as a decent, honorable people, respected by other nations which defeated them. This Is a strong psychological factor in accomplishing two United States aims toward the Federal Republic; participation In NATO Itself for the protection of democratic Europe, and a lasting alignment or alliance with the leading NATO member, the United States. III. To insure the maintenance and growth of the Federal Republic of Germany as a democratic state. A single attitude stands out as a useful concept In German public opinion: Democratic prac tices, as represented by those In the United States, are the surest ways for a state to achieve its alms. Justification for this attitude does not lie in the moral values Inherent In democracy which spell a society which allows man to be free to think and speak, so long as It does not injure his fellow man. These values do have human western appeal, of course. But above all, a public must believe that a western type democratic society*works for it. An example of one's personal concern with what gifts any type of government may offer Is seen In the reaction of an Egyptian who collected the sewage at the w riter's 148 home when he was stationed In Alexandria in 1953. King Farouk had Just been replaced with the then popular Mohammed Naguib, who was later replaced by N a sse r. Egyptian masses were wildly enthusiastic about the new regime. One night the w riter remarked to the Egyptian laborer who had come on his weekly round to empty the household sewage that he guessed that now everything would be fine. The disposal collector replied: "God willing. But. what w ill Naguib give me?" So the premise Is submitted that a govern ment, to gain popular support, must have Ingredients which the public believes w ill achieve its personal alms. Hence It is necessary that the West Germans believe that a United States type democracy, contri buting as It has to the strength of the United States, is one which if emulated would also win gains for the West Germans. No one would propose, In developing such an attitude, that It Is necessary, or possible, that all the components of American life could or should be adopted by the West Germans. The attitude must be associated with the fact that such aspects df 149 the United States democratic society as free elections, a parliamentary form of government, freedom of speech, and an adherence to inter national community agreements are the factors In a democratic society which can help achieve the alms of the Federal Republic of Germany. IV. To encourage West German participation in the Western European coalition. Three attitudes would support this objective. One, that German econo mic ties to Western European nations would benefit the economy of the Federal Republic. Second, that since the United States favors German Western European coalition, the United States would support German objectives if the Federal Republic aligns Itself with Western European States. Third, that French-German rapprochement would lend direct support to German national needs and interests. The first attitude Is related to direct, breadbasket gains for the nation and is one which as long as it is sustained can be expected to con tribute to the foreign policy aim of the United States. West German participation In the Common Market, for example, would benefit German economy 150 by providing a greater market for German goods, and would make German life more pleasant and complete through the availability of non-German goods at reasonable prices. The establishment of this attitude in the German mind can contribute strong support for American foreign policy. The second attitude Is connected to pure reciprocity. Here again Is the pragmatic approach to the problem: a case of the Republic behaving in a manner which It believes w ill result in support from the United States. Convinced that the United States would pay off for support of West European coalition, the Republic would expect diplomatic gains to accrue through Incurring the favor of a nation whose support It seeks. Moreover, the West German would believe and expect to derive direct m ilitary aid from a Western European coalition; and It would anticipate an improved standard of living through sharing in the Common Market. The third attitude, that French-German rapprochement Is desirable for Germans, is related to the first attitude concerning West European coalition. But the attitude merits special con- 151 slderatlon for two reasons: First, because European coalition can hardly be achieved without this rapprochement between the two nations. And second, because real awards are available to the Republic by this association alone. The historical cleavage between the nations Is well known. By closing this gap, and mending the wounds, the Republic can hope for m ilitary support from France, beneficial trade agreements, and political support for the Republic's aims, such as the integrity of West Berlin. These conditions, too, support current alms of the United States. They mean a solid Western Europe, In the democratic camp* V, To stimulate West German responsibility for assistance to the non-industrial nations. It Is desirable to the United States that the West Germans first believe: That it is the moral respon sibility of a western, civilized, economically stable nation to assist needy, under developed states; and, second but of lesser Importance, for them to believe: That economic assistance to under developed states w ill win diplomatic gains from the United States. ‘ 152 The moral reasons why the United States Itself assist still developing nations can be made clear. Psychological support can be mustered ^ this explanation. It is support stemming from the common Christian ethic of the two nations. An opportunity exists to show that American assistance reflects moral precepts as well as national inter ests; that such assistance is at least partly moti vated by a belief In the dignity of man, and believ ing in the essential worth of mankind, the United States feels morally responsible for making easier man's lot In life. Hence, for the attitude to be really productive. It is not enough for Germans to believe that American assistance is motivated only by national and selfish interests. This would be both cynical and Inaccurate. It is true that other attitudes which have been presented In this study are rooted In what the German believes Is only American Interests; but moral factors were not equally available for buttressing the other beliefs. The product of the attitude could mean lasting benefits to American foreign policy. Not only would West Germans believe that they should join in aid to less favored nations, to make the United States happy, but more Importantly the West Germans' attention would be drawn to their own traditions of Christianity. The result could be that even though the United States might sometime no longer want the Republic to support poorer nations. West German assistance could be a sustaining thing, the result of a reawakened German moral conscience. For whether or not the United States drops Its foreign aid policy, there seems to be agreement that states with viable economies w ill remain free and peaceful. So, If a state's t economy can provide food and shelter, plus some luxuries to make life more comfortable, infection of communism can be resisted. This situation comes close to the achievement of American alms. The more nations there are which are committed to the concept of an open society, the more secure are the American values and the territorial Integrity of the United S t a t e s . This chapter has tried to show that there are definite attitudes which nedd to be developed and sustained In the German mind if definite foreign 154 policy objectives of the United States are to be achieved. The following chapter w ill present the peculiar nature of the German society, as It relates to public opinion, reflected by the significant role of the father, or father- surrogate, in the formation of attitudes in West German society. CHAPTER VIII THE GERMAN FATHER AND FATHER SURROGATE IN WEST GERMANY The inquiry is mainly a study of the appro priateness of books selected by USIS Germany and the Agency during 1959 to support foreign policy objectives respecting West Germany. In order to ascertain which books could support foreign policy, and which probably could not, it becomes necessary to look at the kind of readers who w ill read a given book In West Germany and what kind of readers Influence public opinion In West German society. These are the questions this chapter w ill attempt to answer. For a book to Influence an attitude, it must be read by one whose opinions are more or less accepted by other Germans. For example, if Book "A" were a kind of work which seemed to support foreign policy objective "X", but which was addressed and appealed to a type of reader whose opinions on the question were hardly heeded because of his function in West German society, such a work could 156 not be rated as a useful foreign policy communica tion tool. To take an Imaginary situation, a book en titled The Common Market and the German Woman might be placed on the library shelves of USIS Germany. It explains how she could buy French gowns at budget prices. The subject of the book seems appropriate, and a first thought appears to be a useful communication tool. But It fails on two c o u n ts : f i r s t , i t a p p e a ls t o th e German woman who Influences no one on the subject of West European integration; and second, though popular with German women, it deals with a subject, politics, that lies within the male domain. The point made here Is that In selecting a book to support a given attitude the communicator, and the evaluator of Its appropriateness, must con sider two factors. One, is the book by Its content related to the attitude which the communicator wants to establish and maintain? And two, is the volume addressed to the kind of reader whose role In the society would permit him to Influence public opinion regarding the specific attitude? Hence, there are two criteria used by the 157 present investigator in the evaluation of the books discussed In Chapter IX. One, applicability of the subject to the desired attitude; and two, suitability of the subject of the book to the opinion maker in West German society. The picture of the German society Is revealed by Schaffner in his study of the role of the lncul- cator of right and wrong for.the group, the German father. For the present inquiry, the position of the German father has dual significance; first, that he establishes in the family what attitudes Its members should have toward aspects of human society; and second, that when the individual takes his adult place within groups outside the family, leaders of such groups are symbolized as the father-authoritarian le a d e r . Schaffner w rites: Family life resolves around the figure of the father. He is omnipotent, omniscient, and omnipresent, as far as this is possible for a human being. He is the source of all authority, all the security, and all the wisdom that his children expect to receive. . . . It is the father who issues orders and who expects them to be obeyed. In cases of disputes or disobedience, it is the father who Judges and decides the Issues. . . .^ A completion sentence offered respondents by Schaffner In Germany Illustrates the transition of the father-authority symbol to group leaders. The Incomplete sentence was: "If a father does not Inspire respect (Ehrfurcht) In his son.1* was com- p le te d v b y "... he has dangerously attacked his faith In any true authority whatsoever." This response, Schaffner said, shows the • • • connection between the authority of the father In the home and the authority of all father-surrogates In German society: school teachers, policemen, public officials, m ilitary personnel, and leaders of the govern ment In power, whether It be monarchy, republic, or a party dictatorship.2 The point has been made that man In western culture requires group membership as an escape from freedom; that Germans because of father-dominance are strongly disposed to membership In a group led by a father surrogate; and that German attitudes are Influenced by acceptance or rejection by the group. The strength of this Influence Is In proportion to H ertran Henry Schaffner, Father Land (New York: Columbia University Press, 1$W , p. 15. 159 desire for group membership: "to the extent that (the audience) desires acceptance as a member of a group, he w ill be motivated . . . to accept that group's outlook."3 The assessment of the German's adherence to group structures can be made In terms of his childhood training. Schaffner suggests that by understanding the atmosphere In which German child ren are raised, the German national character can be understood and hence his need for strong Identifica tion with the group can be seen. From infancy on, the child learns that he is a part of a system In which he is of Inferior rank and that he must obey his s u p e r io r s .... The sooner a child learns discipline, the sooner he becomes adjusted to that life. Following the rules Is all that Is asked of him. If he does all that is expected of him, on tim e, and up to the standard set for him, he can avoid punishment and win his parents' favor. • • • The extreme penalty for failure may be banishment from the family group 3 Elihu Katz and Paul F. Lazarsfeld, Personal Influence (Glencoe, Illinois: The Free press, 19^5 ) , p . 5 1 . ^Schaffner, oju cit. . p. Ml, 160 The symbol of the family group becomes the outside groups to which he belongs In later life. The German Is trained to accept the goals of the group. Thus he Is highly motivated to subscribe to the attitudes of the groups to which he belongs, those attitudes which are symptoms of strong group-need by Germans. Freedom, meaning the expression or possession of an attitude which differs from that of his group, Is to the German unacceptable. Schaffner found that: At few points. If any, does the typical German child come to know the meaning of freedom • • .H e Is not taught to express himself as an individual but to make himself like the German Ideal. . • • He is taught that it Is unwise for children to be granted much freedom. • • • Freedom Is Identified with disobedience and lawlessness, which are repugnant to the German system. Thus children are not only denied freedom but induced not to want It.5 So for most Germans, non-group membership is an unacceptable way of life. It Is right to belong to a group and to subscribe to what it believes, reasons the German. It is immoral to live otherwise. Moreover, he w ill be punished If he does not observe **Ibld. . p. 46. - ^ 161 this adherence. The findings of Schaffner lead to the point that the German by training is compelled to strict allegiance to the group and subscription to its beliefs. The significance for the present inquiry is that German attitudes are Imbedded in psycho logical needs and anchored by cultural tradition; and that changes in German attitudes can occur only to the degree to which the media and messages harmonize with those needs. Otherwise, techniques must be fashioned to change the needs to make new attitudes acceptable. There seem to be no characteristics of the German society which in themselves would operate against a successful establishment of the ten attitudes. But in a strongly father-dominated, or father- surrogate dominated society, it seems necessary to utilize the father complex in order to implant these attitudes, or to make them stronger when they already e x i s t . The concepts which these attitudes represent are ideas which appeal to those elements in West German society capable of Influencing the public 162 mind. These elements, or catalysts, are the German male and the group community leader with which the German equates him and his traditional a u t h o r it y . The ten attitudes are: 1. The United States is powerful in mili tary strength, is scientifically advanced, economically stable, and possesses esteemable cultural attributes. 2. The United States w ill support West German Interests: territorial integrity, Berlin freedom, and West German prosperity. 3. West German membership in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization can help assure the Federal Republic that other nations will aid her if attacked by the Soviet Union. 4. If West Germany supports NATO, she can expect in return United States support for German interests and needs. 5. The North Atlantic Treaty Organization is an elite club of esteemed nations; the Federal Republic by membership is recognized as an elite, respected nation. 163 6. The United States considers West Germany an equal partner. 7. Democratic practices, as represented by those In the United States, are the surest ways for a state to achieve Its alms. 8. West European economic ties would benefit the economy of the Federal Republic. 9* Since the United States favors West German coalition with the Western European states, the United States would support West German objec tives if the Federal Republic associates itself with the Western European nations. 10. It is the moral responsibility of a western, civilized, economically stable nation to assist needy, under developed states. The specific concepts contained in these attitudes are within the German male domain of accepted authority: m ilitary power, science, economy, and national pride and prestige. Similarly, answers to questions on the aspects of international relations encompassed in the present Study are traditionally left to German men or to men-leader substitutes. These are the territorial integrity of the Federal 164 Republic, Berlin freedom, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, winning United States support for German interests, and political and economic integration with the other Western European states. For purposes of contrast and illustration, one might say that should these concepts, in a hypothetical state, lie within the culturally accepted female jurisdiction, but still in a state where atti tudes are formulated by men, the communications prob lem would be different from that which exists in West Germany. The communicator would be confronted with the problem of causing males to influence women on subject attitudes about behavior patterns for which the particular society held women responsible. But the present cultural structure of West Germany suggests that communication concepts involv ing West German attitudes desired by the United States should be directed to the West German leader because: (1) he influences the formation of attitudes; and (2) the particular attitudes presented in the inquiry represent concepts which are culturally acknowledged in West Germany as the male responsibility. This situation may not always be so; and Indeed shows signs of changing. The American professor, Ernest Hamburger, revisited Germany under the sponsorship of USIS Bonn during February and March, I960, delivering twenty-three lectures In twenty West German cities and towns. This touf followed a sim ilar one In the months of September and October, 1956. The purpose of the tour was to present views of American think ing on International relations, the United Nations, and human rights; and to gather Information on German notions on education, law, and related sub jects. On the completion of his tour, Mr. Hamburger said that his I960 audiences contained fifty per cent more women than his 1956 ones, a significant increase. This chapter has presented the cultural environment of the West German people In order to reveal the potential for, and difficulties which are encountered In, the establishment and maintenance of sets of attitudes in the West German public mind. 6 Ernest Hamburger, "Report on Lectures." Submitted by Ernest Hamburger to Arthur H. Hopkins, Chief, Speakers and A rtists Bureau, Cultural Operations Unit, USIS Bonn. No date, p. 8. (Mimeographed). 166 The father, or father substitute, has been shown as the key Influencing factor of public opinion within the tight group structure of West German society. Hence he Is the prime audience to which messages are to be addressed If they are to become significant factors in making public opinion and attitudes. The specific attitudes with which the present study is concerned are views which are for the most part within the German male domain. The following chapter w ill present the books, supplied by the Information Center Service, supporting these attitudes which USIS Bonn placed on its shelves for public circulation during the calendar year of 1959. A comparison w ill be made between the books placed into circulation which seem capable of supporting the attitudes under study and those which did seem to have marginal relationship to the attitudes which can support United States foreign policy alms respecting the Federal Republic. CHAPTER IX INFORMATION. CENTER SERVICE SUPPORT FOR UNITED STATES FOREIGN POLICY OBJECTIVES This chapter w ill describe and attempt to evaluate the Information Center Service support, principally books, which USIS Germany provided during 1959 to help establish and maintain certain attitudes. The books were ordered by the post from the Agency's Information Center Service prior to placement on the USIS Germany's library and reading room shelves. The criterion for the listing of the books In the present Investigation is appropriateness of the subject matter, and appeal to the father, or father-surrogate, respecting the ten attitudes cited in Chapter VII. The process by which these books, and other informational m aterials, reached the German public was at the time of this Inquiry mainly through the United States Information Centers, called America Houses; German-American Institutes and seven reading rooms. There were then sixteen America Houses, located 168 In Berlin, Bermen, Koblenz, Cologne, Essen, Frankfurt, Freiburg, Hamburg, Hannover, Heidel berg, K alserlautern, Kassel, Kiel, Munich, Stuttgart and Nuremberg. There were four German-American In sti tutes located In Darmstadt, Marburg, Regensburg, and Tuebingen. Reading rooms were operating In Dusseldorf, Hof, Mannheim, Saarbrueoken, Stuttgart, Trier, and Wiesbaden. The America Houses were USIS establishm ents, operated and funded by the United States Information Agency. The German-American Institutes were formerly America Houses which, when closed, were taken over by German municipal authorities in cooperation with the United States Government. Site, building, and custodial personnel were provided by the city; American directors and program m aterial were supplied by the United States. The American Directors were assisted by local boards of directors. The programs at both these Institutions con sisted at the time of this study of a open-shelf lending library, lectures, concerts, recitals, exhibits, films, play readings, and theatrical 169 performances. There were seminars for teachers and labor leaders. Most of these program materials originated with the Information Center Service In Washington. The library operation in these Institutions was sim ilar to that of the American public library. Besides circulating books and answering reference questions, the libraries contained periodicals, news magazines, popular weeklies and monthlies, technical and scholarly journals, and 16 mm. films. There existed also a collection of American classical, folk, and popular recordings, musical scores and parts of American symphonies. These music m aterials were for study and use by music students, critics, composers, and directors of orchestras. Reference service, both by telephone, letter, and personal request was pro vided. The total holdings for all centers In books on June, I960, in the English language was 202,000; in German, 138,000. The circulation of English language books from July 1, 1959 to June 30, I960, was 470,000; In German, 786,000. Five hundred twenty-eight new titles in the year 1959 were selected from Agency lists by USIS 170 Germany and circulated through Its U. S. Information centers and reading rooms.1 Of these, one hundred forty-two titles, or about twenty-six percent, are considered by the investigator capable of supporting attltudes which would support United States foreign policies in West Germany. This number excludes children's books which might have dealt superficially with the subject at hand. I . THE U. S . CAN BE TRUSTED TO FULFILL ITS COMMITMENTS The subjects of about one fourth of these one hundre forty-two titles supported the attitude of intent, or w ill of the United States to carry out its promises, conceptualized In this study that the United States, as a trustworthy nation, w ill stand by Its commitments. LoveJoy's Essays in the History of Ideas dealt with a discriminating evaluation of key ideas in Christian thought, while Santayana In his Character and Opinion In the United States analyzed American character. In the Institute Embassy of the United States of America, Bucher-Vorshau. (Annual Index for 1959* United States Information Service, Bonn, Germany, n.d.) 171 for Religious and Social Studies edited by F. Johnson, a picture is presented of the basic tenents of the three dominant American religions, Protestantism, Catholicism, and Judaism. Perkins' book on foreign policy illuminated the moral drives of American foreign policy. Two volumes showed the derivations of the American constitution, Corwin's Understanding the Constitution and the Federalist. Herbert Clark Hoover In w riting on Woodrow Wilson stressed not his biography but his moral precepts. Abraham Lincoln, too, was presented in book form through Carl Sandburg. Sim ilarly, the German reader could glean from James Byrnes' autobiography the consistency of American foreign policy, and from the work by Father La Farge a stated American respon sibility to himself and his duty to humanity. The moral tone of American society was con sidered from several angles by various writers In other titles which were placed In circulation. Marsch and M iller's works showed the relationship between American religion and political philosophy and are quite to the point, while Welsenberger treated the early roots of American religion as shown through 172 the great American revivalists. Weiss and PifieId, in two books, showed the connection between American religion and life as well as the differences between the philosophies of Americans Whitehead, Northrup, and James, and Germans Marx and Hegel. Niebuhr's Pious and Secular America also explained how American religion relates to the political life of the American people. Fosdick's work of selected sermons contri buted to the attitude that America is a moral nation, prepared to support its commitments. Keller, a Swiss, In Roots of American Democracy. shows in part too that the frame of reference for American political behavior is religious in nature. Buttressing works on the moral fibre of the American people were additional books which treat the historical concepts of American ideas of law and Justice. Writers whose works contributed to this concept were Kelly, Mayer, Zink, Latham, Chase, and Larson, former director of the United States Informa tion Agency, and Adams. Two works typify this groups Alfred Hinsey Kelly's Foundations of Freedom In the American Constitution. a collection of six essays on the historical background of fundamental American 173 freedoms In the constitution, and Tradition of Freedom, edited by Milton Mayer, which in part i presented essays on some significant decisions of the United States Supreme Court which dealt with freedom and Justice in the United States. Fugate presented a unique application of morality In inter national economic affairs. His Foreign Commerce and the Antitrust Laws could be interpreted as showing fair play In dealing with foreign nationals. Subsumed as a penultimate group of titles supporting the w ill of the United States to stand by its commitments were works which linked famous Americans to the operations of American administered law and Justice. Bemls edited a work which sketched the diplomacy of successive American Secretaries of State to March, 1925; McKay talked to the reader in the words of the United States Supreme Court in An American Constitutional Reader. Mason focused on court decisions mainly of Justices Taft, Hughes and Stone; Wilfred Binkley presented an historical survey of the functions of the American presidency as seen through the administrations of Jefferson, Jackson, Lincoln, Wilson, and Truman. Flischke examined the concept 171* of summit diplomacy—from the American point of r~> view—In Summit Diplomacy. It was a study of diplo matic relations at the Chlef-of-State level, and contained Information on presidential policy forma tion, personal presidential communications, presiden tia l representatives, and summit conferences. In the realm of American moral position In International associations, three works stand out: Melman’s Inspection for Disarmament. Scott and Wlthey's The United States and the United Nations: and Stuart McIntyre’s Legal Effect of World War II 6n Treaties of the United States. They all showed the C\ integrity of the American government in dealing with other nations. The Legal Effect of World War II seems particularly high In potential to persuade the reader that the nation w ill stand by Its agreements. It was a detailed study of how the United States ob served its obligations under various bilateral and m ultilateral treaties which included signatories fighting against the United States in World War II. In summary, USIS Bonn placed on its library circulation shelves thirty-four titles which could persuade the West German reader that the United States 175 was a nation which would support Its moral obli gations to other nations. This study has shown that these works approached this attitude from four positions: the moral tone of the American people, the moral tradition of American law, the inter national legal morality of American political leaders, and the moral pattern of American law In international associations. X I. THE U. S. IS MILITARILY STRONG, ECONOMICALLY VIABLE, AND SCIENTIFICALLY ADVANCED The principal attitude, the United States is powerful In military strength, is scientifically advanced, and economically stable, received support from eighty-four title s, or-about fifty-seven percent of the total titles, one hundred forty-five, which the present Investigator believes supported some of the ten attitudes. Thirty-three titles of the fifty-seven percent focused on the economic strength of the United States, thirty-eight on its scientific competence, and thirteen dealt with American m ilitary might. 176 The title s explaining the economic strength of the United States used five kinds of focii, one could say: the philosophy of American economics, American economic practice, descriptions of selected Industries, the future of American economics, and b io g ra p h y . The largest group fell into the category of economic practice, with eleven titles. Herbert Gross discussed new methods of marketing and described how these methods might apply in West Germany. The key to economic progress through mass production was Kousoulas' theme, while Kaplan in Pricing in Big Business scanned current pricing policies in the United States. Louis Alexander Allen analyzed 168 firms to illustrate good management principles. USIS Bonn also put on its library shelves the National Planning Association's study on how industrial peace could be achieved under collective bargaining; and the study by the American Management Association which dealt with methods by which management could analyze Its operations. All the titles placed In circulation during December, 1959» on American economy, dealt with 177 practice. Eckstein discussed the economics of water resources; American policy of stockpiling natural resources was Bldwell's theme In Raw Mater ials s current policy in the petroleum Industry was Investigated by Cookenboo; Ewing in Long-Range Planning for Management. told how a firm might plan its major moves five years in advance; and Ross explained in Automation the operation and use of electronics in factories and transportation. Ten title s explained the philosophy of American economics with Bouldlng's The Image being perhaps the most exotic, dealing as it did with a proposal to Integrate fields of knowledge. Charles Beard presented the philosophical origins of American economics, showing how Jeffersonian democracy reflected economic principles; and Dorfman discussed linear programming and economic a n a ly s is . The month of June, 1959> was heavy with place ment of books on economic philosophy. Plus the Dorfman work, five other works were circulated. Galbraith attacked traditional economics In his popular Affluent Societys ideas on problems of free-world capitalism were presented in the work, International Industrial 178 Development Conference: Copeland held up for review his revolutionary Ideas In teaching business adm inistration; and Whyte attempted to divulge a sociological analysis of piece-work and bonus systems in Industry. McFarland's Management Principles and Practices. which covered the use of social science research in management affairs, rounded off the philo sophy group for June placement. Two final works on the philosophy of economics were placed In circulation: Pierre Martineau's Motivation In Advertising, a study in motivation research, and Marshall Dlmock's A Philosophy of Administration Toward Creative Growth. This w riter submitted Ideas on the long-range goals of management, and the role of the individual within an organization. Almost pure economic descriptive works numbered seven. Two Items were placed In February, 1959s The Face of Minnesota: and The Sawdust Empire. a book which deals with the American northwest economy. In April one book In this category was added, Seldman's The Worker and His Union. Four new title s were offered the West German reading public the following June. These were Journalistic type materials which presented 179 factual, descriptive pictures of sections of the American economy. Wall Street was described by Brooks, the American worker by E. Gross, the Tennessee Valley Authority by Kyle, and a summary of American historical economic events was presented by M iller in his work, A New History of the United S t a t e s . What the future might hold for the American economy was delineated in four titles. F. Gross discussed the flexibility of prices as an example for business success in the future; ?ursh In Apprenticeships In America spelled out the opportuni ties for work In principal fields In the United States; Bums, former chief economic adviser to President Elsenhower, pointed out how prosperity might be achieved without Inflation in Prosperity Without Inflation: and Drucker made a twenty-year projection of the economic situation in the United States in Landmarks of Tomorrow. One book showed the economy through the biography of American business leader (Gerard Swope. a story of the late president of General Electric, by David Loth). 180 Summarizing, USIS Bonn placed into public circulation thirty-three titles during 1959 which could be considered as support for the attitude that the economy of the United States is strong and viable, capable of supporting any defense of a West Germany territo rial Integrity which the foreign policy of the United States might dictate. The second aspect of the principal attitude, American scientific competence, received support from thirty-eight titles. These titles can be conveniently divided into four sections: contemporary American science, the future of American science, the progress of American science, and the philosophy of science. Works describing science in the United States today received most attention, with twenty-four title s, or more than sixty percent of the science group. There was a wide range of scientific disci plines presented in these descriptive works. They ranged from nuclear energy, meteorology, automation, chemistry, geology, biology, engineering, and medicine to a slightly heavier concentration on space. Gamow in M atter. Earth, and Sky outlined the 181 geometries of the planetary system. Pickering answered one thousand questions on astronomy in a book of this title. Motz also discussed Investi gative techniques in the field of astronomy, while Holmes' Work, What's Going on in Space. traced man's explorations Into space. Nuclear energy as a descriptive subject, received attention from three works: Peacetime Uses of Atomic Energy. by Mann; Atoms and People, by Lapp, which presented the highlights of atomic energy history; and Stephenson's treatise, Introduction to Nuclear Energy, which dealt with nuclear fission and chain reaction. Contemporary medicine In the United States was described by Lee in A Doctor Speaks His Mind, and Phelps who pictured the problems confronting cerebral palsied children and suggested some solu tions in The Cerebral-Palsled Child. Some attention too was given to the status of meteorology In the United States with Bates presenting a collection of articles explaining the composition and behavior of the atmosphere In The Earth and Its Atmosphere. and Fisher giving a popular 182 discussion of weather conditions and predictions in How About the Weather? Forrester posed and answered a thousand questions on the weather In a work w ritten for the layman. The current state of development of American chemistry, biology, and botany was presented in a variety of ways. Chemistry, for example, was treated In Asimov's work, The World of Carbon, in G ilreath's Fundamental Concepts of Inorganic Chemistry which described fourteen recently developed chemical processes currently used in the United Sthtes. In the field of biology, Hutchins presented a series of biological reports while Brey, in Principles of Physical Chemistry, showed the relationship between biology and chemistry. Botany was treated by the Botanical Society of America in Fifty Years of Botany by presenting forty articles dealing with microbes, fungi, and plant diseases. Six other volumes discussed the current condi tion of as many different scientific disciplines: These were automation, (Von Neuman, The Computer and the Brain)t geology (Hapgood, Earth's Shifting Crust): electronics (Wyckoff, The World of the Electronic Microscope) : engineering (Rusk, Introduction to Atomic 183 and Nuclear Physics): technology (Oliver. History of American Technology): and communications, (a book about the laying of telephone cables) (Clarke, Voice Across the Sea. ) The second section of books which seemed to have supported the scientific competence of the United States has been classified In this inquiry as the progress of American science. While some of the books that have been described spill over into the future, they were not mainly looking forward to the values American scientific might bring. Five volumes seemed to project the future of American science, dealing with space and nuclear energy. They were Shapley's A Treasury of Science, which talked of space travel; also his Of Stars and Men, which told of man's place in the cosmos; Adams' Space Flight: Haley's Rocketry and Space Exploration: and the book which treated future nuclear uses, On Nuclear Energy. The ultimate role of nuclear energy for peacetime uses was the theme. Eight volumes fitted into the category of progress of American science; that Is, works which bridged the gap between descriptive m aterial on 184 contemporary American science and Its future. Here, too, space received greater emphasis: Marshack's The World In Space. Bates and Moore edited a work called Space Research and Exploration: and Oberth described the equipment necessary for survival In space. Two dealt with explorations: Beebee's Adventuring with Beebee. and Sullivan's Quest for a Continent, which showed the continuing progress of Antarctic explorations. The final t;hree volumes in this group told of American progress In nuclear science, automation, and dam building. These were Faul's edited work, Nuclear Geology: Rusinoff's Automation In Practice: and Mermel's Register of Dams In the United States. One work completed the group of thirty-eight titles which dealt with the attitude of American scientific competence: a work which the present inquirer has characterized as the philosophy of science, Space. Time, and Creation. Written by Milton Karl Munitz, the book showed the role of the philo sopher in the new cosmologies as that of a critical o n lo o k e r. It has been shown that USIS Bonn placed on the shelves of its libraries in West Germany during 185 1959 thirty-eight titles which bear directly on the competence of American science, contributing to the establishment of the required attitude: that American science Is, like Its economy, a strong and viable aspect of American life, capable of supporting West German Interests. The third sector of the principal attitude, the concept that United States m ilitary strength was adequate, received support from the least number of titles: thirteen. Seven of these works focused on specific aspects of United States m ilitary strength, m issiles, submarines, nuclear weapons, m ilitary organization, and aircraft; two on the general subject of American m ilitary power, and four dealt with m ili tary strategy. Teller argued for future nuclear weapon testing by the United States In Our Nuclear Future. The American submarine picture was presented in three different works, one entitled Nautilus 9Q North. Anderson and B lair, another. The Complete Book of Submarines. and the Rush work which recited the evo lution of the submarine Into a modem war vessel. The third was Hyde's From Submarines to Satellites. Air 186 strength, rockets, and missiles were handled by three volumes: Dow summarized the fundamentals Involved in the propulsion, aerodynamics and control of missiles in The Fundamentals of Advanced M issiles. Lent illuminated the operation of the United States Air Force by tracing the career of an aviation cadet ln Pilot. A pictorial survey of rockets and missiles was Bergaust's presentation through his book, Rockets Around the World. Two final works on the nine titles directed especially to the subject of United States military strength were Power and Diplomacy, consisting of four lectures delivered by former Secretary of State Acheson on the nature and need for military power. Kinter, in Forging a New Sword* developed the relationship of military organizational methods of strength by review ing the experience of the Department of Defense since the National Security Act of 1947. He suggested some Improvements. The remaining four works in the military group dealt with military strategy. Two treated the subject historically—Morison in Strategy and Compromise. the 1940-1945 Allied military decisions that spelled victory, and Davidson's The Berlin Blockade, an analysis 187 of international factors involved in this event. The other two works USIS Bonn classified as "social science" studies, though they were military ln nature. Richard Hubler explained how the United States Strategic Air Command could act as a deterrent; and James Gavin, former United States Army Chief of Research, attempted to pinpoint the weakness and strength of the United States ln what he called the space age. Respectively, the titles were SAC, the Strategic Air Command. and War and Peace In the Space Age. Altogether, thirteen military works were placed into circulation by USIS Bonn during 1959. I I I . DEMOCRATIC PRACTICES ASSURE ACHIEVEMENT OP AIMS A third general attitude which received attention from books was: Democratic practices, as represented by those in the Uhlted States, are the surest ways for a state to achieve its aims. It is recognized that any work which can show that the behavior, or culture, of a nation pays divi dends might contribute to the establishment of this attitude. However, for the purposes of this inquiry, 188 only those books which were sharply focused on this message are presented in this category. There were fifteen titles. There Is no work in this group that does not show the values ln one way or another, to be * gained from living in a free society. If there Is a thematic pattern, the benefits of law In a demo cratic society could be cited as the central theme. Seven volumes treated this aspect. Angell's Free Society and Moral Crisis cited the traditional moral values ln a legal democratic society; Ranney ln The Governing of Men compared the American political processes with those of the communist states; Friedrich edited Authority. a collection of essays which examined the meaning and function of authority from the view point of law; and again this German-American political scientist presented in The Philosophy of Law In Historical Perspective his basis for law ln a democratic state versus that of a communist state; The Law of the Civil JServlce. w ritten by Herman Kaplan, showed how the courts have Interpreted civil service law in the democratic state; Adler wrote of the real meaning of freedom ln The Idea of Freedom: and Lelbholz, member 189 of the West German Supreme Court, dealt with election and basic social laws ln a democratic society, in Problems of Modern Democracy. Four titles could be described as works which showed how individuals generally benefited ln a democratic society. The American Foundation for Political Education was one of these. It was a set of selected statements by Americans and foreigners on the rights of individuals and the will of the people. Ulrich's work dealt with the political philosophy of the United States and how it can be related to the individual welfare. Farran's was another title which he called Atlantic Democracy. a study of the constitutions of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization member states. Herz' Political Realism and Political Idealism completes this group, showing the conflict between Idealistic theories and political realism. To complete the list of fifteen works, four more titles can be cited. Although the volumes cir culated by USIS Bonn which explained how a communist state limits the freedom of Individuals have not been listed or described ln the present study since they 190 do not present the positive values of a democratic, American state, three works which might seem by title to violate this criterion are listed. They seem to point up the affirmative values in a free state and hence earn this classification of support for the attitude, in the view of the present investi gator. They are Overstreet’s What We Must Know About Communism, a balanced presentation of the values of a democratic people, and Daniel’s book on the thirteen communist-ruled nations which showed, too, how these peoples have lost their freedoms. Arendt’s Hungarian Revolution is the third. It is not another description of this occurrence; rather, an essay on the lessons free nations might learn from the uprise in Hungary. The last of this series of fifteen titles falls into no one of the previous thematic patterns. It was a series of lectures which explored the problems of the contemporary city, and how, in a democratic society, they can be solved to the benefit of the individual; the title , The City in Mid-century, w ritten by Henry Dunham. The remaining attitudes received scant, if any attention from books USIS Bonn placed into 191 circulation during 1959. IV. THE FEDERAL REPUBLIC AND THE NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY ORGANIZATION The a ttitu d e th a t West German membership In the North Atlantic Treaty Organization can help assure the Federal Republic that other nations will aid her In time of need was supported by three workst Ball's NATO and the European Union Movement. Engel's Handbook for NATO, and Moore's NATO aftfl the Future of Europe. All made clear that any nation attacked would receive full support of member nations. The Moore work went somewhat farther, explaining the dynamics of the weapon hardware NATO might u tilize. V. THE FEDERAL REPUBLIC AND WEST EUROPEAN COALITION Five books were circulated which could help e s ta b lis h th e a ttitu d e In West Germany th a t West European ties would benefit the Federal Republic. They were: Zurcher's The Struggle to Unite Europe s Haas' The Uniting of Europe s Eckhardt's European Coal and Steel Operationss European Institu tions. by Robertson (which underlined the necessity 192 for European Integration by telling the story of the European Community and Its relations to the laboring people of the six European countries;) and a report entitled Organization for European Economic Cooperation, dealing with the results of cooperation In OEEC since 1950. Zurcher, by giving an historical account of the drafting of the Euratom treaties and the European common market, Indicated how the nations might benefit from such agreements. Haas advanced from a basic description of the alms behind the European coal and steel community to suggest benefits might come from supranational organizations in general. Robertson's work presented a description of the structure, function and development of European organizations which went beyond individual, national political boundaries. VI. OTHER ATTITUDES The other attitudes received little or no book su p p o rt. To b o ls te r th e a ttitu d e th a t West German aid to newer nations would be beneficial, one lone book title was put on USIS Germany's book shelves during 1959» Max Ml111kan and Walt Rostow's A Proposal. This was a study which, though it did not point out 193 how such bread upon the waters would help the Federal Republic, did attempt to justify American economic assistance to underdeveloped nations in terms of gains for American foreign policy. It Is mentioned in the Inquiry because it is possible that German readers might believe too that such a policy could aid the foreign policy of the Federal Republic of Germany. A review by the present Inquirer of seven hundred new t i t l e s c irc u la te d by USIS Germany did not reveal any works which directly supported these a t titu d e s : 1. I f West Germany su p p o rts NATO, she can in return expect United States support for German Interests and needs; 2. The North Atlantic Treaty Organization is an elite club of esteemed nations; the Federal Republic by membership Is recognized as an elite, respected n a tio n ; 3. The United S ta te s co n sid ers West Germany as an equal partner, and; 4. Since the United States favors West German c o a litio n w ith th e W estern European s t a t e s , 194 the United States would support West German objectives If the Federal Republic associates Itself with the Western European nations. If only twenty-six percent of the new books placed on USIS Bonn's book shelves during 1959 seemed supportive of American foreign policy, with what subjects and themes did the remaining seventy-four percent deal? And what themes did the remaining ICS communication materials used by USIS Bonn during 1959 t r e a t? Three hundred five of the total three hundred eighty-six titles which were not related to the ten attitudes fell roughly Into four classifications: fine arts, literature, travel, and children's books. There were forty-eight titles dealing with fine arts; one-hundred thirty five In the field of literature, Including fiction; eighty children's titles; and forty-two In travel. The balance of the total unre lated new titles for 1959, eighty-one, were scattered throughout the remaining fields: philosophy and religion; social sciences; history; pure science; and biography. It was from these latter groups that most of the works came which were described In this chapter as applicable to the stated attitudes. There 195 were a few titles from the four non-app11cable groups, such as travel, which were considered related to the attitudes. These were discussed with the attitudes to which they applied. The possible value of the present study lies In the findings that greater attention might be given in th e s e le c tio n o f books f o r USIS Germany libraries to terms of their link between current American foreign policy, and in terms of opinion maker readers. Chapter IV told how titles were selected for consideration and request by overseas USIS establish ments. The criteria presented In this study for book selection were not utilized, It seems. The final responsibility for making a book available to th e German read in g p u b lic lay w ith th e p o s t. But th e Agency selected the book for the post to requisition. Hence, the book program was a joint responsibility. The notion presented In this inquiry that more precise criteria might be employed for selection of books was also not used by the w riter from 1954 to 1956, when he was a Public Affairs Officer in Bremen. 196 During his term of office In Germahy, there were regular meetings in which program materials and target groups were discussed* There were no proposals advanced by the writer, or his colleagues, that non- essential books be removed from the shelves; or that efforts be made to de-emphasize books for women, or discourage women readers, and Increase male USIS library clients. Occasionally it would be deplored that American fiction received the most attention from readers. But fiction was Justified as an attraction, In the belief that readers might shift from fiction to other types of books. One non-essential book program, In terms of co n sid ered ta r g e t re a d e rs , was m odified. The USIS Bremen children's library which attracted one hundred fifty children dally was ordered modified to raise the age of children's readers from nine to twelve years. Children below age twelve, advised USIS Headquarters, Bonn, were no longer to be admitted after October 30, 1955, In any USIS German lib r a r y . Thus I t was th a t nowhere In USIA, e ith e r I n Washington o r In USIS Germany d u rin g th e p e rio d , had there been a recognition of the criteria of book selection and book promotion presented In this study. 197 It would be useful to know more about th e c irc u la tio n o f books in Germany through USIS establishments which support American foreign policy objectives; and even more to the point to know to what extent these volumes helped to bolster attitudes. But these studies have not been conducted and the data are not available. However, Paul Morris, a USIS officer at Frankfurt in i 960 conducted a study on the American House libraries in the Frankfurt area. His study attempted to show who was reading what in six of the twenty-six USIS libraries and reading rooms In Germany. It sheds indirect light on the questions of use by showing what kinds of books were circulat ing and who was reading them during the period December, 1959, through February, I960. Although the Morris report covers only one-fourth of the USIS German reading centers, it can be considered fairly representative and perhaps valid for the other three-fourths, or twenty centers, since the total report for USIS Germany In some respects coincides with the Morris study. Morris found that there were 336,240 volumes 198 circulated In the six centers he studied during the three months period. Fiction represented more than fifty percent, or 187,762 volumes. No single other category was circulated In more than five percent. Schaffner found that fiction In German society is mainly female fare. So one may speculate that If the Morris study reflects the USIS German-wide operation In 1959» most of the books being read then did not support American foreign policy, either as to content or readership. Understandably enough, Morris found that the percentage of fiction circulated almost equalled the percentage of non-oplnlon maker readers. Fifty-three percent of the readers were women and young people, neither opinion leaders In the West German environ ment • * For all of the USIS Germany reading centers, USIS Bonn H eadquarters re p o rte d f o r 1959 th a t fifty-seven percent were women:and youth.2 ^United States Information Service, Frankfurt, "The America House Libraries" (Frankfurt/Main Branch Office, May 1, I960), p. 9. 2USIS Bonn, "USIS S t a t i s t i c a l R eports— Period Ending June 30» 1959" (Bonn: United States Information Service, American Embassy, July 20, 1959)* 199 A word might be mentioned concerning fiction. Fiction can contribute to the formation of attitudes—even foreign policy—the writer would agree. One has only to look at the contribu tion which Reade and Dickens made to social reforms In England. But attention Is again drawn to the notion that In Germany, fiction is considered female fare and hence is a non-contributing attltudinal f a c to r In th e m ale-dom inated German s o c ie ty . A comment Is subm itted on th e ro le of books which do not appear to lend substantial contributions to given sets of attitudes at any given moment, such as American books on fine arts. It Is true, it seems to the writer, that any sets of attitudes must be linked to a given set of foreign policy objectives. But as these objectives change, so do different attitudes become necessary for establishment. Therefore It Is possible that there are books going into West Germany which are seemingly unrelated to a known, current position the United States wants the Republic to take. But these works may be develop ing attitudes which may be potentially useful to the U nited S ta te s . This does n o t mean th a t some books ) 200 are necessarily applicable to long term foreign policy objectives and some to short. One cannot predict the date when a state can drop an objective, as an accomplished achievement. But th e re Is one a re a , a t l e a s t , o f human i achievement with which many of the books which the Investigator examined, and found to be non-contributing to American foreign policy may be considered useful for the long haul. This Is the area of American creative achievement In teaching, literature, music, architec ture and art. It Is possible that it could be import ant for the people of the Federal Republic—-should their territorial and security problems become less burning—to believe that the people of the United States are sensitive and Intellectual, and that Americans create appealing art forms. The books that may have been helping to create this kind of attitude might have been well circulated. But It Is the opinion iof the writer that with USIA funds limited, book objectives must also be limited, and USIA must address Itself to the current foreign policy problems which confront it. • ^ 201 VII. OTHER INFORMATIONAL MATERIALS USIS Bonn accepted In fo rm a tio n a l m a te ria ls other than books from the Information Center Service which did not seem to relate to the attitudes cited In the present Inquiry. A minor exception Is seen In the exhibits. Twenty«slx Agency-built and organized exhibits were shown during the period of which five contributed to the attitude of the United States competence in science. These were Atoms for Peace, a 36 papel exhibit which showed the development of nuclear energies for man*s benefit; a twenty-six panel show entitled "The International Geophysical Year", explain ing the United States effort In this event; arid three kits: one on space, Pioneer I, and two on the use of nuclear energy to propel water craft, the USS Nautilus, and the Savannah. The other twenty-one exhibits dealt with fine arts (9); music (3); architecture (2). The others treated labor unions, the American kitchen, sports, leisure time, the American ballet, the St. Lawrence waterways; and the physical appearance of some American cities. 202 In the field of music, the Information Center Service sent or provided sixty-five sheet music titles for use by.West German musical groups, and sixty-seven sets of musical recordings, also for loan by Indivi duals patronizing the United States Information Centers. In summary, USIS Germany ordered from the Information Center Service 528 new titles which were placed in circulation during 1959* One-hundred forty- two, or about twenty-six percent, supported the ten specific attitudes related to the advancement of American foreign policy. Three hundred eighty-six, or seventy-four percent did not. Five of the twenty-six exhibits sent to USIS Germany supported an Important attitude. Twenty-one did n o t. Music materials circulated by the post are not considered contrlbutlve to the ten attitudes. CHAPTER X SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Thisv study has revealed that there are ten distinct attitudes which If held by the West Germans are the attitudes which could enhance the foreign policy objectives of the United States respecting the Federal Republic of Germany.^ It revealed that these attitudes are capable of advancement in the West German society since they are concepts in the cultural domain of the leader of public opinion, the father or father surrogate. I t was shown th a t the United S tate s Inform ation Service, Bonn, Germany, ordered from book lists for circulation throughout Its twenty-six Information Centers and reading rooms, five-hundred twenty-eight titles which It placed into circulation during the year 1959. One hundred forty-two titles, or twenty- six percent, were related to the creating and mainten ance of the ten attitudes. The balance of the titles treated subjects which did not apply to these concepts. 1 See Chapter VIII, pp. 162-1 6 3 . 204 The study further showed that the other Informational materials requested by the post, and supplied, were not supportive of the ten attitudes presented In the investigation* The minor exception was In. th e case of e x h ib its su p p lied by th e Agency* Five of the twenty-six supported one attitude relating to science. Music materials, by their nature, could not support the attitudes In question. The view was presented that nations, in order to protect themselves from international assaults, motivated partly by misunderstandings, must explain the behavior of their people and the reasons for that behavior. Humans are alike, regardless of cultural differences: fundamental human drives are universal. But the reasons why different societies select differ ent ways to satisfy common drives must be explained, else peoples w ill not equate their aims with members of other societies. Government International politi cal communications in free nations is a tool which helps a state forestall international assaults through explaining the reasons for Its behavior. Separated from the Department of State In August, 1953, the United States Information Agency 205 has attempted to support American foreign policy by supplying Informational materials which Its posts use to hold and win foreign allegiance to the United States. The Information Center Service, one of the five Agency Service sectors, deals with books, exhibits, and musical materials selected to advance the Agency'8 objectives. The F ed eral Republic of Germany was e s ta b lis h e d as a sovereign state In 1955 and Is attempting to organize the life of the West German people in a democratic pattern. At the same time West Germans are reviving their cultural traditions in the areas of creative expression. The United States desires that the Federal Republic of Germany align Itself with the United States which means full discharge of Its commitments to the North Atlantic Treaty Organization and participation in the Western European eolation. The United States is interested In the maintenance and growth of Federal Republic as a democratic state, and In the Republic's assistance to non-industrial nations. The present investigator has suggested that these objectives can 206 be achieved when the West Germans believe that the United States is able and willing to support the national interests of the Federal Republic; that the United States will support these Interests if the Republic supports the Interests of the United States; that the United States considers the Federal Republic as an equal partner; that membership in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization and the Western European coalition would benefit the Republic; that democratic practices, and aid to still developing nations would serve the needs of the Republic;, and that there are prestige factors In associations with the United States and other Western European nations. The content of Informational materials supplied by the Information Center Service as ordered by USIS Germany f o r th e West German audience d u rin g 1959, which related to the desired attitudes, was roughly one-fourth of the total materials. Three-fourths dealt with subjects which related to other concepts. Assuming that the purpose of the Information Center Service is to supply materials which are designed to support American foreign policy, It can be suggested that greater emphasis could be given to materials which 207 build attitudes related to United States objectives. To this end, similar studies might be useful which would show to what extent other media services of the United States Information Agency supply material directly related to attitudes supportive of foreign policy in the Federal Republic as well as other nations whose support the United States needs. A series of new studies would point the way to more concentration on the selection of communica tion materials in terms of their relationship to American foreign policy objectives respecting each state; and In terms of the appeal of the subject matter of the media content to the groups in each state which are capable of shaping public opinion. The first series of studies might consist of setting forth the special objectives of the United States in each foreign state. Mindful of the fact that It Is the President of the United States who determines foreign policy, the Investigator would ascertain and present these foreign policy objectives, using basic statements attributed to the President, and published papers by officials of the United States Government which expand pronouncements and actions of the President. The second series of studies would attempt to discover the classes and groups In each state which are opinion makers on attitudes relating to the general concepts Involved in American policy objectives which were presented in the first study series. The investi gator would unearth and organize anthropological, psychological, historical, and social data respecting each state which would enable him to conclude—at the time of the studies—the kinds of people In each culture which were opinion leaders. It would be necessary for him to sort out the Important opinion making group In the state, Its sex. Its educational level, and its occupation, whether government workers, shop keepers, or laborers. These conclusions would show the particular audience at which the communication materials should be aimed in each state, and would also determine the nature of the subject matter In terms of simplicity or sophistication. With the conclusions of these two sets of studies, the investigator would know the foreign policy objectives respecting each state and would know the kinds of audiences which would be likely to influence 209 the attitudes of others which relate to these objectives. He would then be prepared to launch his third series of Investigations. The third series of studies would constitute an evaluation of the current media materials being sent to each USIS country headquarters; that is one would evaluate the content of the books, films, exhibits, and press and radio materials on current inventory with the ninety country USIS posts. The criteria for such an evaluation would be: (1) do current materials in use by each USIS headquarters post relate to foreign policy objectives of the United States? (2) do these materials appeal to the special sets of people in each nation which have been found to Influence attitudes? and (3) does the charact er of the messages create attitudes which stimulate behavior favorable to the achievement of the aims desired by the United States? The profits resulting from such a series of studies would secern to be of two kinds. First, the Agency would be able to rely on more accurate informa tion and data to eliminate media materials which do not relate to its objectives, and which have no appeal 210 to th e known groups which In flu e n ce a t titu d e s . Second, the Agency would be able to assure itself that Its materials used in the field, on a constant, recurring basis, generally would have a good chance to perform the communication tasks for which they were designed. It is the experience of the present Inves tigator in the Washington office of the Agency, and as a former field operatbr, that the present pattern of Agency operations generally follows the procedures which would evolve -from a series of the suggested studies. The difference la that they are opinions based on personal experience rather than research. The Washington media pperatlon with which he has been associated since 1956 generally relies on its own judgment in the selection of field materials. It Is a case of the manufacturing department of General Motors building and designing automobiles with only a general notion of the public tastes; rather than the company's policy office initiating consumer research and, based on Its findings, Instructing the manufacturing department what kinds of automobiles to b u ild . 211 The present investigator speculates that this situation exists in other Agency media elements. Conversations with other media officers indicate they not only exercise their technical competences to create media products, such as a pamphlet, or a motion picture, but they also decide the content and thematic emphasis. There has been no evidence found by the investigator which would show that any media operation has available usable, organized criteria for the creation and selection of the content of media materials, except in the most general terms, mostly in miscellaneous documents. Moreover, there seem to be few policing procedures operating to help the media producer Include the kind of content necessary to support American foreign policy In the various s t a t e s . It would be Incomplete to leave this study without giving the Investigator's opinion of the causes of any inadequacies. They are not caused by any lack of professional skill of USIA personnel; nor lack of interest in the problem. The causes seem to stem from two conditions: one. Inadequacy of research; and two, inherent 212 weaknesses which seem to prevail in a government organization. Funds for research are always easiest to cut from a budget when confronted with a reduction. Agency officers are keenly aware of the need for more research, not only to supply the answers sug gested in the kinds of studies recommended In the present investigation, but also to ascertain the results of Information campaigns, current stereotypes existing in other nations, and the comparative useful ness of the various media In each state. But when th e Agency must make a choice In th e k inds of opera tions It will reduce, or limit, It Is less troublesome to limit research. Moreover, operational expenses seem more easily understood by the Congress than re search, and it8 potential use, In terms of pay off. In a government organization difficulties exist when strong policy direction Is attempted. Policy direction In USIA is not very specific because little research data exists on which policy officers can rely. The absence of such data may cause a reluctance on the part of policy people to impose strong policy direction on media officers In the Agency who themselves are for 213 the most part experienced field operators. More over, most of the media operations are well estab lished, with high technical competence which when coupled to the fact that they are operated by officers with rich field experience, these media officers may rightly feel that they know what should be the focus of their media materials. Thus, It Is difficult to impose direction on strong, large elements of an Agency which feel able s to conduot their operations somewhat Independently and which may resent interference from others. This Is especially so when the feeling exists that the guide lines they are expected to follow are no more valid or accurate than their own. The present investigator suggests that as a greater appreciation outside USIA for the potential of International political communications grows, a greater need for research may be felt. This could result in more convincing guidance to media elements. It would then appear that the International political communications function of the Government would more effectively support the foreign policy objectives of the United States. BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY A. PRIMARY SOURCES 1. Laws and Regulations Agricultural Trade Development and Assistance Act of lgtU. as amended. L. 48 d, 03 d Congress, approved July 16, ^954 5 7 U.S.C. 1691 e t se q .) Annual Appropriations Acts P.L. 207* 83d Congress, approved August 7, 1953 (67 Stat. 418) Fiscal year 1954. P.L. 471, 83d Congress, approved July 2, 1954 (68 Stat. 413) Fiscal year 1955. P.L. 133, 84th Congress, approved July 7, 1955 (69 Stat. 264) Fiscal year 1956. P.L. 6 0 3 , 84th Congress, approved June 20, 1956 (70 Stat. 299) Fiscal year 1957. P.L. 85-49, 85th Congress, approved June 11, 1957 (71 Stat. 55) Fiscal year 1958. P.L. 85-474, 85th Congress, approved June 30, 1958 (72 Stat. 244) Fiscal year I 9 5 9. P.L. 86-84, 86th Congress, approved July 1 3 , 1959 (73 Stat. 182) Fiscal year i 960 Executive Order of the President of the United States. 91^7 June lTT 1942. Tnls order established th e O ffice o r War in fo rm atio n . Executive Order of the President of the United states. 9b(f8, AugusF^l. ismsT"" i'his order abolished the office of War Information and transferred the function of foreign Information to the Department of State. Executive Order 10477. August 1. 1953. Executive Order 10522. March 26. 1954 (19 F.R . 1689) Executive Order 10575. November 6. 1954. as amended — n rr.jrr7?49T. ------— ------216 Executive Order 10700. February 25. 1957 — &TT.wrnnrr------Executive Order 10708. May 6, 1957 {22 F.R. 32lTH Executive Order 10716. June 17. 1957 "T R ------Foreign Service Act of 1946. as amended (P.L.T&4, 7^6K ‘Congress, approvedAugust 13, 1946; 22 U.S.C. 801 e t seq .) International Cultural Exchange and Trade Fair Participation Act "of i9tb (P.L. boo, 04th Congress, approved August 1, 1956} 22 U.S.C. 1991 e t se q .) Reorganization Plan No. 8, of 1953 (18 F.R. 4542). Testimony of Assistant Secretary George V. Allen, First Deficiency Appropriation B ill. 80th Congress, 2d Session, pp. 10 id 7 5", 1948. 2. Periodicals and Encyclopedia Bellqulst, Eric C. "The Overseas Information add Cultural Relations Program of the Department of State." World Affairs Interpreter. 1 8: 54-69 (April 1947TT Bernays, Edward L. and others. "What Do We Say to the World?" Saturday Review of Literature. September 1 7, i955;~m fr- — :------Bruntz, G. G. "Allied Propaganda and the Collapse of German Morale In 1918," Public Opinion Quarterly. January, 1938, p. b4. Cherrington, Ben M. "Ten Years After," Association of American Colleges Bulletin. 34: 500-zP TBecember l9i|H TT ------Colley, E. J. "Social Organization," Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, IV, 61-65, 80- 11)3 . UewTork: The Macmillan Company, 1931. 217 "Conference on World Tensions." Editor and Publisher. Vol. 93, No. 21,(May 21, 196777 Cooper, David S. "American Music—The Government's Cultural Ambassador," Music Educators Journal. (September-October, 1954.; Cooper, David S. "American Music in Europe," Musical Courier. CLV (June, 1957), pp. 10-11. Dean, Vera Micheles. "What Should U. S. Information P o licy Try to Do?" Foreign Policy Bulletin. 39i 3^4 (March 31, 15577 Doob, Leonard W. "Inform ation S erv ices In C en tral Africa," Public Opinion Quarterly. 1717-19 (S p rin g 1 Durdin, Peggy. "A Model for U. S. Propaganda," New York Times Magazine, February 6, 1955, pp. 13ff. Embree, John F. "Some Problems of an American Cultural Officer in Asia." American Anthropologist. 51s 155-58 (January 1949). . "Flunking the Tests." The Wall Street Journal. J u ly 2 7, I960. 1 "German Literature," The Columbia Encyclopedia (second edition). Hanks, L. M. "The Quest fo r th e In d iv id u a l Autonomy in the Burmese Personality," Psychology. Vol. 12, No. 3, P. 290. Heindel, Richard H. "U. S. Libraries Overseas," Survey Graphic. 35s 162-65 (May 1946). Kennedy, John F. "We Must Climb to the Hilltop," Life Magazine (October 22, I960). Kraemer, F r i t z . "What U. S. Propaganda Can and Can't Be," Stanford Research Institute Journal. December, 1^59. 218 Lerner, Daniel. "World Imagery and American Propaganda Strategy," Columbia Journal of International Affairs. 5: Wo. 2 (3pring~T951). Mundt, Karl E. "We Are Losing the War of Words in Europe," New York Times Magazine. November 9, 1947, p p .“ TT, e>i-6irr" Radvanyi, Laszlo. "Problems of International Opinion Surveys," International Journal of Opinion and Attitude Research, i: 30-51 (June 19^7). Redfield, R. "Does America Need a Hearing Aid?" The Saturday Review. September 16, 1953. Repplier, Theodore S; "Persuasion Under the Cherry Blossoms," Saturday Review of Literature. October 1, ±L955, PP. 13ff. Savoy, Willard. "Can We Ever Win the Mind of Asia?" Reporter. 7s 13ff (October 14, 1952). Spitzer, H. M. "Presenting America," Quarterly. 11: 213-21 (Summer 1947). Thayer, Robert H. "Exhibiting America's Cultural Ideals Abroad," Dept. State Bulletin, 1094: 963-966 (June 13, I960). The New York Times. March 22, 1959. The New York Times. August 27, 1959. The New York Times. November 29, I960. The New York Times. March 16, I960. The New York Times. April 14, 1961. The New York Times. March 16, 1961, The Washington Post. July 30, i 9 6 0. Wrlston, Henry M, "The Voices of America," Foreign Affairs, 32: 175-89 (January 1954). ------219 3. Publications of the Government.. Learned Societies. Other Organizations, and Unpublished Studies A lexander, Thomas L. "The E x h ib its Program," United States Information Agency. Washington: February 22, 1957* (Mimeographed.) Alleman, F r itz Rene. "A Guide to German P o li t i c s ," Meet Germany. Hamburg-Wellingsbuttel: Atlantik- Brucke, May, i 960. Alpha Research (Commercial advertising firm, Sao Paulo, Brazil). A Survey of the USIA Exhibit, "Atoms for the Benefit of Mankind," Held at the Exposlcao do IVo Centenario da Cidade de Sao Paulo from August 1954 to January 1955. Sao Paulo, February 1955.- 25 pp. mlmeo. On file in USIA, Washington, D.C. Americans Ideas Abroad. The American Book Publishers douncii and The Magazine Publishers Association, January I960. An Appraisal of the American Houses In Germany: A Program Guidance Study on Effectiveness of the U. S. Information Centers. No. 210, April 15, 1955. 362 p p ., bound v o l. Arntz, Helmut. Facts About Germany. Bonn: Federal Government of Germany, i 960. Babin, Gregory. "The Book Selection Policy of the United States Information Libraries" (Unpublished M. A. thesis, Catholic University, 1950), 64 pp. Brookings Institution. The Administration of (U. S. Government) Foreign Affairs and Overseas Opera tions: A Report Prepared for the Bureau of the Budget, Executive Office of the President, by the Brookings Institution. Washington, D. C,: Government Printing Office, 1951, 380 pp. Bureau of Applied Social Research (Columbia University). Communications Behavior and Public Opinion in the Middle East. 220 Bureau of Social Science Research (The American University). The Library Programs of the 27 Latin American Binatlonal Centers. W ashington, D. C. 1953* 21 pp. p lu s appendices, mlmeo. Castle, Eugene W. Billions. Blunders and Baloney: The Fantastic Story oifHow Uncle Sam Is Squandering Your Money Overseas. TJevr~York: i>evm-Adair, i$55, 27o pp. > Department of Labor, Directory of National and International Labor Unions In the tinlTed States. B u lle tin No. 17577""Washington: Government Printing Office. Embassy of the United States of America. Bucher- Vorshau. (Annual Index for 1959, United States Information Service, Bonn, Germany, n.d.). Federal Republic of Germany, Department of State. Washington: August, I960. (Mimeographed.) Fox, Byron Lester. "Relationship of Private Organizations to the United States Government's Information and Cultural Program Abroad" (Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, sociology, Ohio State University, 19^7)• Grewe, Germany and B e rlin . New York: The Roy Bernard Company, !i!nc., I960. Hagerty, James C. "The White House. Statement by The President," Press Release, October 28, 1953. Hamburger, Ernest. "Report on Lectures." Submitted by Ernest Hamburger to Arthur H. Hopkins, Chief, Speakers and A rtists Bureau, Cultural Operations Unit, USIS Bonn, n.d. (Mimeographed.) Herter, Christian A. Review of Geneva Negotiations on Germany. Washington: Government Printing C7fice, August 5, 1959. 221 Informational Media Guaranty Program. United states Information Agency, Washington. June, 1959. McMahon, A rthur W. Memorandum on th e Postwar Inform a tion Program of the United States (Dept, of State Publication No. 2438). Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1945, 135 pp. Plckerell, Albert C. "The Battle of Men's Minds: America's 'Psychological Offensive* in the 'Cold War'" (Ph.D. thesis, Stanford University, 1953). "Proceedings of the Brest-Lltovsk Peace Conference," Department of State. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1918. Robbins, James J. The Public Affairs Officer, Washington, D. C.: Foreign Service Institute, 1950, 6 pp. The Berlin Atomic Energy Exhibit: West and East German Reactions. No. 205, December 1, 1954, 44 pp. The Bonn C o n s titu tio n . New York: The Roy Bernard Company, i n c . , n .d . The F i r s t Ten Y ears. 1949-59. The F ederal Republic o f Germany7 Flew York: The Roy Bernard Company, I n c ., n .d . Thomson, C. A. Overseas Information Service of the U. S. Government. Washington: Brookings TnsFltute, IgW: U. S. Advisory Commission on Educational Exchange. Semiannual Reports on Educational Exchange. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1949—First Semiannual Report (House Doc. 5 6, 8lst Congress, 1st Session*) covers activities July-December 1948. U. S. Department of State. Are We Hitting the Target? (Manual of Evaluation Research Methods for USIE; for official use only.). Washington. D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1951, 149 pp. 222 U. S. Department of State. The Cultural Cooperation Program, 1938-43 (Dept, of State Publication No. 2137). Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1944, 71 pp. . The Record: International Exchange, bimonthly, 1945-52. . The World Audience for America's Story ... (E)ept. of State Publication No. 3485). Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1944. 71 PP. U. S. House. United States Embassy, Consular Service, and United States information Agency Operations In Japan: Hearings Before a Subcommittee of the Committee on Government Operations (83rd Congress, 1st Session, October 7-9, 1953). Washington, D. C ., 1954. 224 pp. U. S. House, United States Information Agency: Hearing Before the Committee on Foreign Affairs (84th Congress, 1st Session, February 1 6 , 1955). Washington, D. C,, 1955, 28 pp. U. S. Senate. Committee on Foreign Relations. Overseas Information Programs of the United States (83rd Congress, 1st Session, Report No. 406, presented by Mr. H ick en lo o p er). W ashington, D. c .: Government Printing Office, June 15, 1953, 208 pp. U. S. Senate. Commltee on Foreign Relations. Hearings and Reports on "Overseas Information Programs of the United States." Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, at intervals since about 1941. U. S. Government Organization Manual (Series 1950-1960) Office of the Federal Register. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1950-1960. U. S. Information Agency Appraisal Form la-15 (Rev.) 5-1-58. Washington: Government Printing Office. U. S. Information Agency. A Program of Research and Evaluation for the International Information Administration: Recommendations of a Special Committee to the Administrator. Washington, D.C.: June 15, 1953. 27 pp. mlmeo., bound. On file in USIA. 223 United States Information Agency. Office of Research and Intelligence. Communist Propaganda. Washington: 1958. . English Teaching. USIA CA-641. Washington: C irc u la r Alrgram sen t to a l l USIS P o sts, September 9, 1959. . English Teaching Programs FY 1959. Washington: A pril 13, l9bu. (Mimeographed rep ort). . Evaluation Reports on Music Programs. Washington: Despatch &en£””to USIS Bonn, September 29, I960, "Evaluation Survey of Information Centers in Malaya." Despatch No. 47 of September 10, 1954, from USIS, Kuala Lumpur. 27 pp. typescript. U n c la ssifie d . On f i l e in USIA, W ashington, D. C. . "Info-Notes—American Music," USIA CA-2138. Washington: Circular Alrgram Sent to All Posts February 24, I960. . Information Center Service. (Mimeographed, December <), 195&J. . Music Program. USIA CA-10. Washington: Circular Alrgram Sent to All Post, March 2 7, 1956. . "Policy Guidance on the Use of Jazz in W sis Programs," USIA CA-834. Washington: Circular Alrgram to All Posts, September 29, I960. . "Portraying American Culture to the World." Washington: Government Printing Office, 1959. Request for Orchestral and Operatic M aterial. USIA CA-2o3. Washington: Circular Alrgram Sent to A ll USIS P o s ts , August 5, 1955. . "Review of Operations," Vols. 1-13. August, 1953-December, 1959. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1953-1960. . "The Agency in Brief." Washington: January, I960. 224 United States Information Agency. "The U. S, Overseas Information Program." Washington: Government Printing Office, 1948. United States Information Service, New Delhi, India. "Evaluation of Some Operating Problems In the Placement of Expendable Librar ies," unclassified Despatch No. 2012 of March 16, 1953* from U. S. Embassy, New Delhi. 17 pp.* mlmeo. On file In USIA. U. S. International Information Administration. Field Reporter. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, July/August 1952-June 1954. Additionally, approximately 300 classified despatches, and 150 memoranda, both classified, from "official use only" to "confidential" w ill be considered for declassification; and unclassified communica tions bearing on the subject of the study will be used where appropriate. B. SECONDARY SOURCES Books Alblg, W. Modern Public Opinion. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, I n c . , 1956. Agar, Herbert. The Price of Power. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1957. Barrett. Edward. Truth Is Our Weapon. New York: (F & U) 1953. Bellock, Hilaire. Monarchy. London: Cassell and Company, Ltd., l93o. Berelson and Janowitz. Reader in Public Opinion and Communications. Glencoe, Illinois: TneTree Press, i9^3. Brinton, Crane. The Temper of the Western World. Cambridge: Harvard university Press, 19^3. Buss, Claude Albert. South East Asia and the World Today. Princeton: Van Nostrand, 1P5TT. Butterfield, Herbert. Christianity. Diplomacy and War. New Yorki Abington-dokesbury Press, T91T6. . History and Human Relations. New York: The Macmillan Company, 19^2. Caldwell, John Cope. The Korean Story. Chicago: H. Regnery Company, 19i>2. Carr, E. H. The Twenty Years C risis,i1919-1939. London: Macmillan Company, 2nd e d itio n , 1946. C a tlin , George. What Does th e West Want? London: Phoenix House, Ltd., 191577 Cleveland, Harlan. The Art of Overseasmanshlp. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, i9$7. Cornelius, Edwin T., Jr. Language Teaching: A Guide for Teachers of foreign Languages. Hew York: C orw ell, l9!>3. lb o pp • Dougherty', .WilliAm E. A Psychological Warfare Case Book. Baltimore: John Hopkins University, T55F. Dunn, F. S. War and the Minds of Men. New York: H arper and B ro th e rs, T35U7 Dyer, Murray. The Weapon on th e W all. B altim ore: John Hopkins Press, 19H51. Fromm, Erich. Escape from Freedom. New York: Rinehart and Company, Inc., 1941. Goodfriend, Arthur. The Only War We Seek. New York Farrar, Straus, Young, 1951• Grothe, Pete. To Win the Minds of Men. Palo Alto, California: Pacific Hooks, 1^5^. Isaacs, Harold Robert. Scratches On Our Minds. New York: J. Day Company, 1^5^7 James, Henry. The Role of the Information Library in the U. S. International Information Program. New York: Columbia University School of Library Science, 1952. 226 ^ ' Katz, Elihu and Lazarsfeld, Paul F. Personal Influence. Glencoe. Illinois: The Free PressT 1?55. Lasswell, Harold D. National Security and Individual Freedom. New York:McGraw-Hill, lPHCT. 2^9 pp • Lefever, Ernest W. Ethics and U. S. Foreign Policy. New York: Mer id ian Hooks, T957. Martin, Leslie John. International Propaganda. Minneapolis: Minnesota University Press, 1958. Mead, Margaret (ed.). Cultural Patterns and Technical Changes. New York: tfhe Mew American Library of World Literature, Inc., 1955. McMurry, Rugh, and Muna Lee. The Cultural Approach: Another Way in International Relations. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1947, 280 pp. Mortimer, Lee. Around the World Confidential. New York: Putnam, T9TT6. Ogle, Marbury. Public Opinion and Political Dynamics. Boston: HoughtonMifflinCompany, 1950, Parten, Mildred B. Surveys. Polls. and Samples: Practical Procedures. New Yorki Rarper, 1950. 624 p p . Pearson, Homer. Music at War (1943: 129 PP.), and the Pattern of Propaganda in Music (1944: 12 p p .). PougKEeepsTeTX ' K i Vassar UoTIege. Schaffner, Bertran Henry. Father Land. New York: Columbia University Press, 1948. Schramm, Wilbur, Responsibility in Mass Communications. New York: Harper and Hrothers, T5S7. Smith, Bruce Lannes and Smith, Chltra M. International Communication and Public Opinion. Princeton: Princeton University Hress, 195b. 227 Speier, H. Psychological Warfare Reconsidered. Palo Alto, California: Stanford University Press, 1952. Steinberg, Charles S. The Mass Communicators. New York: Harper and Brothers, lL9^t. Thayer, Charles W, Diplomat. New York: Harper and Brothers, 19^9. V a le n tin , V e it. The German P eo p le. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 19^ . APPENDIX APPENDIX A Theodore C. Streibert Letter to th e President of the United States, Dwight D. Elsenhower 229 APPENDIX A THEODORE C. STREIBERT LETTER TO THE PRESIDENT OP THE UNITED STATES, DWIGHT D. EISENHOWER. October 27, 1953 My dear Mr* President: On August 1 of this year, by authority of your Reorganization Plan Ntf. 8 approved by the Congress, the United States Information Agency came in to b eing as a s e p a ra te independent agency reporting to you through the National Security Council. The o p e ra tio n s o f th e Agency— em bracing among others the Voice of America, the U. S. libraries overseas, the motion picture service, and the press and publications service—were all formerly activities of the Department of State. We receive dally foreign policy guidance from the Secretary of State. - Since August 1, we have been engaged in organizing the Agency under the new set-up and reprogramming our activities within the limitations of the present appropriation. The new statement of mission for the Agency, adopted at lapt week's meeting of the National Security Council, is a great stride forward. It is of supreme Importance to us—and Indeed to the American people—because it clearly defines the broad lines within which, I am convinced, our overseas information service can do an effective job. It reflects the recommendations of the Senate's Special Subcommittee on Overseas Information Programs chaired by Senator Bourke B. Hickenlooper of Iowa, which proposed on June 15, 1953 certain changes to strengthen the foreign information program. It also embodies the concept of the President's Committee on International Information Activities (William H. Jackson Committee). This concept is that psychological activities and psychological strategy do not exist apart from official policies and actions. 230 Under th is new m issio n , avoiding a propagandistio tone, the Agenoy w ill empha size the oommunity of Interest that exists among freedom -loving peoples and show how Amerlean objectives and polioles advance the legitimate interests of suoh peoples. We shall therefore concentrate on objective, factual news reporting and appropriate commen taries, designed to present a full exposition of important United States actions and poli cies, especially as they affeot individual countries and areas. In presenting faots we shall see to it that they are not distorted and their seleotion does not misrepresent a given s itu a tio n . We shall make sure that the tone and content of our material is foroeful and direct, but we shall avoid a strident or antagonistic note. This does not, of oourse, preclude us from making forceful, faotual refutations such as th o se t h a t come from th e S o v iet oommunlst portion of the world. The new approaoh will be harder hitting than previous more diffuse approaches beoause it will be based on the idea of getting across a message that will be convincing. Faots, and comment a s so c ia te d w ith f a o ts , a re more com pell ing than aoousatlonB and unsupported assertions on a wider variety of issues. From here on the Agenoy will pinpoint its activities on fewer but more vital programs. As pointed out by the Jackson Committee, the American people share fundamental beliefs and values with millions of other men and women we are attempting to win to our side, which should be made clear to other peoples. These include belief in a Diety, in Individual and national freedom, in the right to ownership of proper ty and a deoent standard of living, in the 2 3 1 common humanity of all men, and In the vision of a peaceful world with nations compromising their differences and cooperating in the United Nations• We must make every e f f o r t to show th e mutuality of our Interests and goals with the legitimate goals of other peoples. We must explain those goals In ways that will cause other peoples to Join with us In achieving them. I am also pleased that under these more clearly defined objectives there will be a greater opportunity for us to use the resources of patriotic private American business and non-Governmental groups in support of the information program. Private groups have given splendid support In the past, and we plan an Intensive drive to further Increase this support and thus multiply the effectiveness of the program. The content of the new directive has been transmitted to all our posts in 77 countries throughout the world, so that they may have the Immediate benefit of this guidance. With deep appreciation, S in c e re ly , Theodore C. Streibert1 James C. Hagerty, "The White House. Statement by The President," Press Release, October 28, 1953. APPENDIX B Organizational Chart of the United States Information Agency (1959) ORGANIZATION OF THE U. S. INFORMATION AGENCY: i (1959) -U J t. ADVISORYJ -OFFICE OF. COMMISSION ON j PUSLIC INFORMATION INFORMATION | DEPUTY DIRECTOR IAI/8 l/R DEPUTY DIRECTOR (POLICY * PLANS) ! OFFICE OF PLANS .IOP STAFF OFFICES PROGRAM SERVICES - ASSISTANT DIRECTOR! r ------..l<* {OFFICE o r THE (ADMINISTRATION) ! ' OFFICE OF , i OFFICE OF I OFFICE OF 0 P P IS 1 6 ? ...... PRIVATE | ADMINISTRATION . ' ANALYSIS ! COOPERATION ' IOA. . jio s; . IOC 1. IRI \ " J- T o e : MEDIA ’SERVICES RROADCASTINO TELEVISION INFORMATION 1 MOTION PICTURE PRESS AND SERVICE SERVICE CENTER SERVICE PUBJ.IC|ATIONS ' SERVICE SERVICE • IBS ...... ITV i ^ ICS IMS IPS GEOGRAPHIC OFFICES 1 — OFFIC E OF 1 OFFICE OF o f f ic e o f OFFICE OF ASS'T Dl r e c t o r ! ASS'T DIRECTOR lgpS*T DIRECTOR ASS'T DIRECTOR (EU h o p e (FAR EAST) nfLATIN AMERICA) (NBAR_EAST. SOUTH IA E IA F .^- IAL - — * AFRICA ). |lA|N j ~ ' ' ] OVERSEAS, OPERATIONS: UNITED STATES. UNITED STATES : UNITED STATES UNITED STATES inform ation ! INFORMATION INFORMATION : INFORMATION \ SERVICE— ; SERVICE SERVICE SERVICE POSTS_'Jr V p o s t s '1. POSTS; POSTS RADIO FROSRAM PRESS CENTERS...... ____ SERVICE ___ AND RELAY BASES CENTERS APPENDIX C Organizational Chart of the United States Information Service, In the Federal Republic of Germany, 1959 23 b omuzational chart op the united spates SERVICE IN THE fiMAL REPUBLIC IP » Office cf Pu bile Affairs Public Af fairs Officer Cultural Attach Executive Officer Press Attache Pblicy Officer Educational Exchange Shit Cultural Uhit Information Uhit Press, Films, Radio BRANCH POSTS Berlin Bnmen 1M— FVankfurb Stuttgart Deputy Country Public Affairs Officer Public Af Pairs Officer Public Affairs Officer Pu bile Affairs Officer Public Affairs Officer Public Affairs Officer Public Affairs Officer 1 Amerika Haus Stuttgart Amerika Haus Hunich - Amerika Haus Hamburg Amerika Haus Heidelberg Amerika Haus Bremen Amerika Haus Duesseldorf Amerika Haus Frankfurt - Amerika Haus Hannover Amerika Haus Freiburg R1AS Berlin USIS Berlin Amerika Haus Essex Amerika Haus Koblenz Amerika Haus Kaiserslautern! Amerika Haus Nuernberg '■'Amerika Haus Essen Amerika Haus Berlin I