Is the Glass Half Full or Half Empty? Food Security and
Social Safety Net Programs in Rural Bangladesh
K M Kabirul Islam
A thesis in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of
Philosophy
Social Policy Research Centre
Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences
University of New South Wales
July 2016
THE UNIVERSITY OF NEW SOUTH WALES
Thesis/Dissertation Sheet
Surname or Family name: Islam
First name: K M Kabirul
Other name/s:
Abbreviation for degree as given in the University calendar: PhD
- School: Social Policy Research Centre
- Faculty: Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences
Title: Is the glass half full or half empty? Food security and social safety net programs in rural Bangladesh
Despite achieving self-sufficiency in food production in the late 1990s, food security is still a major policy issue in Bangladesh due to lack of access to safe and sufficient food for the poor. Consecutive governments have developed a range of social safety net programs (SSNPs) to address the issue. A number of studies have been conducted to assess these programs' impact on ensuring food security; however, the poorest people were not widely engaged in previous studies, nor in the design or implementation of the programs.
This research explored the perceptions, insights and experiences of people in one of the poorest rural areas of Bangladesh. Two groups of people were interviewed: the beneficiaries of five selected SSNPs and non-beneficiaries who would have qualified for a program. This research focuses on exploring how people perceive their food security issues and how these issues could be solved to improve their lives. This research adopted a qualitative method to collect and analyse data: twenty interviews were conducted to explore the perceptions of both beneficiaries and non-beneficiaries. In addition, two interviews and two focus groups were conducted to examine the responses of middle and senior officials to the perceptions of the beneficiaries and non-beneficiaries. This study draws on a range of empirical and theoretical approaches to deepen our understanding of the perspectives of people involved in SSNPs in one of the poorest regions of Bangladesh.
The findings suggest that the programs partially acted to improve the beneficiaries’ food security, women’s empowerment, income, earning dignity, and medical care. However, the meagreness of the amount delivered and the short length of some programs meant the impacts were limited. In addition, the efficiency of the programs was further reduced due to corrupt practices such as bribes, leakages, nepotism, and political interference by the selectors and program managers. Some participants perceived the government support as charity and said they preferred to work rather than to accept charity for themselves and their children. The majority of participants argued to increase the amount of benefits for the people who need it most. In order to create work opportunities for the poor who are physically able to work, participants advocated for establishing local industries to provide sustainable livelihoods.
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Originality Statement
‘I hereby declare that this submission is my own work and to the best of my knowledge it contains no materials previously published or written by another person, or substantial proportions of material which have been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma at UNSW or any other educational institution, except where due acknowledgement is made in the thesis. Any contribution made to the research by others, with whom I have worked at UNSW or elsewhere, is explicitly acknowledged in the thesis. I also declare that the intellectual content of this thesis is the product of my own work, except to the extent that assistance from others in the project's design and conception, or in style, presentation and linguistic expression is acknowledged.’
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Copyright Statement
‘I hereby grant the University of New South Wales or its agents the right to archive and to make available my thesis or dissertation in whole or part in the University libraries in all forms of media, now or here after known, subject to the provisions of the Copyright Act 1968. I retain all proprietary rights, such as patent rights. I also retain the right to use in future works (such as articles or books) all or part of this thesis or dissertation. I also authorise University Microfilms to use the 350 word abstract of my thesis in Dissertation Abstract International. I have either used no substantial portions of copyright material in my thesis or I have obtained permission to use copyright material; where permission has not been granted I have applied/will apply for a partial restriction of the digital copy of my thesis or dissertation.’
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Authenticity Statement
‘I certify that the Library deposit digital copy is a direct equivalent of the final officially approved version of my thesis. No emendation of content has occurred and if there are any minor variations in formatting, they are the result of the conversion to digital format.’
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Abstract
Despite achieving self-sufficiency in food production in the late 1990s, food security is still a major policy issue in Bangladesh due to lack of access to safe and sufficient food for the poor. Consecutive governments have developed a range of social safety net programs (SSNPs) to address the issue. A number of studies have been conducted to assess these programs' impact on ensuring food security; however, the poorest people were not widely engaged in previous studies, nor in the design or implementation of the programs.
This research explored the perceptions, insights and experiences of people in one of the poorest rural areas of Bangladesh. Two groups of people were interviewed: the beneficiaries of five selected SSNPs and non-beneficiaries who would have qualified for a program. This research focuses on exploring how people perceive their food security issues and how these issues could be solved to improve their lives. This research adopted a qualitative method to collect and analyse data: twenty interviews were conducted to explore the perceptions of both beneficiaries and non-beneficiaries. In addition, two interviews and two focus groups were conducted to examine the responses of middle and senior officials to the perceptions of the beneficiaries and nonbeneficiaries. This study draws on a range of empirical and theoretical approaches to deepen our understanding of the perspectives of people involved in SSNPs in one of the poorest regions of Bangladesh.
The findings suggest that the programs partially acted to improve the beneficiaries’ food security, women’s empowerment, income, earning dignity, and medical care. However, the meagreness of the amount delivered and the short length of some programs meant the impacts were limited. In addition, the efficiency of the programs was further reduced due to corrupt practices such as bribes, leakages, nepotism, and political interference by the selectors and program managers. Some participants perceived the government
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support as charity and said they preferred to work rather than to accept charity for themselves and their children. The majority of participants argued to increase the amount of benefits for the people who need it most. In order to create work opportunities for the poor who are physically able to work, participants advocated for establishing local industries to provide sustainable livelihoods.
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Acknowledgements
I would like to take the privilege to convey my thanks, gratitude and appreciation to all the people who have extended their support in accomplishing my PhD. I start with the participants in my research. First, the twenty rural people who offered me a unique opportunity to understand their experiences by sharing insights and discernments on their food security issues and social safety net programs. Appreciations are also due to the midlevel government, bank and NGO officials and local government representatives from Dimla Upazila for their insights in the focus group discussion. I extend my sincere gratitude to two senior officials from two implementing agencies and the senior officials from the Ministry of Social Welfare for sharing their time and views despite their tight schedules.
I am deeply indebted to my supervisors, Professor Peter Whiteford, Professor Kelley Johnson and Dr Jennifer Skattebol, for offering their vast wisdom, invaluable insights and thoughtful advice during the preparation of my proposal, data analysis and thesis writing. Without their untiring support and care this thesis would not have been possible.
I would like to thank Professor Steven M Shardlow and Professor Agnete Wiborg for their encouragement to learn and implement qualitative research methods. I am also grateful to Professor Ahmadullah Mia and Professor A S M Atiqur Rahman for their inspiration and advice.
During my fieldwork in Bangladesh I was hugely fortunate to meet many people from the government, international organisations and research institutions including the World Bank, the Asian Development Bank, the United Nations Development Program, the World Food Program, the International Food Policy Research Institute, and the Bangladesh Institute of Development Studies. I would like to thank the people who shared their insightful comments and suggestions with me.
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I am grateful to many of my colleagues in Bangladesh who had inspired me to take the challenge and provided their support. I would like to single out a number of people: Dr Mohammad Tareque, Fazle Kabir, Ranjit Kumar Chakrabarty, Md Mahiuddin Khan, Md Shariful Alam, Arfin Ara Begum, Ramendra Nath Biswas, Md Habibur Rahman, Kazi Enamul Hasan, Md Mofidur Rahman, Dr Mohammad Mizanur Rahman, Redwan Ahmed, Abu Rafa Mohammad Arif and Rabiul Karim.
I deeply remember and would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to my parents who would have been immensely proud to see me continue to acquire knowledge. They built my psyche and taught me discipline and hard work. I am also grateful to my wife who continues to inspire me, despite enduring a lot of physical and mental difficulties during the last four years. On this occasion, I would like to also thank our extended family members for their inspiration and support. I must be thankful to my son Abrar who himself has been going through a tough time in a different environment. He is always a prodigious source of inspiration for me to reach my goals.
I sincerely acknowledge the contribution of the Australian Government for offering me the Endeavour Postgraduate Scholarship without which this study would not have materialised. I would like to convey my gratitude to the Graduate Research School, UNSW and the Social Policy Research Centre (SPRC) for providing me with financial assistance.
Last but not the least, I have been extremely fortunate to have some truly wonderful friends here at the SPRC. From the very first day Yuvisthi and Bridget extended their amity to be accustomed with the Australian academic and daily affairs, which has continued until the end. I will never forget them. I am grateful to Yuvisthi’s parents and Nirmal for their sincere support during my difficult times in Sydney. My thanks extend to Kenia for her invaluable assistance with many day to day editing and formatting issues. I am also greatly thankful to Dom, Leanne, Jamie, Jan, Ciara, Alec, Zimin, kylie, Trish,
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Bruce, Gerry, Tim, Kamrul, Shahed and Shona for their cooperation and support.
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Table of Contents
Thesis/Dissertation Sheet.......................................................................................... i Originality Statement ................................................................................................ ii Copyright Statement.................................................................................................iii Authenticity Statement............................................................................................. iv Abstract .................................................................................................................... v Acknowledgements..................................................................................................vii Table of Contents ..................................................................................................... x List of Tables ..........................................................................................................xvi List of Figures........................................................................................................xvii List of Boxes......................................................................................................... xviii List of Maps ............................................................................................................xix List of Abbreviations and Acronyms........................................................................ xx Glossary of Bangla Terms .................................................................................... xxiii Monetary Exchange Rates....................................................................................xxvi Chapter 1: Introduction .............................................................................................1
1.0 Background.....................................................................................................1 1.1 Statement of the problem ................................................................................7
1.1.1 The importance of food security................................................................7 1.1.2 Poverty trends in Bangladesh .................................................................12 1.1.3 Social safety nets as a tool of combating poverty....................................18 1.1.4 Ranking of Bangladesh in terms of social protection, hunger and food security............................................................................................................22
1.1.5 Why this research...................................................................................25
1.2 Research aims and questions .......................................................................26
1.2.1 The aims of the research ........................................................................26 1.2.2 Research questions ................................................................................27
1.3 Research methods ........................................................................................28 1.4 Structure of the thesis ...................................................................................29
Chapter 2: Food Security and Social Safety Nets: A Literature Review...................33
2.0 Introduction ...................................................................................................33 2.1 What is poverty? ...........................................................................................34
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2.1.1 Concepts and measurement techniques of poverty.................................34 2.1.2 Poverty measurement in Bangladesh .....................................................38
2.2 What is food security?...................................................................................41
2.2.1 Overview of changing definition of food security since the 1970s............42 2.2.2 Changing definitions and policy impact ...................................................46
2.3 Evolving food policy and programs in Bangladesh.........................................48 2.4 Contribution of Amartya Sen to understanding food security issues ..............49 2.5 Measurement of food security .......................................................................51 2.6 Subjective or experiential measurement of food security around the world....53 2.7 Food security in Bangladesh .........................................................................57 2.8 Policy and policy implementation...................................................................59 2.9. Women’s empowerment...............................................................................62
2.9.1 Dimensions and indicators of women’s empowerment............................63
2.10 Governance of the programs.......................................................................65
2.10.1 Defining governance and governance in Bangladesh ...........................65 2.10.2 Program implementation.......................................................................68 2.10.3 Corruption.............................................................................................70 2.10.4 Exclusion of the most vulnerable groups...............................................71
2.11 Conclusion ..................................................................................................72
Chapter 3: Theoretical Framework..........................................................................75
3.0 Introduction ...................................................................................................75 3.1 Theoretical approaches in poverty and food insecurity analysis ....................75 3.2 Capabilities approach and participatory approach: Theoretical frameworks...89
3.2.1 Capabilities approach .............................................................................89 3.2.2 Participatory approach............................................................................98
Chapter 4: Social Safety Nets in Bangladesh: An Overview.................................. 106
4.0 Introduction ................................................................................................. 106 4.1 Social safety nets: A conceptual framework ................................................ 106 4.2 International experiences on cash or in-kind support................................... 115 4.3 Social safety net programs in Bangladesh................................................... 127 4.4 Impacts of the programs.............................................................................. 131
4.4.1 Impacts on food security....................................................................... 132 4.4.2 Impacts on other aspects of life ............................................................ 134
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4.5 Description of the five social safety net programs........................................ 139
4.5.1 The Old Age Allowance ........................................................................ 141 4.5.2 The Allowances for Widow and Husbands’ Deserted Destitute Women 145 4.5.3 The Vulnerable Group Development (VGD).......................................... 150 4.5.4 The Vulnerable Group Feeding (VGF) .................................................. 153 4.5.5 The Strengthening Household Ability to Respond to Development Opportunities-II (SHOUHARDO-II)................................................................. 156
4.6 Conclusion .................................................................................................. 161
Chapter 5: Research Methodology ....................................................................... 163
5.0 Introduction ................................................................................................. 163 5.1 Methodology................................................................................................ 163
5.1.1 What is qualitative research?................................................................ 164 5.1.2 The choice of qualitative methodology for this research........................ 165
5.2 Methods ...................................................................................................... 166
5.2.1 In-depth interviewing............................................................................. 169 5.2.2 Focus group discussion ........................................................................ 171 5.2.3 Study area ............................................................................................ 173 5.2.4 Participants in the research................................................................... 179 5.2.5 Recruitment .......................................................................................... 183 5.2.6 Conducting interviews........................................................................... 185 5.2.7 Conducting focus group discussions..................................................... 186
5.3 Ethical considerations ................................................................................. 187 5.4 Data analysis............................................................................................... 190
Chapter 6: Food and Nutrition Status of the Households ...................................... 194
6.0 Introduction ................................................................................................. 194 6.1 Number of meals per day ............................................................................ 195 6.2 Composition of daily meals.......................................................................... 204 6.3 Dietary diversity........................................................................................... 209
6.3.1 Standard requirement of cereals and the balanced diet ........................ 210
6.4 Conclusion .................................................................................................. 217
Chapter 7: Impacts of Social Safety Net Programs: Voices from the Field............ 220
7.0 Introduction ................................................................................................. 220 7.1 Impacts on food security.............................................................................. 223