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Secrecy in Isma¨Ili Tradition and in the Mystical Thought of Ibn Al-¨Arabi

Secrecy in Isma¨Ili Tradition and in the Mystical Thought of Ibn Al-¨Arabi

SECRECY IN ISMA¨ILI TRADITION AND IN THE MYSTICAL THOUGHT OF IBN AL-¨ARABI

BY

MICHAEL EBSTEIN1

Secrecy plays an important role in human culture in general and in religious traditions in particular. The desire to conceal beliefs and doc- trines, for whatever reasons, is universal; it is manifested in various reli- gions and philosophical traditions in the ancient world, from Hellenistic and Roman times, to the medieval period, to the modern era2. In , secrecy and the different aspects related to it are characteristic of both the Shi¨ite tradition and Sunnite . The aim of this article is twofold: first, to elucidate some of the main features and functions of secrecy in Shi¨ism and Sunnite mysticism, primarily in the Isma¨ili tradition and in the mystical thought of Ibn al-¨Arabi; and secondly, to underscore possible links and affinities between Andalusian mysticism — here represented mainly by Ibn al-¨Arabi — and Isma¨ili doctrines. The importance of these links and affinities for the study of the history of Islamic thought and especially that of Islamic mysticism and esotericism will be discussed in the con- cluding paragraph of this article.

1 The following article is based on my doctoral thesis, «Philosophy, Mysticism and Esotericism: Isma¨ili Thought and Andalusian Mysticism», currently being written under the supervision of Prof. Meir Bar-Asher and Prof. Sara Sviri from the Hebrew University of . I wish to thank them both for their important comments on this article and for their assistance throughout my work. 2 See K. W. Bolle (ed.), Secrecy in Religions, Leiden: Brill, 1987; H. G. Kippenberg and G. G. Stroumsa (eds.), Secrecy and Concealment: Studies in the History of Mediter- ranean and Near Eastern Religions, Leiden: Brill, 1995; E. R. Wolfson (ed.), Rending the Veil: Concealment and Secrecy in the History of Religions, New York: Seven Bridges Press, 1999; G. G. Stroumsa, Hidden Wisdom: Esoteric Traditions and the Roots of Chris- Mysticism, Leiden: Brill, 2005; The Encyclopedia of Religion (ed. M. Eliade, 1987), s.v. «ESOTERICISM», vol. V pp. 156-163 (A. Faivre).

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1. The Shi¨ite Background: Taqiyya and Kitman

In early Islam, the concept of secrecy was most highly developed in the Shi¨ite milieu. The two main terms in Shi¨ite tradition pertaining to this concept are taqiyya (prudence, the concealment of true beliefs, or dissimulation) and kitman (secrecy or concealment). Though the term taqiyya may have originated among antigovernment groups known as khawarij3, there is no doubt that taqiyya was the most prominent in Shi¨ite circles. The centrality of secrecy in the Shi¨ite tradition is due first of all to the complex and problematic relationship between the Shi¨ites and their Sun- nite rivals. Shi¨ite claims regarding the nature of political-religious rule, the rapport between the believer and his ideal leader (the Imam) and the very essence of religious belief itself constituted a threat, both political and religious, to the Sunnite majority throughout Islamic history. As a minority group, the Shi¨ites were forced to develop a strategy of prudence and secrecy that would enable them to adhere to their faith while living in a hostile Sunnite environment. The principles of taqiyya and kitman were thus adopted by most Shi¨ite sects, namely: the Imamis or Ithna ¨Asharis (the «»), the Isma¨ilis, the (who had split from the Isma¨ilis in the first half of the 11th century) and the heterodox NuÒayris4. True, most Zaydis objected to the use of taqiyya and advo-

3 See E. Kohlberg, «Taqiyya in Shi¨i and Religion», in Kippenberg and Stroumsa (eds.) Secrecy and Concealment, p. 361; M. A. Amir-Moezzi, The Divine Guide in Early Shi¨ism: the Sources of Esotericism in Islam (translated by D. Streight), Albany: State University of New York Press, 1994, p. 230 n. 680; M. Hodgson, «Isma¨ili Piety: Esotericism and Hierarchy», in S. H. Nasr, H. Dabashi and S. V. R. Nasr (eds.) Shi¨ism: Doctrines, Thought, and Spirituality, Albany: State University of New York Press, 1988, p. 90. On the khawarij see the Encyclopaedia of Islam (Second Edition), s.v. «KHARID- JITES», vol. IV pp. 1074-1077 (G. L. Della Vida). 4 See the Encyclopaedia of Islam (Second Edition), s.v. «TAËIYYA», vol. X pp. 134- 135 (R. Strothmann and M. Djebli); I. Goldziher, «Das Prinzip der taÈijja im Islam», Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft 60 (1906), pp. 213-226; E. Meyer, «Anlass und Anwendungsbereich der taqiyya», Der Islam 57 (1980), pp. 247- 280; Kohlberg, «Taqiyya in Shi¨i Theology and Religion», pp. 345-380; idem, «Some Imami-Shi¨i Views on Taqiyya», Journal of American Oriental Society 95 (1975), pp. 395- 402 (reprinted in E. Kohlberg, Belief and Law in Imami Shi¨ism, Aldershot: Variorum, 1991, III); M. A. Amir-Moezzi, La religion discréte: croyances et pratiques spirituelles dans l’islam shi¨ite, Paris: J. Vrin, 2006, s.v. «taqiyya» in the index; idem, «Dissimula- tion», in The Encyclopaedia of the Qurˆan (ed. J. D. McAuliffe), Leiden: Brill, 2001-2006,

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cated a more active and militant approach towards their Sunnite foes (one known as khuruj, «going forth», as opposed to qu¨ud, «sitting»). A sim- ilar attitude can also be found in various Imami and Isma¨ili traditions; rather than commending the principle of taqiyya, these traditions empha- size and praise (holy war or war conducted according to the laws of the Shari¨a) and or istishhad (martyrdom)5. In addition, taqi- yya as a precautionary measure was less important for Imami and Isma¨ili believers who lived under pro-Imami or under Isma¨ili rule — for instance, during the reign of the Buwayhid (945-1055) and Fa†imid (909- 1171) dynasties. Nevertheless, taqiyya and kitman clearly constitute a central and important component of most Shi¨ite doctrines. As a rule, Shi¨ite believers were required to conceal all their specifi- cally Shi¨ite doctrines, such as the identity of their Imams (to them, the sole legitimate rulers of the Islamic community, who are descendents of ¨ b. Abi ™alib, the cousin of the Prophet MuÌammad and his son in law); the identity of their («the rightly guided one», i.e. the Shi¨ite ‘’) and the time of his eschatological reappearance; the Imams’ unique spiritual status — for instance, the special knowledge they possess and their ability to perform miracles and communicate with (hence the term muÌaddathun, «those who are spoken to»); and more. The Shi¨ite believers are even allowed — or obliged, depending on the socio- political circumstances and the relevant legal opinion — to manifest out- wardly doctrines that contradict their true beliefs. In this connection, a differentiation is drawn in Shi¨ite sources between the external realm

vol. I pp. 540-542 (I thank the editors of Journal Asiatique for the last two references); F. Daftary, The Isma¨ilis: Their History and Doctrines, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990. s.v. «taqiyya» in the index; D. Steigerwald, «La dissimulation (taqiyya) de la foi dans le Shi¨isme Ismaélien», Studies in Religion (=Sciences religieuses) 27/1 (1998), pp. 39-59; A. Layish, «Taqiyya Among the Druzes», Asian and African Studies 19 (1985), pp. 245-281; N. M. Abu-Izzeddin, The Druzes: A New Study of Their History, Faith and Society, Leiden: Brill, 1984, pp. 119-120; K. M. Firro, A History of the Druzes, Leiden: Brill, 1992, pp. 20-23; M. M. Bar-Asher and A. Kofsky, «Dogma and Ritual in Kitab al-Ma¨arif by the NuÒayri Theologian Abu Sa¨id Maymun b. al-Qasim al-™abarani (d. 426/1034-35)», Arabica LII/1 (2005), pp. 51, 62-65. 5 Kohlberg, «Taqiyya in Shi¨i Theology and Religion», pp. 354 n. 50, 365-367, 378; idem, «Some Imami-Shi¨i Views on Taqiyya», pp. 398-401. On the Zaydis see the Ency- clopaedia of Islam (Second Edition), s.v. «ZAYDIYYA», vol. XI pp. 477-480 (W. Made- lung).

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(Âahir) and the internal one (ba†in): the believer may act outwardly in a way which goes against Shi¨ite doctrines, as long as his internal belief remains unwavering6. However, secrecy in Shi¨ite tradition is not only a means of securing the believers’ survival in a hostile and dangerous environment. Rather, Shi¨ite secrecy has an important esoteric role: to protect the sacred Shi¨ite faith. In this sense, the Shi¨ite faith is perceived as a secret that must be concealed — not only from external enemies, but also from fellow Shi¨ite believers who are not qualified to understand the full true meaning of their faith. The purpose of concealment is thus to protect the secret faith itself and at the same time to maintain the religious stability and spiritual wellbeing of those believers who are unable to comprehend the secrets of their faith7. Moreover, the concealment of the secret faith on the one hand, and its slow and gradual disclosure to the initiates on the other, are perceived as an essential component of religion itself; they are viewed as an imperative condition for the faith’s efficacy and often shape its very character and relevant rituals. In other words, the mere existence of a secret is perhaps more important than its actual content. From a com- munal perspective, Shi¨ite secrecy (in its esoteric sense) fortifies the solidarity which exists between the believers and enhances their feeling of uniqueness and superiority vis-à-vis non-Shi¨ites. In addition, the secret faith is defined as the true meaning of the religious commandments and the holy text (the Qurˆan), as their inner and hidden aspect (ba†in) as opposed to the external one (Âahir), which is revealed to all. Defining the secret faith as the true, original and hidden core of religion is designed, inter alia, to legitimize the esoteric faith, which is usually perceived by the orthodox rivals as an abominable innovation. The esoteric aspect of Shi¨ite secrecy may help us understand various Imami and Isma¨ili traditions that regard taqiyya and kitman as funda- mental religious duties — equal to the belief in the Imams, to jihad, to

6 See the references above in note 4. The examples given above of Shi¨ite doctrines are mostly relevant to the Imami and Isma¨ili factions. 7 On the potential danger for non-initiates of being exposed to the secrets of the Shi¨ite faith, see, for example, Kohlberg, «Taqiyya in Shi¨i Theology and Religion», pp. 369, 371; H. Halm, The Fatimids and their Traditions of Learning, London: I. B. Tauris in association with The Institute of Ismaili Studies, 1997, p. 67.

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the worshipping of or even to religion itself. In these traditions, disclosing the secrets of the Shi¨ite faith is regarded as equivalent to murder (!); he who discloses the secret faith is excluded from the Shi¨ite community, and his share in the is revoked. A similar conception which views secrecy or concealment as a central religious obligation is also found in the and NuÒayri sects8. Furthermore, in a number of Imami and Isma¨ili traditions, the principle of taqiyya/kitman is elevated to the level of an ethical-religious ideal, far beyond its initial function as a means of survival. Thus, one chapter of Da¨aˆim al-islam («The Pillars of Islam») — the most important religious- legal work for various Isma¨ili factions, written by the chief Fa†imid da¨i (‘propagandist’) and qa∂i (religious judge) al-Nu¨man b. MuÌammad (died 363/974) — includes a number of traditions pertaining to taqiyya/kitman and to the proper behavior of the Shi¨ite believers. In one such tradition, Ja¨far al-∑adiq (the fifth Shi¨ite Imam according to the Isma¨ilis and the sixth according to the Imamis, died in 148/765) refers to a group of Shi¨ite believers from who apparently did not conceal their faith as required, in the following words: « has described our party (shi¨atana) as something different from that to which they adhere. To Ja¨far’s party belongs only he who desists from talking and labors for his Creator, who hopes for his master [Allah or the Imam] and fears Allah as is proper — until he becomes bended like a bow from much praying; like one who has recovered from intensive fear, like a blind man due to humbleness, like a sickly man due to much fasting and like a dumb person due to long silence [sukut, synonymous to Òamt, see below]. Is there anyone among them [i.e. among the Kufan group] who, staying awake at night, has wearied himself by worshipping Allah (man qad adˆaba laylahu min †uli l-qiyami), one who has wearied himself during the day by fasting, one who has denied himself the pleasures of this world and its delights out of fear of Allah and yearn- ing (shawq) for us, the Prophet’s family (ahl al-bayt)? How could they

8 Kohlberg, «Taqiyya in Shi¨i Theology and Religion», pp. 352-356, 368, 372-373; idem, «Some Imami-Shi¨i Views on Taqiyya», p. 396; Layish, pp. 248, 251-252, 281; Firro, p. 21; Bar-Asher and Kofsky, p. 63. See also Ja¨far b. ManÒur al-Yaman, Kitab al-¨alim wa-l-ghulam, ed. J. W. Morris, London: I. B. Tauris in association with The Institute of Ismaili Studies, 2001, p. 52; Abu Îanifa al-Qa∂i al-Nu¨man b. MuÌammad, Da¨aˆim al-islam, ed. A. A. A. Fyzee, Cairo: Dar al-Ma¨arif, 1951, vol. I pp. 73, 74-75.

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form a party for us while they quarrel with our enemy concerning our affair and thus enhance his hatred, howling like dogs and coveting like crows?» The concealment of the Shi¨ite faith is presented in this tradition in an ethical-religious context: the Shi¨ite believer is required to internalize his faith and act in a humble and modest manner. He must worship God assid- uously and perform various ascetic actions; these actions are to be accom- panied by a feeling of fear before Allah and a mystical — perhaps even erotic (shawq) — sentiment toward the Imams, God’s «friends» (awliyaˆ, singular: ) who mediate between the believer and his God. This ethi- cal-religious dimension is reflected in another tradition in the Da¨aˆim, attributed to MuÌammad al-Baqir (the fourth Shi¨ite Imam according to the Isma¨ilis and the fifth according to the Imamis, died 114/732). In this tradi- tion it is stated that «Allah loves to be worshipped in secret as he loves to be worshipped in public. Whoever divulges our affair is like he who denies it». In yet another tradition from the aforementioned chapter of the Da¨aˆim, al-Baqir describes the ideal Shi¨ite believers, who are virtually invisible: «[They are to be found] at the ends of earth. Those are the ones whose lives are serene and who are satisfied (al-khafi∂u ¨ayshuhum al- qariratu a¨yunuhum); if they are seen, they are not recognized; if they are absent, their absence is not felt; if they become sick, they are not visited; if they are asked in marriage, they do not marry; if they reach a [well- tread] path, they deviate from it; if the ignorant ones [al-jahilun, i.e. the non-Shi¨ites] address them, they [simply] say ‘hello’; and they spend the night prostrating and rising [or worshipping, wa-qiyaman] before their Lord». Al-Baqir further states that the ideal Shi¨ite believer must not express his hatred towards his enemies outwardly but rather should conceal it within his heart. Such a believer is assured of reward: «The sky will be commanded to cast its shade over him, the earth will be commanded to respect him, and the light will be commanded to form a clear proof for him […] If he asks, he will be granted; if he invokes [God] in prayer, he will be answered; if he seeks, he shall obtain; and if he succors the oppressed, he will be powerful»9. It is the concealment of the Shi¨ite faith, the self-

9 Al-Qa∂i al-Nu¨man, Da¨aˆim, vol. I pp. 73-74: «[…] ولقد وصف الله شيعتنا بغير ما هم عليه وما شيعة جعفر إلا من كف لسانه وعمل لخالقه ورجا سيده وخاف الله حق خيفته حتى يصير كالحنية من كثرة الصلوة وكالناقه من شدة الخوف وكالضرير من الخشوع

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restraint and the containment of the powers related to this secret faith, including the hatred towards the Shi¨ites’ enemies — it is precisely these mechanisms that endow the believer with a mystical ability (the light) as well as with the power to perform miracles and employ natural phenomena for his own benefit and in order to assist those who need him (the oppressed). This portrayal of the ideal Shi¨ite believer resembles the typical description of the mujab al-da¨wa («he whose invocation is answered») in Islamic tradition in general and in the mystical tradition in particular. Moreover, the portrayal of the Shi¨ite believer discussed here brings to mind the figure of the hidden saint in ∑ufi tradition and especially the , those Muslim mystics who adhered to malama — the Path of Blame. According to this mystical-ethical path, man must internalize and conceal his religious activity and his spiritual and mystical achieve- ments alike, lest the negative part of his soul, his ego (), should take pride in them, and lest he should be prevented from truly advancing on the mystical path. The malamatiyya did not approve of externalizing reli- gious, spiritual and mystical activities — performing religious command- ments in public with excessive devotion; exaggerated asceticism; mysti- cal gatherings which include and dancing (sama¨); etc. Various malamatis even went so far as to commit in public in order to attract criticism and condemnation. While the similarities between Shi¨ite

وكالضاني من كثرة الصيام وكالأخرس من طول السكوت ٔام هل فيهم من قد ٔا ٔداب ليله من طول القيام ٔوا ٔداب نهاره من الصيام ٔاو منع نفسه من لذات الدنيا ونعيمها خوفا من الله وشوقا إلينا ٔاهل البيت ٔانى يكونون لنا شيعة وهم يخاصمون عدونا فينا حتى يزيدوه عداوة ويهرون هرير الكلاب ويطمعون طمع الغراب […]», 75: «[…] وإن الله يحب ٔان يعبد في السر كما يحب ٔان يعبد في العلانية والمذيع لأمرنا كالجاحد له», 81: «[…] فقال في ٔاطراف الأرضين ٔاولئك الخفيض عيشهم القريرة ٔاعينهم إن شهدوا لم يعرفوا وإن غابوا لم يفتقدوا وإن مرضوا لم يعادوا وإن خطبوا لم يزوجوا وإن وردوا طريقا تنكبوا وإذا خاطبهم الجاهلون قالوا سلاما ويبيتون لربهم سجدا وقياما […]», 82: «إن الرجل العالم من شيعتنا إذا حفظ لسانه وطاب نفسا بطاعة ٔاوليائه ٔواضمر المكايدة لعدوه بقلبه […] تؤمر السماء ٕباظلاله والأرض ٕباكرامه والنور ببرهانه […] إن سأل ٔاعطي وإن دعا ٔاجيب وإن طلب ٔادرك وإن نصر مظلوما عز». Cf. the tradition attributed to the Prophet MuÌammad, in Ikhwan al-Òafaˆ, Rasaˆil ikhwan al-Òafaˆ wa-khullan al-wafaˆ, Beirut: Dar ∑adir and Dar Beirut, 1957, vol. I pp. 380-381. On al-Qa∂i al-Nu¨man see Daftary, The Isma¨ilis, in the index; idem, Ismaili Literature: a Bibliography of Sources and Studies, London: I. B. Tauris in association with The Institute of Ismaili Studies, 2004, pp. 142-143.

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secrecy (in its esoteric context) and the principle of malama are notewor- thy from a strictly phenomenological point of view, they also raise intriguing questions as to the nature of the early historical links between Shi¨ite esotericism and Sunnite mysticism10. To the esoteric aspect of taqiyya and kitman one may also ascribe the motif of silence (Òamt) in Shi¨ite and especially in Isma¨ili literature. In one tradition which is included in the aforementioned chapter of the Da¨aˆim, Ja¨far al-∑adiq enjoins his followers to be «silent ‘propagan- dists’ (du¨at Òamitin) for us [i.e. for the Imams]»11. Al-∑adiq explains that Shi¨ite believers should perform the religious commandments devotedly and act with the utmost sincerity towards other Muslims; the purpose of this upright religious-moral conduct is a missionary one — to attract Muslims to the Shi¨a. It is clear, then, that from an ethical perspective, the Shi¨ite is required to internalize his faith, to become «silent». In the Druze religion as well, silence is regarded as an important moral value and as a religious obligation which enables the believer to conceal his faith and at the same time to avoid lying; silence is also perceived as a technique for emptying the heart and for self-contemplation. In addition, in the NuÒayri, Isma¨ili and Druze traditions, fasting is interpreted alle- gorically: the real meaning of fasting is silence aimed at concealing the secret faith. The holiday which ends the Rama∂an fast, ¨id al-fi†r, is thus perceived as a symbol of the eschatological period, when the concealed secrets will be revealed to all.12

10 See also Kohlberg, «Taqiyya in Shi¨i Theology and Religion», p. 366 n. 115; Amir- Moezzi, La religion discrète, p. 169; idem, «Dissimulation», pp. 541-542; A. Schimmel, «Secrecy in », in Bolle (ed.) Secrecy in Religions, pp. 82-102, esp. pp. 82-85. On the malamatiyya see S. Sviri, «Îakim Tirmidhi and the Malamati Movement in Early Sufism», in L. Lewisohn (ed.) Classical Persian Sufism: From its Origins to , London: Khaniqahi Nimatullahi, 1993, pp. 583-613. On the early historical links between the Shi¨ite tradition and Sunnite mysticism — particularly in Nishapur — see idem, «The Early Mystical Schools of Baghdad and Nishaphur: in Search of Ibn Munazil», Jerusalem Studies in and Islam 30 (2005), pp. 457-462. 11 Al-Qa∂i al-Nu¨man, Da¨aˆim, Vol. I p. 71. 12 Layish, pp. 250, 253-254; Bar Asher and Kofsky, pp. 60-62 and the references given there. On the fast as a symbol of secrecy and concealment in Isma¨ili tradition, see also al-Qa∂i al-Nu¨man, al-Risala al-mudhhiba, in khams rasaˆil Isma¨iliyya, ed. ¨Arif Tamir, Salamiyya: Dar al-InÒaf, 1956, pp. 57, 70-71; Abu Ya¨qub IsÌaq b. AÌmad al-Sijistani, Kitab al-iftikhar, ed. I. Poonawala, Beirut: Dar al-Gharb al-Islami, 2000, pp. 254-257.

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In Isma¨ili tradition, the motif of silence also surfaces in the term Òamit («the silent one»), which denotes one of the most senior ranks of the Isma¨ili religious hierarchy. At the head of this hierarchy are seven «speakers» (nu†aqaˆ, singular: na†iq), i.e. the seven Prophets who initiate the seven historical cycles: Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, , MuÌammad and MuÌammad b. Isma¨il. Each of these Prophets — except for Adam, according to some Isma¨ili opinions, and for the Seventh one, the Mahdi — is responsible for formulating a new religious law (Shari¨a) that annuls the one preceding it. In addition, every one of the first six nu†aqaˆ has a «legatee» (waÒi) who is also called a «foundation» (asas) or (especially in later Isma¨ili tradition) a «silent one» (Òamit). This waÒi, asas or Òamit is responsible for maintaining the inner realm (ba†in) of the Shari¨a; ¨Ali b. Abi ™alib, for example, was the waÒi, asas or Òamit of MuÌammad. Furthermore, every one of the first six «legatees» is fol- lowed by seven Imams (or atimmaˆ, singular: mutimm, «those who com- plete»), who preserve both the inner and outer realm of the Shari¨a. The Imams of MuÌammad’s cycle are ¨Ali’s descendents; the seventh Imam in each cycle is the na†iq of the next cycle, and so MuÌammad b. Isma¨il is the seventh Imam of MuÌammad’s cycle and the na†iq of the seventh and last cycle. The term Òamit thus seems to testify to the importance of silence and secrecy in Isma¨ili tradition, and should be ascribed (among other factors) to an esoteric conception of religion13. In Sunnite mysti- cism, too, silence is regarded as an important ethical-religious value. First, silence prevents one from uttering lies, gossip, etc. Secondly, silence — much like the Shi¨ite taqiyya and kitman — is meant to protect the mystic and at the same time to safeguard the mystical secrets that he keeps. Indeed, the complex relationship between Sunnite orthodoxy and the mystics was not always positive: the latter were often perceived as a threat to the common religious norms. In addition, in Sunnite mysticism, the mystic’s silence indicates his submission to God’s rule and decree;

13 On the term Òamit and its various meanings in early Shi¨ite tradition see Daftary, The Isma¨ilis, pp. 86, 89, 139; H. Halm, Kosmologie und Heilslehre der frühen Isma¨iliya: eine Studie zur islamischen Gnosis, Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner, 1978, pp. 21-22; M. A. Amir- Moezzi, «Notes à propos de la walaya imamite (aspects de l’imamologie duodécimaine, X)», Journal of the American Oriental Society 122/4 (2002), p. 729; H. Corbin, «L’Initiation ismaélienne ou l’ésotérisme et le Verbe», Eranos Yahrbuch 39 (1970), pp. 46, 66 n. 16, 70.

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it also serves as a contemplative means; above all, it is appropriate for the mystic since the true mystical experience cannot be described by words. As stated above with regard to the malamatiyya, here too an affinity can be found between the Shi¨ite-Isma¨ili tradition and Sunnite mysticism14. Finally, one should bear in mind that the two aspects of taqiyya and kitman discussed here — survival on the one hand, esotericism on the other — cannot always be clearly differentiated and separated from one another. Indeed, various scholars have chosen to emphasize one aspect at the expense of the other; however, a definite differentiation drawn between the two in many historical and literary contexts seems to be too artificial15.

2. Isma¨ili Secrecy: ¨Ahd and Mithaq

Perhaps the most remarkable example of esoteric secrecy in the Shi¨ite world can be found in the Isma¨ili tradition16. In this tradition, concealing the secret faith from the uninitiated — whether Sunnites or Isma¨ili believers who belong to the lower ranks of the da¨wa (the hierarchal organization aimed at propagating Isma¨ili teachings and attracting fol- lowers) — plays an important and central role. The centrality of esoteric secrecy in Isma¨ili tradition can be attributed not only to theological con- siderations (as will be discussed below), but also to historical circum- stances. Like the Zaydis and contrary to the Imamis, the Isma¨ilis, from the earliest stages of their history, took an activist approach in relation to their Shi¨ite doctrines. From the 870s onwards, this approach manifested itself in intensive da¨wa activity as well as in political and military actions; the Qarami†a, the Fa†imid empire and the Nizari Isma¨ilis are the

14 On silence in Sunnite mysticism see, for example, Abu al-Qasim ¨Abd al-Karim b. Hawazin al-Qushayri, al-Risala al-qushayriyya, Beirut: Muˆassasat al-Kutub al-Thaqa- fiyya, 2000, pp. 119-123 («bab al-Òamt»); see also Schimmel, pp. 81-102. On the history of the relationship between the Sunnite orthodoxy and the mystics see F. de Jong and B. Radtke (eds.), Islamic Mysticism Contested: Thirteen Centuries of Controversies and Polemics, Leiden: Brill, 1999. 15 See Kohlberg, «Taqiyya in Shi¨i Theology and Religion», pp. 345-346, 368-373; cf. Amir-Moezzi, The Divine Guide, pp. 103-104, 128-129, 230 n. 680. 16 See also Hodgson, pp. 89, 90-91; Daftary, The Isma¨ilis, pp. 137-138; Corbin, «L’Initiation ismaélienne», p. 44; Steigerwald, pp. 39-59.

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most obvious exemplars of this activism. The need for survival and self- defense was therefore less relevant as regards taqiyya and kitman in the formative period of the Isma¨ili tradition. True, after the dismantling of the Fa†imid empire by ∑alaÌ al-Din al-Ayyubi (in 1171) and the elimina- tion of the political entity of the Nizari Isma¨ilis by the Mongols (1256), the Isma¨ilis’ political-military activity disappeared entirely. From these periods onwards the Isma¨ilis suffered more and more from persecutions, and hence the rising importance of survival and self-defense in the con- text of taqiyya and kitman17. However, in the first few centuries of Isma¨ili history, the esoteric aspect of secrecy seems to have been more important than the aspect of survival or self-defense. Secrecy in Isma¨ili tradition has a profound social-religious signifi- cance that is unique to this Shi¨ite faction. From the origins of Isma¨ili history, those individuals who sought to join the Isma¨ili faith (musta- jibun, literally: «those who respond») were obliged to undergo a process of initiation (balagh)18. This process included an oath of allegiance (¨ahd) to the Isma¨ili Imams and the heads of da¨wa, an oath which also entailed a commitment to keep the tenets of the new faith concealed. The oath was perceived as a pact or covenant (mithaq) whereby the new believers were initiated into the Isma¨ili faith and the true, «inner» knowledge (ba†in) was disclosed to them. Naturally, the oath was administered only to those individuals who had been closely examined over time and found qualified and prepared for receiving the new faith and knowledge. In addition, the various Isma¨ili doctrines were not revealed all at once; the strict hierarchy of the Isma¨ili da¨wa was rigorously kept. The disclosure of the Isma¨ili secrets was carried out gradually, in accordance with the

17 On the Qarami†a, the Fa†imid empire and the Nizari Isma¨ilis see Daftary, The Isma¨ilis, pp. 144-255, 324-434 and s.v. «Qarma†is» in the index; Encyclopaedia of Islam (Second Edition), s.v. «ËARMA™I», vol. IV pp. 660-664 (W. Madelung); B. Lewis, The Assassins: A Radical Sect in Islam, New York: Basic Books, 1967. On the persecutions of Isma¨ilis throughout history and the taqiyya to which they resorted for their survival see Daftary, The Isma¨ilis, p. 3 and s.v. «taqiyya» and «massacres» in the index. 18 Balagh literally means the delivering of a message; the verb balagha means to reach somewhere or to come of age. The idea behind the Isma¨ili use of the term balagh is that the process of initiation entails the delivering of a new message or doctrine to the believer; the latter is therefore considered to have reached a new religious level and to have matured spiritually.

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advancement of the new believer and his ascent through the ranks of the da¨wa. Following his oath, the initiate was considered to be a true believer (muˆmin), as opposed to a simple Muslim (muslim); he now belonged to the community of «the unique ones» (al-khaÒÒa), who are acquainted with the ba†in of the Qurˆan and the Shari¨a, in contrast to the multitude of Muslims, «the common people» (al-¨amma), who adhere solely to the Âahir19. An instructive passage illustrating the Isma¨ili process of initiation can be found in al-¨Alim wa-l-ghulam («The Learned One and the Young Man»), a work probably written by the Isma¨ili da¨i Ja¨far b. ManÒur al-Yaman, who was active in North Africa and died circa 346/957. This work, which comprises a series of dialogues, describes the long and gradual process through which a young man, ∑aliÌ, is initiated into the Isma¨ili faith by an older learned man. The disclosure of the Isma¨ili doctrines takes place only after the young man has proven his abilities and skills and after he has taken an oath of allegiance and secrecy. This oath (¨ahd) constitutes a dramatic and climactic point in the book: «The learned one said: ‘there is a key to religion which makes religion lawful or forbidden, like the difference between adultery and marriage’. The young man said: ‘this key you have mentioned must indeed be important for Allah if it separates what is lawful from that which is forbidden and separates truth from falsehood. What is it?’ The learned one then said: ‘it is the oath (¨ahd) of Allah which confirms His rights and comprises His ordinances; it is the shield of his friends [al-junna li-awliyaˆihi, i.e. the Imams], the rope of Allah on earth [see Qurˆan, 3: 103, 112] and a deposit between men [¨ibadihi, literally: Allah’s slaves]. I am reminding

19 On the Isma¨ili da¨wa, ¨ahd and mithaq see Daftary, The Isma¨ilis, pp. 137, 224-232, 298-299, 315-317 and s.v. da¨wa in the index; H. Halm, «The Isma¨ili oath of allegiance (¨ahd) and the ‘sessions of wisdom’ (majalis al-Ìikma) in Fatimid times», in F. Daftary (ed.) Mediaeval Isma¨ili History and Thought, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996, pp. 91-115; idem, The Fatimids and their Traditions of Learning, pp. 18-19, 21, 56-70. On the division in Imami tradition between and islam and between khaÒÒa and ¨amma, see Amir-Moezzi, The Divine Guide, in the index; Kohlberg, «Taqiyya in Shi¨i Theology and Religion», p. 368; Encyclopaedia Iranica, s.v. «¨amma», vol. I pp. 976-977 (E. Kohlberg). On the division in the Druze religion between ¨uqqal («the wise ones», i.e. the initiated Druzes) and juhhal («the ignorant ones», i.e. the simple uninitiated Druzes) see Layish, p. 272; Firro, p. 22. On the NuÒayri division between khaÒÒa and ¨amma see Bar Asher and Kofsky, p. 62.

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you of this oath and am administering it to you [adhkuruhu laka wa- akhudhuhu ¨alayka]’». The passage further describes how the young ini- tiate was overcome by emotional and spiritual excitement after having heard the recitation (tilawa) of the ¨ahd; he burst into tears and «became certain that he had now joined the party of Allah [Ìizbullah, see Qurˆan 58: 19, 22] and the party of His friends by accepting their oath». The oath, then, which is defined as the «key to religion», guarantees the admittance of the initiate into «the Party of Allah». The underlying conception here has to do with the idea of the primordial pact or covenant between God and the Prophets and between God and mankind at large; according to the Shi¨ite view (see the discussion below), by this pact the true believers (the Shi¨ites) were separated from the common Muslims and the rest of mankind. Finally, following the oath, the learned instructor reveals to the young initiate the Isma¨ili secrets pertaining to cosmogony and cosmology, Prophecy, the role and status of the Imams, etc20.

20 Ja¨far b. ManÒur al-Yaman, Kitab al-¨alim wa-l-ghulam, pp. 13-14: «قال العالم إن للدين مفتاح [مفتاحا :read] يحلله ويحرمه مثل الفرق بين السفاح والنكاح قال الغلام إن هذا المفتاح الذي ذكرت لعظيم عند الله إذا كان فارقا بين الحلال والحرام والحق والباطل فما هو قال العالم هو عهد الله المؤكد لحقوقه الجامع لفرائضه الجنة لأوليائه حبل الله في ٔارضه ٔوامانه [ ٔوامانة :according to my reading] بين عباده ٔاذكره لك وآخذه عليك […] قال الراوي فأقبل العالم يتلو العهد على الغلام ويرتله ويعقده عليه والغلام لا يملك نفسه جزعا ودموعه تنحدر من شدة العبرة […] ٔوايقن ٔانه قد صار في حزب الله وحزب ٔاوليائه بقبول عهدهم». See also Corbin, «L’Initiation ismaélienne», pp. 41-142; Halm, «The Isma¨ili oath of allegiance», pp. 92-93; idem, The Fatimids and their Traditions of Learning, pp. 20-23; Steigerwald, pp. 52-54. For other Isma¨ili sources in which ¨ahd and mithaq are men- tioned, see, for example, Ja¨far b. ManÒur al-Yaman, Kitab al-, ed. R. Strothmann, [Cairo]: Dar al-Fikr al-¨Arabi, 1952, pp. 26-27, 126; Ikhwan al-∑afaˆ, al-Risala al-jami¨a, ed. Jamil ∑aliba, : al-Majma¨ al-¨Ilmi al-¨Arabi / Ma†ba¨at al-Taraqqi, 1949- 1951, vol. I pp. 139-140; al-Qa∂i al-Nu¨man, Da¨aˆim, Vol. I pp. 94, 95; idem, al-Mudhhiba, pp. 43, 61-62, 82, 83-84, 85; Îamid al-Din AÌmad b. ¨Abd Allah al-Kir- mani, RaÌat al-¨aql, eds. MuÌammad Kamal Îusayn and MuÌammad MuÒ†afa Îilmi, Cairo: Dar al-Fikr al-¨Arabi, 1952, p. 135; idem, Kitab al-riya∂, ed. ¨Arif Tamir, Beirut: Dar al-Thaqafa, 1960, pp. 83-84; b. al-Îusayn al-Îamidi, Kitab kanz al-walad, ed. MuÒ†afa , Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner, 1971, pp. 158, 166, 181, 216-217; Halm, «The Isma¨ili oath of allegiance», pp. 91-99. On Ja¨far b. ManÒur al-Yaman see Daftary, The Isma¨ilis, p. 179 and the references given there; idem, Ismaili Literature, pp. 121- 122.

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It appears that the Isma¨ili oath was accompanied by ascetic actions and religious rituals such as fasting, ablution and prayer — a fact that bears witness to the religious-spiritual significance of this oath21. Further- more, Isma¨ili secrecy was given various theological interpretations which contributed to the transformation of the ¨ahd from a mere formal procedure to an important and central religious deed. These interpreta- tions varied according to the general intellectual contexts in which the different Isma¨ili authors operated. Thus, at the beginning of the early Isma¨ili work Kitab al-kashf («The Book of Disclosure», written in the first half of the 10th century), it is stated as follows: «The first matter required of the believer in relation to his religion and to the knowledge of truth and its followers/possessors is the loyalty (amana) to Allah and His friends, for Allah — powerful and mighty is He — said: ‘We have offered the deposit (amana) to the , the earth and the mountains, but they refused to bear it and were fearful of it; yet man has borne it — indeed he is mischievous and ignorant’ [Qurˆan 33: 72]. Oh, brother, I am administering the oath of Allah to you and am concluding His pact with you (akhidhun ¨alayka ¨ahda llahi wa-mithaqahu); I brace the con- firmed oath which Allah has always administered to His Prophets and Messengers, and the firm pact which He has always concluded with them. I forbid you to do what Allah has forbidden His Prophets, Mes- sengers, Gates and Proofs22 to do, and what your father likewise [has forbidden you to do] — your father, who has given you to drink, as well as your brother, who was breastfed with you from the same source: [I forbid you] to divulge [this book], just like [you are forbidden to eat] carrions, blood and pig meat. No one else but you shall read it; do not utter [anything from] it to any human being, ‘the natural disposition (fi†ra) according to which Allah has created (fa†ara) men [see Qurˆan 30: 30 and the discussion below]’; and do not write it down for anyone unless

21 See, for instance, Ikhwan al-∑afaˆ, al-Risala al-jami¨a, vol. II pp. 59-62, 395-406; Ja¨far b. ManÒur al-Yaman, Kitab al-¨alim wa-l-ghulam, p. 49; Halm, «The Isma¨ili oath of allegiance», p. 93; idem, The Fatimids and their Traditions of Learning, pp. 66-67. 22 The terms «Gates» (abwab, plural of bab) and «Proofs» (Ìujaj, plural of Ìujja) signify the leading figures at the head of the Isma¨ili religious hierarchy. For the various meanings of these terms, see Daftary, The Isma¨ilis, pp. 126-128, 227-229; Halm, Kos- mologie und Heilslehre, pp. 24-25, 27-28, 31-32, 46-48, 63-64; idem, The Fatimids and their Traditions of Learning, pp. 56-59.

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he is deserving [of it], unless he is a believer and is sincere. If you trans- gress and act contrary to what I am ordering you by divulging this [book] — Allah, His Messenger and His legatee [i.e. ¨Ali b. Abi ™alib] will absolve themselves of responsibility to you. Allah will inflict upon you the sword of truth and His/its judgment will pierce through you […]». It is further emphasized that one must conceal the secret (kitman al-sirr) and ‘return the deposit’ or fulfill the obligation it entails (adaˆ/taˆdiyat al-amana). The passage ends with the following statement: «Therefore, whoever divulges the secret has denied the truth after having known it»23. Three main concepts stand at the core of the passage discussed above: amana, the loyalty to the Imams and their doctrines, which constitutes an obligation for the believer or a «deposit» entrusted to him; kitman al- sirr, the concealment of the secret faith; and ¨ahd and mithaq — the oath and pact by which the believer commits himself to maintaining loyalty towards the Imams and to keeping their doctrines secret. The symbol of the deposit (often called wadi¨a as well) and the concept of secrecy are indeed interrelated: the believer is required to conceal the deposit entrusted to him on the one hand, and to disclose its secret content to those who are worthy of it on the other.24 In addition, according to the

23 Ja¨far b. ManÒur al-Yaman, Kitab al-kashf, pp. 2-4: « ٔاول ما يحتاج إليه المؤمن من ٔامر دينه ومعرفة الحق ٔواهله الامانة لله ولأوليائه لقول الله عز وجل إنا عرضنا الأمانة على السموات والأرض والجبال فأبين ٔان يحملنها ٔواشفقن منها وحملها ٕالانسان إنه كان ظلوما جهولا وإني يا ٔاخي آخذ عليك عهد الله وميثاقه ٔواشد ما ٔاخذ الله على ٔانبيائه ورسله دائما من عهد مؤكد وميثاق مشدد ٔواحرم عليك ما حرم الله على ٔانبيائه ٔوارسله [رسله :read] ٔوابوابه وحججه وكذلك ٔابوك الذي سقاك ٔواخوك الذي رضع معك من شرب واحد مثل الميتة والدم ولحم الخنزير ٔان تذيعه ولا ٔيقراه غيرك ولا تلفظ به لأحد ولد آدم فطرة الله التي فطر الناس عليها ولا تكتبه لاحد إلا لمستحق مؤمن محق ٕفان تعديت وفعلت غير الذي آمرك به ٔواذعته فقد برئ الله منك ورسوله ووصيه وسلط الله عليك سيف الحق ينفذ فيك حكمه […] فمن ٔاذاع السر فقد جحد الحق بعد ما عرفه […]». All Qurˆanic verses here and elsewhere in the article are my own translation. -Kitab al-kashf was compiled by Ja¨far b. ManÒur al-Yaman and was apparently edited in its final form during the reign of the Fa†imid Caliph al-Qaˆim (322/934-334/946); see Halm, Kos- mologie und Heilslehre, pp. 18-19, 28, 135; Daftary, Ismaili Literature, pp. 121-122. 24 On this interrelation see also Ja¨far b. ManÒur al-Yaman, Kitab al-kashf, pp. 121, 147-148; idem, Kitab al-¨alim wa-l-ghulam, pp. 2-3; Ikhwan al-∑afaˆ, Al-Risala al-jami¨a, vol. I pp. 12 editor’s n. 3, 110, 141, 143-144, 157, 167; Corbin, «L’Initiation ismaéli- enne», pp. 51-52, 94-96, 130; Halm, The Fatimids and their Traditions of Learning, pp. 20, 23, 67.

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passage from Kitab al-kashf, by taking the oath and concluding the pact, the initiate joins a new family: in place of the relationship he once had with his biological parents and siblings, he now enjoys new family ties with a spiritual father (i.e. the da¨wa representative who has initiated him into the Isma¨ili faith) and brother (i.e. his coreligionist)25. Moreover, the pact mentioned in Kitab al-kashf is linked to primordial events — the deposit entrusted to the believer is the very same deposit that was offered by Allah to the heavens, earth and mountains; and the pact itself is analo- gous to the pact concluded between God and his Prophets (see Qurˆan 3: 81; 33: 7). In Islamic tradition, the latter pact is associated with another primordial pact — the one between God and all of mankind, which is mentioned in Qurˆan 7: 172: «And [remember] when your Lord took the offspring out of the backs of men, and had them bear witness on themselves: ‘am I not your Lord?’ And they said: ‘indeed, we bear witness to this’ — lest you should say on the day of : ‘we were unmindful of this’ […]». In Imami tradition, the pact in Qurˆan 7: 172 is interpreted in a clearly Shi¨ite context: God concluded this pact not only in relation to His own , but also in relation to the belief in the Imams. This interpretation is deterministic by its very nature: it was already in primordial times that Shi¨ite believers — by virtue of their belief in the Imams — were distinguished and separated from the remain- der of mankind26. It seems that these ideas underlie the passage from Kitab al-kashf. The concealment of the Isma¨ili faith in this passage is linked to the primordial relationship between God, His Prophets, His

25 Initiation in Isma¨ili tradition is conceived of as a spiritual rebirth, resurrection and liberation from slavery. See, for example, S. M. Stern, “The Earliest Cosmological Doc- trines of Isma¨ilism”, in Studies in Early Isma¨ilism, Jerusalem: Magnes and Leiden: Brill, 1983, p. 15; Ja¨far b. ManÒur al-Yaman, Kitab al-¨alim wa-l-ghulam, pp. 48, 52, 63-64; Halm, The Fatimids and their Traditions of Learning, p. 23; Corbin, «L’Initiation ismaéli- enne», pp. 45-46, 51, 85 n. 28, 88-92, 94, 96, 97-98, 104-105; idem, Cyclical Time and Ismaili Gnosis, London: Kegan Paul in association with Islamic Publications, 1983, pp. 59-150, 153, 184; B. Lewis, «An Ismaili Interpretation of the Fall of Adam», Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies 9/3 (1938), pp. 696-697. 26 See U. Rubin, «Pre-Existence and Light: Aspects of the Concept of Nur MuÌam- mad», Israel Oriental Studies 5 (1975), pp. 67-69; E. Kohlberg, «Some Shi¨i Views of the Antediluvian World», Studia Islamica 52 (1980), p. 44; Amir-Moezzi, The Divine Guide, pp. 32, 33-37, 196 n. 391; idem, «Notes à propos de la walaya imamite», pp. 724, 732-733.

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friends and the true believers; the purpose of this concealment is to safe- guard the sacredness of the Isma¨ili faith — a faith that from time imme- morial belongs only to the elite of mankind, i.e. the Isma¨ili believers27. The idea of the primordial pact between God and mankind may also help to explain why the term fi†ra — the natural disposition or inclination of man — is mentioned in the passage discussed here. According to the common conception in Islamic theology and jurisprudence, Islam and especially the Islamic belief in the unity of God match the natural dispo- sition of man. In Ìadith literature and Qurˆanic exegesis, this conception is explained by the primordial pact between God and mankind: this pact is the reason why Islam constitutes man’s natural religion. The intention of Kitab al-kashf in mentioning the term fi†ra is that the majority of human beings — including Sunnite Muslims — are naturally able to believe only in the unity of the Creator; the Isma¨ilis, however, are able in addition to believe in the Imams and their doctrines. This difference between the majority of mankind and the Isma¨ilis originated in the pri- mordial pact, and it is reflected in the obligation to keep the Isma¨ili faith concealed28. The interpretation in Kitab al-kashf of the ¨ahd and mithaq derives from early mythical Shi¨ite traditions, which were adopted by other Shi¨ite factions (especially the Imami Ithna-¨Ashari one) as well. How- ever, a different explanation of secrecy is given in the epistles of Ikhwan al-∑afaˆ («The Sincere Brethren»), most likely an Isma¨ili group of

27 On the correlation between secrecy, determinism and elitism see also al-Qa∂i al-Nu¨man, Da¨aˆim, Vol. I pp. 75-76. 28 On fi†ra and the primordial pact see Muqatil b. Sulayman, , ed. ¨Abd Allah MaÌmud ShaÌata, Cairo: al-Hayˆa al-MiÒriyya al-¨Amma li-l-Kitab, 1984, vol. III p. 413; Abu ¨Abd Allah MuÌammad b. AÌmad al-Qur†ubi, al-Jami¨ li-aÌkam al-qurˆan, Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al-¨Ilmiyya, 1993, vol. IV pp. 199-202; G. Gobillot, La Conception origi- nelle (fi†ra): ses interprétations et fonctions chez les penseurs musulmans, Institut français d’archéologie orientale: 2000 (= Cahier des annales islamologiques 18), esp. pp. 46-70; M. J. Kister, «Adam: a Study of Some Legends in Tafsir and Îadi† Literature», Israel Oriental Studies 13 (1993), pp. 155-161; the references given in Amir-Moezzi, The Divine Guide, p. 163 n. 181; C. Adang, «Islam as the Inborn Religion of Mankind: the Concept of Fi†ra in the works of Ibn Îazm», al-Qantara 21 (2000), pp. 391-410; Y. Mohamed, «The Interpretations of Fi†rah», 34 (1995), pp. 129-151; Y. Friedmann, Tolerance and Coercion in Islam: Interfaith Relations in the Muslim Tradition, New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003, pp. 59, 109-115.

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scholars from BaÒra who probably lived in the tenth century29. Although the concealment of the Isma¨ili faith in these epistles is also linked to primordial events, it is placed in a Neoplatonic framework that is unique in relation to the early Shi¨ite and Imami traditions as well as to other Isma¨ili works such as Kitab al-kashf. At the beginning of the «Comprehensive Epistle» (al-Jami¨a) — which is not included in the 52 famous epistles of the Ikhwan, but forms a summary of these epistles and at the same time constitutes an important addition to them — the Ikhwan instruct their reader as follows: «Oh, virtuous brother — may Allah continue to assist you30 — you are obliged to preserve this epistle to the utmost degree, for it is a deposit entrusted to you (amanatun muˆaddatun ilayka), and it is you who are required to keep and preserve it except from those who are worthy of it. I hereby administer to you the oath of Allah in relation to it (wa-ana akhidhun ¨alayka fiha ¨ahda llahi), the oath that was administered to the first created being that Allah created [i.e. the Universal Intellect] […]»31. It is further stated that, through the content of this oath, Allah transmitted to the Universal Intellect «His stored knowledge» (¨ilmihi al-makhzun)

29 For the various opinions concerning the dating and authorship of the epistles see I. R. Netton, Muslim Neoplatonists: an Introduction to the Thought of the Brethren of Purity (Ikhwan al-∑afaˆ), London: George Allen & Unwin, 1982, pp. 3-4; Daftary, Ismaili Literature, p. 166 and the references given there; idem, The Isma¨ilis, pp. 246-249; Ency- clopaedia of Islam (Second Edition), s.v. «IKHWAN AL-∑AFAˆ», vol. III pp. 1071-1076 (Y. Marquet); N. El-Bizri (ed.), Epistles of the Brethren of Purity. The Ikhwan al-∑afaˆ and their Rasaˆil: an Introduction, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2008. On the esoteric aspect of secrecy in the Ikhwan’s writings see also Ikhwan al-Òafaˆ, Rasaˆil, vol. IV p. 166; Steigerwald, pp. 46-48. 30 Adama llahu taˆyidaka: taˆyid (literally: strengthening, helping) is an important Isma¨ili term that appears in many blessing formulas throughout the Ikhwan’s epistles. Based on the Qurˆan (see, for example, Sura 5: 110), it is usually combined with the term ruÌ or ruÌ al-qudus («the holy spirit»). 31 Awwali mubda¨in abda¨ahu: ibda¨ (creation) is a central term in the Arabic Neopla- tonic tradition, signifying the Divine creation ex nihilo. The term appears in the circle of al-Kindi as early as the ninth century and is very common in Isma¨ili Neoplatonic litera- ture. In this literature, ibda¨ usually refers to the creation of the Universal Intellect by God while inbi¨ath — to the emanation of the Universal Soul from the Universal Intellect. See A. Altmann and S. M. Stern, Isaac Israeli: a Neoplatonic Philosopher of the Early Tenth Century, London: Oxford University Press, 1958, pp. 68-74; P. E. Walker, Early Philo- sophical Shiism: The Ismaili Neoplatonism of Abu Ya¨qub al-Sijistani, Cambridge: Cam- bridge University Press, 1993, pp. 41, 53, 57, 76, 82-86.

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and «His hidden secret» (sirrihi al-maknun), «the knowledge of what has been and what will be». In addition, the Ikhwan declare that the oath that they administer to the reader of their epistle is the very same oath that was administered by the Universal Intellect to the Universal Soul which emanated from it. The reader is thus granted «the knowledge of the science (ma¨rifat al-¨) on account of which he who knows it and acts according to it will earn an everlasting existence and an eternal hap- piness in life, in this world and in the world to come». The reader is therefore required to transmit this knowledge solely to those who are worthy of it, and is ordered to administer the oath to whomever he chooses to transmit this epistle to32. Thus, the knowledge granted to the reader of the epistle is not merely intellectual but rather is aimed at spir- itual salvation. The source of this knowledge is Divine: it is the «stored knowledge» and the «hidden secret» of God Himself, transmitted in the first place to the Universal Intellect and then from the latter to the Uni- versal Soul33. Naturally, the transmission of this Divine knowledge entails an oath of secrecy. As in Kitab al-kashf, the oath in the «Com- prehensive Epistle» has its origins in primordial events; yet unlike in Kitab al-kashf, the ‘protagonists’ in these events are God and with Him the Universal Intellect and Universal Soul, who stand at the head of the cosmic Neoplatonic hierarchy. God administers the oath to the Universal Intellect; the latter administers it to the Universal Soul; and finally, the Ikhwan administer the oath to the reader of their epistle. Placing the oath

32 Ikhwan al-∑afaˆ, al-Risala al-jami¨a, vol. I pp. 12-13: «وهذه الرسالة ٔايها الأخ الفاضل ٔادام الله تأييدك يجب لك وعليك ٔان تصونها كل الصيانة ٕفانها ٔامانة مؤداة إليك ٔوانت المطالب بحفظها وصيانتها إلا عن ٔاهلها ٔوانا آخذ عليك فيها عهد الله المأخوذ على ٔاول مبدع ٔابدعه […] وكان العهد الذي عهده إليه إطلاعه على ما ٔاطلعه عليه من علمه المخزون وسره المكنون علم ما كان وما يكون مما كان من خلقه إياه من نور جلاله الذي لا يطلق عليه صفة تبدو بآلة الحدث […]», 17: «والعهد الذي نأخذه عليك ٔايها الاخ الفاضل البار الرحيم هو العهد الذي ٔاخذه الواحد المنبعث من الأحد الفرد الصمد المتنزه عن الوالد والولد لا إله إلا هو على ثانيه المنبعث منه […] وفي هذا العهد الكريم قد ٔالقينا إليك معرفة العلم الذي من ٔاجله يستوجب من علمه وعمل به البقاء الدائم والسعادة في الحياة إلى الأبد في الدنيا والآخرة فافهمه وكن به سعيدا ولا تلقه إلا إلى ٔاهله», 21. 33 In various other passages in the «Comprehensive Epistle», the knowledge discussed here is seen as a kind of hypostasis between God and the Universal Intellect, a hypostasis equivalent to the creative word of God (kalima) or the Divine creative command (amr). See, for instance, Ikhwan al-∑afaˆ, al-Risala al-jami¨a, vol. I pp. 622-623 (see below n. 67), 633.

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in a Neoplatonic framework endows Isma¨ili secrecy with a significant dimension in terms of time and space: the Isma¨ili believer becomes directly involved in processes that began with creation itself and encom- pass the entire cosmos — from the highest point of the Universal Intellect down to our corporeal world. The Ikhwan’s interpretation of Adam’s as rendered in the «Com- prehensive Epistle» is likewise aimed at ‘discovering’ primordial origins for Isma¨ili secrecy — this time, in a clearly eschatological context. According to the Ikhwan, after Adam had settled in the Garden of Eden, «Allah enjoined Adam [wa-¨ahida ilayhi, from the same root as ¨ahd] not to draw near a certain tree of which He informed him and [from] which He forbade him to eat. He notified him that the [tree] is stored until a known moment, that the return to the beginning will occur by means of [the tree], that its fruit will not appear and that its consumption will be forbidden save at the end, and that [the tree] is a remainder of the first cycle of disclosure (dawr al-kashf al-awwal). Thus, the period of the cycle of concealment (dawr al-satr) — in which Adam, according to the decree of Allah, Glory be to Him, is the first one to be appointed as vicegerent [awwal al-mustakhlafina, see Qurˆan 2: 30] — will commence when the fruit of this tree will be concealed in its envelopes, hidden under its leaves, buried in its branches and unseen. During the cycle of concealment, virtually no creature will be aware of these fruit, will reach them or grab anything of them save at the moment that [Allah] has decreed and the time that he has prepared — when the cycle of prosper- ity (dawr al-sa¨ada) appears by the coming forth of the pure soul34, on

34 Al-Nafs al-zakiyya: an important term in Islamic , especially in Shi¨ite tradition. It is also the epithet of the Shi¨ite rebel, MuÌammad b. ¨Abd Allah b. al-Îasan b. al-Îasan b. Ali b. Abi ™alib, who rebelled against the ¨Abbasids in 762; see D. Cook, Studies in Muslim Apocalyptic, Princeton: Darwin Press, 2002, pp. 154, 158-161, 218- 220; A. Elad, «The Rebellion of MuÌammad b. ¨Abd Allah b. al-Îasan (known as al-Nafs al-Zakiya) in 145/762», in J. E. Montgomery (ed.) ¨Abbasid Studies: Occasional Papers of the School of ¨Abbasid Studies (Cambridge 6-10 July 2002), Leuven: Peeters, 2004, pp. 147-198. It seems that in Isma¨ili literature, the term denotes the souls of the righteous believers and especially the souls of the Prophets and Imams which possess unique qual- ities. These qualities enable the Prophets and Imams to reach the highest possible levels, intellectually and spiritually, and to bring about their believers’ salvation. Hence the escha- tological context: the Mahdi’s soul is defined as «pure», and when he appears, the believ- ers will be saved. This subject demands further examination.

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the day of the second review [yawm al-¨ar∂ al-thani, i.e. judgment day], when the Universal Soul reveals itself for the final judgment (li-faÒl al-qa∂aˆ). It is then that the lote-tree at the extreme end35 will appear, by means of which the second creation [al-nashˆa al-ukhra, i.e. the resurrec- tion, see Qurˆan 53:47; 56:62] will take place. Allah enjoined Adam and informed him about this matter; He notified him that it will not occur and will not be attainable to him during his own time. He permitted him to eat from the other trees and to grab other kinds of fruit […]»36. The Ikhwan further describe ’s successful attempt to entice Adam to ‘taste’ the forbidden and concealed knowledge, «the knowledge of the resurrection (¨ilm al-qiyama), the last creation (al-nashˆa al-akhira), the appearance for the final judgment and the way in which the spiritual forms abstracted from the material figures (al-ashkhaÒ al-hayulaniyya) appear in the abode of the everlasting [dar al-baqaˆ, i.e. ]». Adam’s soul, it is said, yearned for this knowledge: «He wanted to observe it by mani- festing it and [bringing it out] from its state of potentiality to its state of actuality, in order to see what the cycle of disclosure will be like, how the

35 Sidrat al-muntaha: the Qurˆan (53: 13-15) describes how the Prophet MuÌammad saw God or God’s (, according to Islamic tradition) near the «lote-tree at the extreme end», where the «garden of refuge» is situated. Islamic tradition explains that during his mi¨raj (the ascent to heaven), the Prophet ascended to the Seventh Heaven and reached the «lote-tree at the extreme end», on the right side of God’s throne (¨arsh), where he saw God. See the Encyclopaedia of Islam (Second Edition), s.v. «SIDRAT AL-MUN- TAHA», vol. IX p. 550 (A. Rippin). In the Isma¨ili Neoplatonic tradition, the «lote-tree at the extreme end» is identified with the Universal Intellect or the First Intellect; see, for example, Ikhwan al-∑afaˆ, al-Risala al-jami¨a, vol. II p. 12; al-Kirmani, RaÌat al-¨aql, p. 379; al-Îamidi, Kanz, pp. 236-237, 249, 257. In addition, in early Isma¨ili mythology, al-sabiq — the «Preceding One», i.e. the hypostasis kuni, located under God — was identified with the «lote-tree at the extreme end». Kuni itself was later identified by the Isma¨ili Neoplatonists with the Universal Intellect. See Stern, p. 15. 36 Ikhwan al-∑afaˆ, al-Risala al-jami¨a, vol. I pp. 111-113: «[…] وعهد إليه ٔان لا يقرب شجرة عرفه بها ونهاه عن ٔاكلها ٔواعلمه ٔانها مذخورة إلى وقت معلوم ٔوان بها يكون العود إلى البداية ٔوانها لا تبدو ثمرتها ولا يحل ٔاكلها إلا عند النهاية ٔوانها بقية دور الكشف الأول فيكون ٔاول مدة دور الستر الذي قدر الله سبحانه ٔان آدم ٔاول المستخلفين فيه ٔان ثمر تلك الشجرة يكون مستورا في ٔاكمامها مخبوءا تحت ورقها مكمنا في ٔاغصانها مخفيا لا يكاد مخلوق في دور الستر يقف عليه ولا يصل إليه ولا يتناول شيئا منه إلا في الوقت الذي قدره والزمان الذي يسره إذا بدا دور السعادة بظهور النفس الزكية في يوم العرض الثاني وتجلت النفس الكلية لفصل القضاء فعند ذلك تبدو شجرة سدرة المنتهى وبها تكون النشأة الأخرى وعهد الله إلى آدم ٔواطلعه على ذلك ٔواعلمه ٔانه لا يكون في وقته ولا يتهيأ له في زمانه ٔواباحه ما سوى ذلك من ٔاكل الشجر والتناول من ٔاصناف الثمر ما يكون غذاء له ولمن هو معلم له».

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people of that time will receive it/him, how they will respond to it/him and what the rank of the pure soul will be at that moment. Thus Adam revealed something forbidden to those who were not worthy of it, he informed those who did not deserve it about it and he placed something of it in an improper place. This was equivalent to the food he was forbid- den to [eat]». After the fall (hubu†) of Adam from heaven and the prolon- gation of his misery, he repented and «pleaded with [Allah] by means of the Qaˆim [the «one who rises», i.e. the Shi¨ite ‘Messiah’] of that time in which the truths will be revealed, and by means of those who will then enjoy the high positions (wa-bi-aÒÌab al-maqamat al-¨aliya) — those who are the perfect words and the splendid miraculous signs [or verses, al-kalimat al-tammat wa-l-ayat al-bahirat, i.e. the Prophets and Imams; see Qurˆan 2: 37]. He [explained] that he did not do it intentionally but rather only yearned for that great rank and high level without denying it and without becoming too haughty to acknowledge the excellence of him who enjoys it. It was then that Allah forgave them both […]»37. Adam’s sin, according to the Ikhwan, was twofold. To begin with, Adam divulged the eschatological secret, symbolized by the forbidden tree.38 The content of this secret consisted of knowledge pertaining to the

37 Ibid., vol. I pp. 113-116: «[…] فقال له عدوه يريه ٔانه له من الناصحين هو علم القيامة وكون النشأة الآخرة والبروز لفصل القضاء وكيفية بروز الصور الروحانية المعراة من الأشخاص الهيولانية في دار البقاء […] فعند ذلك اشتاقت نفس آدم إلى ذلك ٔواراد الاطلاع عليه ٕبالاظهار له من حد القوة إلى حد الفعل ليرى كيف يكون دور الكشف وكيف يكون قبول ٔاهل ذلك الزمان له واستجابتهم إليه وكيف تكون منزلة النفس الزكية في ذلك الوقت فأبدى شيئا مما نهي عنه لغير ٔاهله ٔواطلع عليه غير مستحقه ووضع منه شيئا في غير موضعه فكان بمنزلة الأكل الذي نهي عنه», 118: «فلما طالت المحنة بآدم استرجع القول ونادى ربه وتوسل إليه بالقائم في ذلك الوقت الذي تظهر فيه الحقائق وبأصحاب المقامات العالية في ذلك الزمان الذين هم الكلمات التامات والآيات الباهرات ٔوانه لم يتعمد ذلك وإنما اشتاق إلى تلك المنزلة الجليلة والدرجة الرفيعة بغير إنكار لها ولا استكبار عن ٕالاقرار بفضل صاحبها فعند ذلك تاب الله عليهما […]». On the Qaˆim see the Encyclopaedia of Islam (Second Edition), s.v. «ËAˆIM AL MUÎAMMAD», vol. IV pp. 456-457 (W. Madelung); Daftary, The Isma¨ilis, s.v. «qaˆim» in the index; Amir-Moezzi, The Divine Guide, p. 214 n. 550. 38 See also Ikhwan al-∑afaˆ, Al-Risala al-jami¨a, vol. I pp. 157-158, 163; Lewis, pp. 691-704; Corbin, Cyclical Time, pp. 76-84. A similar interpretation of Adam’s sin is given by al-Qa∂i al-Nu¨man, al-Mudhhiba, pp. 71-72; cf. Steigerwald, pp. 49-51. On secrecy in eschatological matters see also Ikhwan al-Òafaˆ, Rasaˆil, vol. III pp. 287-288, 299, 302, 319-320.

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end of time, and it is formulated in the passage discussed here in Isma¨ili as well as in Neoplatonic terms. Thus, according to the Ikhwan, human history is divided into three main cycles: the first cycle of disclosure, the cycle of concealment, and the second, or final, cycle of disclosure. Adam, who is considered to be the first among the seven nu†aqaˆ (see above p. 311), initiated the cycle of concealment. In this cycle, the truths per- taining to the inner aspect of religion (ba†in) are meant to be concealed; they are entrusted solely to the Imams and to their initiated followers. Only when the seventh na†iq (MuÌammad b. Isma¨il) appears will the Shari¨a be annulled (according to certain Isma¨ili opinions) and the truths revealed. The seventh and last cycle is therefore the second or final cycle of disclosure. Since the Isma¨ili perception of historical time is not only linear but also circular (cyclic), the final cycle of disclosure constitutes a return to the starting point of history — the cycle of disclosure that pre- ceded Adam and his cycle of concealment. Likewise, the «second/last creation» is analogous to the «first creation» — the creation of Adam; and the «second review» is analogous to the «first review» (presumably the primordial pact in Qurˆan 7: 172). However, these Isma¨ili concep- tions are integrated by the Ikhwan into a Neoplatonic scheme — one that does not focus on a horizontal perception of historical time but rather on a vertical and non-historical perception. According to Neoplatonic thought, the redemption of the individual human soul occurs when it reascends to its place of origin — the Universal Soul — by means of an intellectual, spiritual and ascetic effort. This effort is aimed at shedding man’s corporeality so that he may directly grasp the true forms which exist beyond physical reality. In Isma¨ili Neoplatonic tradition, the indi- vidual-Neoplatonic redemption is combined with a salvation that is both communal (the Isma¨ilis alone) and universal (the entire human race). The return of the horizontal-historical time to its very beginning — when the second or final cycle of disclosure converges with the first cycle of disclosure — transforms linear time into circular time and is analogous to the vertical return of the individual human soul (and, in fact, of all human souls) to the Universal Soul. The latter then detaches itself from nature — a hypostasis which, according to the Neoplatonic scheme, is located under the Universal Soul and which constantly draws the Univer- sal Soul downwards, towards the lower corporeal world. Once the Uni-

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versal Soul detaches itself from nature, it turns towards the Universal Intellect and henceforward receives from it the spiritual forms perpetually and with no hindrances39. Human existence at the end of time is therefore completely spiritual: corporeal reality — a state of illusion and conceal- ment — disappears and only the truths or forms remain. The disclosure of the eschatological secret is connected to the second aspect of Adam’s sin: Adam hoped to attain a rank and degree that he did not deserve, thereby undermining (unintentionally) the stability of the Isma¨ili hierarchy. The believers are situated in the various levels of this hierarchy according to their spiritual abilities, religious progress and the historical phase in which they are active; to ‘bypass’ or ‘skip’ one of these levels is considered to be an offense against the Divine will. Con- sequently, in order to truly repent, Adam needed to acknowledge the Qaˆim, the «perfect words» and the «splendid miraculous signs» — in other words, to acknowledge the seventh na†iq, the Prophets and the Imams, as well as their unshakable status and the correct historical sequence in which they are to appear. This is why Satan () and his satanic followers throughout history (the shaya†in) are defined as those who divulge or «spread» (mubadhdhirun) the secrets of the Isma¨ili faith40: their aim is to undermine the Isma¨ili hierarchy by debasing the Prophets and Imams and elevating themselves. The revealing of secrets in the eschatological era, as is clear from the discussion so far, constitutes the dramatic climax of human history in accordance with the Divine will. In fact, other Shi¨ite factions likewise maintain that, with the coming of the Messianic figure, the obligation of

39 On this process see, for example, Ikhwan al-∑afaˆ, al-Risala al-jami¨a, vol. I pp. 133- 134, 155. On the Isma¨ili perception of historical time see Corbin, «L’Initiation ismaéli- enne», p. 134 n. 55; idem, Cyclical Time, pp. 1-58. On the reascending of the individual soul by intellectual, spiritual and ascetic means according to the Neoplatonic tradition, see, for example, Plotinus (translated by A. H. Armstrong), London: W. Heinemann, 1966- 1988, vol. I pp. 229-263 (Ennead I, 6), vol. IV pp. 393-423 (IV, 8), vol. V pp. 5-53, 67-135 (V, 1; V, 3), vol. VII pp. 181-201, 299-345 (VI, 7, 31-36; VI, 9); on the mystical aspect of this process see J. Bussanich, «Plotinus’s Metaphysics of the One», in L. P. Gerson (ed.) The Cambridge Companion to Plotinus, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996, pp. 55-57, and the references given there. 40 See Ikhwan al-∑afaˆ, al-Risala al-jami¨a, vol. I p. 110; cf. Qurˆan 17: 27. On Satan see also Ikhwan al-∑afaˆ, al-Risala al-jami¨a, vol. I pp. 124-168. On the second aspect of Adam’s sin discussed here see Lewis, pp. 694-695; Steigerwald, pp. 50-51.

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taqiyya and kitman will be annulled and the believers will be permitted to divulge their secrets41. In Isma¨ili thought, the secrets revealed at the end of time are the truths (Ìaqaˆiq) or the inner aspect of religion (ba†in) — in effect, the philosophical, theological and esoteric knowledge of every kind. Consequently, in Isma¨ili tradition, acquiring this knowledge and transmitting it to others entails a messianic sentiment — for the disclosure of this knowledge is a clear sign of the end of time. Indeed, this messianic sentiment can be detected in Isma¨ili literature and is found in the Neoplatonic-Shi¨ite corpus attributed to Jabir b. Îayyan, allegedly a disciple of Ja¨far al-∑adiq. This corpus, which deals with alchemy and other esoteric sciences and which contains works by various authors, was compiled during the second half of the ninth and the first half of the tenth century. It includes Neoplatonic as well as Shi¨ite elements — some of which are Isma¨ili or bear resemblance to various Isma¨ili notions42. In the Jabirian corpus, one may find the notion that the disclosure of the philosophical and esoteric sciences (mainly alchemy) — ‘hidden treas- ures’ of Hellenistic culture — is a clear sign of the eschatological era. These sciences are entrusted to the Imams, the descendents of ¨Ali, and to their followers (such as Jabir); with the appearance of the ‘messianic’ figure, the external aspect of religion (Âahir) will lose its primacy and will be replaced by the inner aspect, namely, the philosophical and eso- teric sciences.43 Thus, the study of these sciences was accompanied by a messianic feeling already in the formative period of the Isma¨ili tradition (the end of the ninth and the beginning of the tenth century). This messianic tendency can also be detected in the writings of the Ikhwan. «Resurrection (al-ba¨th)», the Ikhwan explain, «is the revival

41 See Kohlberg, «Taqiyya in Shi¨i Theology and Religion», p. 368; Bar-Asher and Kofsky, pp. 61-62. 42 On the dating, authorship, and the Shi¨ite and Isma¨ili motifs of this corpus see P. Kraus, Jabir ibn Îayyan: contribution à l’histoire des idées scientifiques dans l’Islam. Volume I: Le corpus des écrits jabiriens, Cairo: Institut français d’archéologie orientale, 1943, pp. xvii-lxv; on its Neoplatonic elements see idem, Jabir ibn Îayyan: contribution à l’histoire des idées scientifiques dans l’Islam. Volume II: Jabir et la science grecque, Cairo: Institut français d’archéologie orientale, 1942, pp. 135-185. See also the Encyclo- paedia of Islam (Second Edition), s.v. «DJABIR B. ÎAYYAN», vol. II pp. 357-359 (P. Kraus and M. Plessner); Pierre Lory, Alchimie et mystique en terre d’Islam, Lagrasse: Verdier, 1989. 43 Kraus, 1943, pp. xlix, li; Lory, pp. 105-106, 109-120.

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(inbi¨ath) of sciences with neither secrecy (khafaˆ) nor concealment (satr) and their coming out of the cycle of concealment into the cycle of dis- closure»44. Qurˆanic motifs pertaining to judgment day are likewise explained in this vein: «concerning the ‘turning of the graves upside down’ [or the scattering of their contents, ba¨tharat al-qubur, see Qurˆan 100: 9; 82: 4]: this is the appearance of that which was buried in its grave and covered by its veil; at that time [judgment day], all that is concealed will be revealed. Concerning the ‘exposure of that which is in the chests’ (taÌÒil ma fi l-Òudur, see Qurˆan 100: 10): this is the coming out of the true knowledge (al-ma¨arif al-Ìaqiqiyya), which was hidden in the chests of the believers and contained in their hearts. They could not manifest this knowledge and present proofs by means of it, because of what they feared for themselves — that is, to be humiliated and over- come by the infidels in this world. However, at that time, that which was in their chests will be exposed for them and with them and they will be shown lights in their pure souls that will run around in front of them and on their right [see Qurˆan 57: 12; 66: 8]»45. In a similar manner, esoteric knowledge revealed at the end of time is compared to precious minerals or metals extracted from inside the earth: «Regarding the movements of mineral substances (al-jawahir al-ma¨diniyya) inside (fi ba†in) the earth: these are the sciences and wisdoms in every religious law, religion and belief (milla), deposited by the wise men in between the sheets of books and within (wa-bu†un) scrolls. When mineral substances — and silver — are extracted from their mines and are properly used, then they

44 Ikhwan al-∑afaˆ, al-Risala al-jami¨a, vol. I p. 166: «[…] والبعث هو انبعاث العلوم بغير خفاء ولا ستر وخروجها من دور الستر إلى دور الكشف». The term inbi¨ath can also be translated here as «flowing» or «emanation», i.e. the flowing or emanation of sciences from the Universal Soul and Intellect. 45 Ibid., vol. II p. 209: « ٔواما بعثرة القبور فهو ظهور ما كان مكمنا في قبره [according to the variant in n. 4] مغطى بستره فعند ذلك يبدو كل مستور ٔواما تحصيل ما في الصدور فهو خروج ما كانت تخفيه صدور المؤمنين وتحتوي عليه قلوبهم من المعارف الحقيقية ولا يقدرون على إظهارها وإقامة الحجج بها لما كانوا يخشونه على ٔانفسهم من إهانة الكافرين لهم وقدرتهم عليهم في دار الدنيا فعند ذلك يتحصل ما في صدورهم لهم ومعهم وتتراءى لهم في نفوسهم الزكية ٔانوار تسعى بين ٔايديهم وبأيمانهم […]». Cf. al-Kirmani, RaÌat al-¨aql, p. 434; Ja¨far b. ManÒur al-Yaman, Kitab al-kashf, p. 170.

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are useful to people and the means of living are made sound by them; in the same way, when these sciences are propagated and these wisdoms are learnt, then what is lawful and what is unlawful as well as legal cases (qa∂aya) and judgments all become known by them; heaven is reached through them and the world to come is inhabited»46. To summarize: secrecy plays a central role in Isma¨ili tradition — in its social as well as religious-spiritual aspects. Various theological inter- pretations were given to secrecy in Isma¨ili literature: some of mythical nature, typical of the early Shi¨ite tradition, while others deeply influ- enced by Neoplatonic philosophy. The goal of these different interpreta- tions is to transform the new Isma¨ili believer into an active participant in cosmic processes, which began in primordial times and will culminate in the eschatological era. In this era, ‘the tables will be turned’: the hith- erto concealed Isma¨ili knowledge will be revealed to all, judgment day will commence and human history will reach its final end.

3. Ibn al-¨Arabi

The famous Andalusian Sunnite mystic MuÌyi al-Din Abu ¨Abd Allah MuÌammad b. ¨Ali Ibn al-¨Arabi (560/1165-638/1240) is undoubtedly one of the greatest mystical thinkers in Islam. His numerous writings — whose uniqueness becomes immediately apparent to anyone who ven-

46 Ikhwan al-∑afaˆ, al-Risala al-jami¨a, vol. II p. 268: « ٔواما حركات الجواهر المعدنية في باطن الأرض فهي ما يودعه الحكماء في صحائف الدفاتر وبطون الطوامير من العلوم والحكم في كل شريعة ودين وملة وكما ٔان الجواهر المعدنية إذا استخرجت من معادنها من الذهب والفضة وعملت على ما ينبغي انتفع الناس بها وكان بها صلاح معيشة الدنيا كذلك إذا نشرت هذه العلوم ودرست هذه الحكم عرف بها الحلال والحرام والقضايا والأحكام وكان بها الوصول إلى الجنة وعمارة الدار الآخرة». Cf. al-Kirmani, al-Riya∂, p. 197; idem, RaÌat al-¨aql, pp. 368, 433. The motif of pre- cious minerals or metals that are ejected from inside the earth at the end of time can also be found in Sunnite eschatological traditions; see, for example, Abu al-Îusayn Muslim b. al-Îajjaj, ∑aÌiÌ muslim, ed. MuÌammad Fuˆad ¨Abd al-Baqi, Beirut: Dar al-Fikr, 1983, vol. II p. 701 (Ìadith 62 in «Kitab al-» / «Bab al-targhib fi l-Òadaqa»); al-Jalalayn’s commentary on Qurˆan 99: 2; the interpretations given to Qurˆan 99: 2 in Abu al-Fa∂l MuÌammad b. Mukarram Ibn ManÂur, Lisan al-¨arab, Beirut: Dar ∑adir and Dar Beirut, 1956, vol. XI p. 85 (s.v. «th.q.l»); Nu¨aym b. Îammad, al-Fitan, Cairo: Dar al-Bayan al-¨Arabi, 2002, pp. 371-372 (Ìadith 1324 in chapter 61, «Khuruj al-dajjal wa-siratihi»).

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tures to study them — have had a profound influence on the development of Islamic mysticism. In my view, a thorough examination of the links and affinities between the various writings of Ibn al-¨Arabi and Shi¨ite tradition — especially in its Isma¨ili form — may help to appreciate the uniqueness of Ibn al-¨Arabi’s thought. As a step in this direction, I will attempt to underscore some affinities between Ibn al-¨Arabi’s concept of secrecy and Shi¨ite-Isma¨ili esotericism, presented in the first two sec- tions of this article. Noteworthy examples of these affinities can be found in one of Ibn al-¨Arabi’s earlier works, Kitab ¨anqaˆ mughrib fi khatm al-awliyaˆ wa- shams al-maghrib («The Book of the Gryphon on the Seal of God’s Friends and the Sun of the West»). As indicated by its title, the book deals mainly with the concept of walaya («friendship with God», i.e. sainthood) and the figure of the «seal» (khatm/khatam) of God’s friends (the awliyaˆ, plural of wali). According to Ibn al-¨Arabi’s theory, follow- ing the death of MuÌammad (who is defined in the Qurˆan 33: 40 as the «seal of the Prophets»), the prophecy pertaining to religious legislation (nubuwwat al-tashri¨) ended. However, the friendship with God is per- petuated through the awliyaˆ, the saints of Islamic mysticism. This «friendship» implies a special spiritual-mystical relationship between God and his ‘chosen ones’, a relationship that grants them unique abili- ties and powers. In a sense, the status of walaya is equal to that of pro- phecy; thus, according to Ibn al-¨Arabi, throughout history, the rusul (Mes- sengers, plural of rasul) and the Prophets were all awliyaˆ, and the walaya they enjoyed was superior to their prophecy in various aspects. As regards the awliyaˆ themselves, each and every one of them is spiritually related to a certain Messenger or Prophet, deriving from his spiritual essence and heritage. Generally speaking, the walaya derives from the same Divine root as Prophecy; this Divine root is called by Ibn al-¨Arabi al-Ìaqiqa al-muÌammadiyya (the «MuÌammadan reality/truth»). Moreover, even after MuÌammad’s death, the «general/universal prophecy» (al-nubu- wwa al-¨amma) continues among certain ‘senior’ awliyaˆ, namely those who are called the «single ones» (afrad). Though the latter are not granted the right and ability to establish a religious law (shari¨a), never- theless their unique spiritual status is defined as prophecy. In the context of his walaya theory, Ibn al-¨Arabi devotes considerable attention to three

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figures who are regarded by him as «seals» and are expected to arrive with the approach of the eschatological era: the seal of the MuÌammadan walaya, i.e. the walaya that derives directly from al-Ìaqiqa al-muÌam- madiyya and is manifested among the Muslim awliyaˆ, MuÌammad’s direct spiritual heirs; the seal of the general walaya, i.e. the walaya that derives from the spiritual essence and heritage of other Messengers and Prophets besides MuÌammad; and finally, the seal of God’s friends and the last one among them, who marks the end of all types of walaya and hence the end of time. Jesus, who plays an eschatological role in Sunnite tradition and is regarded as the one who paves the way for the coming of the Mahdi, is identified by Ibn al-¨Arabi with the seal of the general walaya. Furthermore, Ibn al-¨Arabi saw himself as the seal of the MuÌam- madan walaya; in this respect, he considered himself as being parallel to MuÌammad, the «seal of the Prophets». The eschatological context of Ibn al-¨Arabi’s theory of walaya is thus obvious, as is also the reason why Ibn al-¨Arabi’s ideas were perceived as a challenge or even a threat to orthodox Islamic doctrines, mainly those pertaining to the status of MuÌammad and his Sunnite heirs — the ¨ulamaˆ, the religious scholars who are responsible for interpreting the Holy Scripture and ruling in legal matters47. The first part of ¨Anqaˆ mughrib deals with the reasons for writing the book and with various other matters related to walaya and eschatology. According to Ibn al-¨Arabi, the book originated in a Divine revelation by an angel, the «Messenger of inspiration» (rasul al-ilham)48. The passage relevant to our discussion is entitled «A guarantee possessed by him who holds it and the concluding of a pact»49. Ibn al-¨Arabi writes: «When I

47 On Ibn al-¨Arabi’s theory of walaya see M. Chodkiewicz, Seal of the Saints: Prophet- hood and Sainthood in the Doctrine of Ibn ¨Arabi (translated by L. Sherrard), Cambridge: The Islamic Texts Society, 1993; G. T. Elmore, Islamic Sainthood in the Fullness of Time: Ibn al-¨Arabi’s Book of the Fabulous Gryphon, Leiden: Brill, 1999, pp. 109-195; C. Addas, Quest for the Red Sulphur: the Life of Ibn ¨Arabi (translated by P. Kingsley), Cambridge: The Islamic Texts Society, 1993, pp. 76-81. On the opposition to Ibn al-¨Arabi’s thought see A. D. Knysh, Ibn ¨Arabi in the Later Islamic Tradition: the Making of a Polemical Image in Medieval Islam, Albany: State University of New York Press, 1999. 48 In this connection, one should bear in mind that the book is written in rhymed prose (saj¨), like many parts of the Qurˆan. 49 Rahn ighlaq wa-akhdh mithaq, literally: «a forfeited guarantee/pledge and the con- cluding of a pact».

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heard what the [Messenger of inspiration] had mentioned and when He manifested to me what He had previously concealed, He beseeched me to write down these most sacred fragments. He administered an oath to me (wa-akhadha ¨alayya l-¨ahda) lest I should strip them of their gar- ments made of fine silk, so that they will not reveal their whiteness and so that a flash of their lightning will not appear50. He said: ‘[this book] is a guarantee in your hands and is in your possession; so do not be sad- dened — hold on to it and do not let go of it, otherwise you will become destitute’. The command then directed itself towards me to divulge this concealed secret and sealed book (al-kitab al-makhtum) — divulging by hinting, not explicating; and informing by rousing attention and indicat- ing [or hinting, ifshaˆ ta¨ri∂ la taÒriÌ wa-i¨lam tanbih wa-talwiÌ]. When I received the command from Him in this form and entered this contract (¨aqd), it became incumbent upon me to fulfill the oath; so I am now

50 Or: «[…] lest I should strip them of their garments made of fine silk until they will no longer reveal their whiteness nor a flash of their lightning will appear» (Wa-akhadha ¨alayya l-¨ahda an ujarridaha min ghalaˆiliha l-sundusiyyati Ìatta la tatabassama ¨an ighri∂ wa-la yaÂhara li-barqiha wami∂). The term ighri∂ in the original Arabic signifies the spadix of a palm tree, especially when it emerges from within its spathe. Hence it signifies anything white, fresh, juicy or moist, as well as hail or large drops of rain. The verb tabassama means to smile; hence to expose the teeth and to reveal anything in gen- eral. The image evoked by the expression «reveal their whiteness» is thus twofold: it can be conceptualized as either clouds that reveal the whiteness of a lightning or pour forth hail or rain; or, alternatively, as a spathe of a palm tree that bursts open and a spadix emerges from within it. It is evident that the disclosure of secrets is described by Ibn al-¨Arabi in erotic terms — the stripping of garments, the bursting and emerging of a hid- den flower and the revealing of an inner, white and moist part (one should note that the Arabic word for «fragments», nubadh, and the personal pronouns relating to this term are in the feminine — which enhances the erotic undertone of the sentence). The concealment of secrets therefore involves an erotic tension. In another passage, Ibn al-¨Arabi likens the mystical secrets to virgins and their disclosure to the virgins’ deflowering; see «Risalat al-intiÒar», in Rasaˆil ibn al-¨arabi, Beirut: Dar IÌyaˆ al-Turath al-¨Arabi, vol. II p. 4 (translated by Elmore, p. 175). Elmore offers a different translation of this sentence (Elmore, p. 299): «[…] I was adjured to record these most-sacred passages, contracting to divest them of their sarcenet veils until they should display no more faint glimmer, nor their lightning bring forth a twinkle», and in n. 2: «That is, until there is nothing left to conceal». According to Elmore’s translation, Ibn al-¨Arabi was ordered to divulge all his secrets until nothing is left concealed; however, I believe that this reading is less in line with the meaning of the whole passage. On an as designating «lest», «for fear that», see W. Wright, A Grammar of the Arabic Language, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999 (3rd edition), vol. II p. 27.

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revealing, yet at times I will avoid [it, or hint at it, u¨ri∂u/u¨arri∂u]. Lis- ten! I mean you, oh, spouse: how can I disclose a secret and reveal a hidden matter/command — when it is I who thus enjoin others in various places throughout my poetry and prose51: ‘Rouse attention to the secret but do not divulge it / for disclosing the secret will bring about hatred / towards him who reveals it; so wait for it patiently / and conceal it until the time comes’. Therefore, whoever is wise and clever — the search for wisdom will distract him from gluttony; he will accordingly become aware of what we have hinted at and will resolve our enigma. Were it not for the Divine command, we would have talked about it mouth to mouth with those who arrive and those who leave (al-warid wa-l-Òadir)52 and we would have turned it into food for those who remain and into provisions for those who travel»53. The resemblance to Shi¨ite and especially Isma¨ili esotericism is unmistakable. To begin with, in both the Isma¨ili tradition and the pas- sage from the ¨Anqaˆ, the obligation to maintain secrecy is connoted by the idea of the pact (mithaq) and oath (akhdh al-¨ahd — the phrase com- mon in Isma¨ili writings) and is symbolized by the concept of the deposit or guarantee/pledge (rahn). The believer who is entrusted with this deposit or guarantee/pledge bears a double responsibility: He must con- ceal it from the eyes of foes, but is obliged to disclose it in some manner

51 Cf. Elmore’s translation, p. 300. 52 In other words, with everyone. Cf. Elmore’s translation, p. 300. 53 Ibn al-¨Arabi, Kitab ¨anqaˆ mughrib fi khatm al-awliyaˆ wa-shams al-maghrib, Cairo: Maktabat wa-Ma†ba¨at MuÌammad ¨Ali ∑ubayÌ wa-Awladihi, 1954, pp. 19-20: «ومن ذلك رهن إغلاق ٔواخذ ميثاق ولما سمعت ما ذكره ٔواظهر لعيني ما كان قبل ذلك ستره عزم علي في تقييد هذه النبذ الأقدسية ٔواخذ علي العهد ٔان ٔاجردها من غلائلها السندسية حتى لا تتبسم عن إغريض ولا يظهر لبرقيها [لبرقها :read] وميض وقال ٔاهو [sic] رهن بيدك وقد علق [غلق :read] فلا تبتئس فامسك عليه ولا تخرجه فتعتلس [فتفتلس :read] فتوجه الأمر علي عند ذلك في إفشاء هذا السر المكتوم والكتاب المختوم إفشاء تعريض لا تصريح وإعلام تنبيه وتلويح ولما تلقيت منه الأمر على هذا الحد ودخلت تحت هذا العقد لزمني الوفاء بالعهد فانا الآن ٔابدي ٔواعرض تارة وإياك ٔاعني فاسمعي يا جارة وكيف ٔابوح بسر ٔوابدي مكنون امر ٔوانا الموصي به غيري في غير ما وضع [ما موضع :or, according to manuscripts examined by Elmore ,موضع :read] من نظمي ونثري نبه على السر ولا تفشه فالبوح بالسر له مقت على الذي يبديه فاصبر له واكتمه حتى يصل الوقت فمن كان ذا قلب وفطنة شغله طلب الحكمة عن البطنة فوقف على ما رمزناه وفك المعمى الذي لغزناه ولولا الأمر ٕالالهي لشافهنا به الوارد والصادر وجعلنا قوة [وجعلناه قوت :read] المقيم وزاد المسافر […]».

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to those who are worthy of it. In the passage from the ¨anqaˆ, this para- doxical twofold responsibility is reflected in the image of the garments as well as in the mystic’s psychological difficulty described so aptly by Ibn al-¨Arabi: the concealment of the mystical secrets contradicts the mystic’s natural urge to divulge them. The cure for this anguish lies in the vague and difficult mystical language: only those who are worthy of the mystical secrets will succeed in deciphering this language and making sense of it, thereby discovering the hidden and concealed meanings beneath the «garments made of fine-silk»54. Indeed, the ¨anqaˆ is a dif- ficult book and various passages in it are unclear. Furthermore, in both the Shi¨ite-Isma¨ili tradition and the above-quoted passage from the ¨anqaˆ, the secret that must be concealed pertains to walaya and the awliyaˆ. It is the identity and status of God’s friends — the Imams, descendents of ¨Ali, according to the Shi¨ite-Isma¨ili perception, and the saints, according to Ibn al-¨Arabi — that constitute the secret. Further- more, both traditions also share the eschatological tension: only at the last hour will the hidden secret concerning God’s friends be revealed to all. To be sure, the Shi¨ite-Isma¨ili perception of walaya is communal, in the sense that it is restricted to the Shi¨ite-Isma¨ili community: God’s friends are the biological family members of the Prophet, descendents of ¨Ali and Fa†ima; hence, only they and their followers are exposed to the secrets of the faith and only they are worthy of salvation. In addition, the Shi¨ite-Isma¨ili vision has clear political implications: the destiny of the Imams — now or in the eschatological era — is to overthrow the evil and illegitimate Sunnite regime and to rule in its place. By contrast, the mystical discourse of Ibn al-¨Arabi is individual and at the same time universal. Thus, God’s friends are not members of a particular family; any Muslim — including the Prophets and saints who preceded the his- torical emergence of the Islamic community — may become a wali, if God so wills. Friendship with God is not a political matter: it is perceived by Ibn al-¨Arabi as related mainly to the internal realm of the individual, although it goes without saying that the wali does have powers and authority that bear on the society at large.

54 In this context see also Schimmel, pp. 86-91, 98.

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Like taqiyya and kitman in the Shi¨ite-Isma¨ili tradition, the conceal- ment of secrets in the ¨anqaˆ is also motivated by the need to survive in a hostile environment. In the introduction to the ¨anqaˆ, Ibn al-¨Arabi explains why he wrote this book: «My intention was to include in it55 that which I would at times clarify and [at other times] hide: where, in relation to this human copy (al-nuskha al-insaniyya) and spiritual crea- tion (al-nashˆa al-ruÌaniyya)56, is the position of the Imam-Mahdi, who is related to the house of the Prophet, [the house] of water and clay?57 In addition, where, in relation to it [to the human copy and spiritual crea- tion], is the seal of Allah’s friends, the signet of the chosen ones (wa-†abi¨ al-aÒfiyaˆ)? For the need to know these two positions in man [i.e. the position of the Imam-Mahdi and the position of the seal of God’s friends] is more certain than all the similarities between created beings58. How- ever, I was afraid that the enemy, the Devil, would incite to evil and expose me in the presence of the ruler, saying against me what I had not

55 That is, in al-Tadbirat al-ilahiyya fi iÒlaÌ al-mamlaka al-insaniyya, an earlier work of Ibn al-¨Arabi written before the ¨anqaˆ. 56 According to Ibn al-¨Arabi, MuÌammad — with respect to his Divine root (al-Ìaqiqa al-muÌammadiyya) — is a copy or transcript of God; Adam is a copy of MuÌammad; man in general is a copy of MuÌammad and Adam; and the world at large is a copy of man. See Ibn al-¨Arabi, Kitab ¨anqaˆ mughrib, pp. 17-18, 38. Similarly, the world (and man in it) is «a Divine copy according to a form of God» (nuskha ilahiyya ¨ala Òurat Ìaqq); see idem, al-FutuÌat al-makkiyya, Beirut: Dar IÌyaˆ al-Turath al-¨Arabi, no date, vol. II p. 385 (the beginning of chapter 198). Man, as a microcosm, is also a copy of the world, the macrocosm; see idem, Kitab ¨anqaˆ mughrib, pp. 39-40. The terms «human copy» and «spiritual creation» refer to man and his spiritual aspects which derive from the special relationship between him, the world at large and God. 57 Al-mansubi ila bayti l-nabi l-maˆi wa-l-†ini: an allusion to the tradition attributed to the Prophet MuÌammad, according to which MuÌammad had already been a Prophet when Adam was «between water and clay», i.e. when Adam’s creation was not yet completed; see Rubin, pp. 69-70 (esp. n. 19); W. C. Chittick, The Sufi Path of Knowledge: Ibn al-¨Arabi’s Metaphysics of Imagination, Albany: State University of New York, 1989, pp. 239-240, 405 n. 8. For another version of this clause, see Elmore, p. 239 n. 22: al-maqami wa-l-†ini, «in terms of position and clay». Ibn al-¨Arabi’s intention seems to be that the Mahdi is not necessarily a biological descendent of the Prophet (as the Shi¨ites and Isma¨ilis would have it), but rather belongs to the primordial spiritual essence which is manifested in its finest form in the figure of MuÌammad. The relation to the Prophet’s family is therefore spiritual, not physical. 58 In other words: the need to discuss the issue of walaya is more urgent than the need to discuss the parallels between man (the microcosm) and the universe (the macrocosm) — an issue dealt with in al-Tadbirat al-ilahiyya (see above n. 55).

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intended, and as a result I would find myself in the house of deforma- tion59. Therefore I concealed the king with the queen60, in order to pre- serve this body61. [Yet] later I saw these secrets which the Truth had deposited with it62 and I relied upon Him in bringing them to light. Thus I composed this book in order that these two positions may be known». Ibn al-¨Arabi further emphasizes that discussions in the ¨anqaˆ of the cosmos at large are only meant to clarify internal spiritual matters per- taining to man’s mystical secret. «So view matters rightly, oh wise one, and pay attention, oh neglectful one! Will it benefit me in the world to come if the ruler is just or tyrannical, knowledgeable or perplexed? No, my brother, by Allah! — Only when I view this ruler as [emanating] from me and to me; and appoint my intelligence as an Imam over me; and seek from him the right etiquette according to the religious law, in my internal as well as my external realm (fi ba†ini wa-Âahiri); and pledge allegiance to him on condition that I repair my beginning and my end. If I view matters otherwise, I will perish; but if I avoid being preoccupied by people, I will be able to save myself and act as a sovereign [or gain control, wa-tamallaktu]»63.

59 Bayt al-tashwih: this seems to point to Ibn al-¨Arabi’s fear of being slandered and defamed, or perhaps even tortured and executed. These allusions, however, may be literary or metaphorical rather than literal and concrete. 60 Fa-satartu l-shaha bi-l-firzani: the image is derived from the game of Chess. 61 ∑iyanatan li-hadha l-jismani (or l-juthmani, see Elmore, p. 240 n. 30): the term Òiyana is common in Shi¨ite and Isma¨ili sources and refers to the deposit which must be preserved and concealed; see, for instance, the quote above in n. 32; Ikhwan al-Òafaˆ, Rasaˆil, vol. IV p. 166; al-Qa∂i al-Nu¨man, Da¨aˆim, Vol. I pp. 76; Kohlberg, «Taqiyya in Shi¨i Theology and Religion», p. 353; and Ibn al-¨Arabi, Kitab ¨anqaˆ mughrib, p. 14. The «body» mentioned here is apparently the ¨anqaˆ itself or man, in whom the mystical secret described in this book is hidden. 62 With the «body» mentioned before (see the previous note). This clause can also be rendered «[…] which the Truth had deposited in His presence […]». «The Truth» (al-Ìaqq) is the name of God or the Divine/angelic being who is responsible for Ibn al-¨Arabi’s mystical revelations. 63 Ibn al-¨Arabi, Kitab ¨anqaˆ mughrib, p. 6: «وكنت نويت ٔان ٔاجعل فيه ما ٔاوضحه تارة ٔواخفيه ٔاين يكون من هذه النسخة ٕالانسانية والنشأة الروحانية مقام ٕالامام المهدي المنسوب إلى بيت النبي الماء والطين ٔواين يكون ٔايضا منها ختم الأولياء وطابع الأصفياء إذ الحاجة إلى معرفة هذين المقامين في ٕالانسان آكد من كل مضاهات ٔاكوان الحدثان لكني خفت من نزعة [نزغة :read] العدو والشيطان ٔان يصرح بي في حضرة السلطان فيقول علي ما لا ٔانويه ٔواحصل من ٔاجله في بيت التشويه فسترت الشاة بالعززان [الشاه بالفرزان :read] صيانة لهذا الجسمان ثم ٔرايت ما ٔاودع الحق من

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In this passage, too, the mystical secret pertaining to the Imam-Mahdi and the seal of God’s friends is conceived of as a deposit which must be safeguarded and concealed on the one hand, and disclosed to the worthy ones on the other. Furthermore, Ibn al-¨Arabi is concerned here that satanic elements might slander him «in the presence of the ruler». This «ruler» can be understood either in a literal or in a metaphorical sense64; either way, it is clear that Ibn al-¨Arabi is afraid of upsetting Islamic orthodoxy, for his theory regarding the Mahdi and the seal of God’s friends might be perceived as undermining the status of the Prophet and the ¨ulamaˆ. Ibn al-¨Arabi emphasizes the internal spiritual aspect of being a ruler: the true ruler or Imam are to be found inside man himself and are reflected in his intellectual, spiritual and mystical powers. True allegiance should therefore be pledged to these positive powers; and the individual will thus be able to «act as a sovereign/gain control» in a spiritual sense. Indeed, this emphasis on the internal spiritual domain can be seen as a threat to the authority of Muslim rulers and ¨ulamaˆ — hence Ibn al-¨Arabi’s fear of disclosing the ¨anqaˆ’s secrets. This emphasis can also be viewed as an anti-Shi¨ite/Isma¨ili claim: in Ibn al-¨Arabi’s eyes, the idea of walaya amounts to something more than the physical geneal- ogy of rulers or the political context of their rule. Spiritual salvation (najat) will occur when man perceives himself as a ruler, not when he believes in the Imams, descendents of ¨Ali, as is accepted by the Shi¨ite- Isma¨ili tradition65. Finally, it is important to note that towards the end of the ¨anqaˆ, Ibn al-¨Arabi employs a cryptograph, as is common in various Isma¨ili writ- ings. Usually in these writings, the cryptograph — consisting of Arabic letters, numerals and signs that resemble the ancient south-Arabian

هذه الأسرار لديه وتوكلت في إبرازه عليه فجعلت هذا الكتاب لمعرفة هذين المقامين […] فحقق نظرك ٔايها العاقل وتنبه ٔايها الغافل هل ينفعني في الآخرة كون السلطان عادلا ٔاو جائرا ٔاو عالما ٔاو حائرا لا والله يا ٔاخي حتى ٔانظر ذلك السلطان مني وإلي ٔواجعل عقلي إماما علي ٔواطلب منه الآداب الشرعية في باطني وظاهري ٔوابايعه على إصلاح ٔاولي وآخري فمتى لم ٔاجعل هذا نظري هلكت ومتى ٔاعرضت عن الاشتغال بالناس تمكنت من نجاتي وتملكت […]». 64 See Elmore, p. 239 n. 28. 65 See also J. W. Morris, «Ibn ¨Arabi’s Messianic Secret: From «the Mahdi» to the Imamate of Every Soul», Journal of the Muhyiddin Ibn ¨Arabi Society XXX (2001), pp. 1-18.

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script — is used to conceal harsh statements aimed at the first three Caliphs after MuÌammad and the Umayyads who are perceived in the Shi¨ite-Isma¨ili tradition as evil archenemies, due to their struggle against ¨Ali and his descendents and their denial of the latter’s rights. In the ¨anqaˆ, the cryptograph is used to disguise the name of Jesus, who, according to Ibn al-¨Arabi’s theory, is the seal of the general walaya. In various ¨anqaˆ manuscripts, the Qurˆanic verses that mention Jesus (and to which Ibn al-¨Arabi alludes in the text) are also written in a crypto- graph. According to Elmore, Ibn al-¨Arabi’s fear of divulging the supreme status of Jesus should be understood in the context of the ongoing strug- gle during that period between Christians and Muslims in Andalusia66. Furthermore, the writing technique known as tabdid al-¨ilm («the scat- tering/dispersing of knowledge») is common to both the Shi¨ite-Isma¨ili tradition and the writings of Ibn al-¨Arabi. This technique involves the scattering of secret contents throughout a certain work or literary corpus.

66 See Ibn al-¨Arabi, Kitab ¨anqaˆ mughrib, p. 75 and Elmore, pp. 523-524, 574-579. Examples of the Isma¨ili cryptograph can be seen throughout Ja¨far b. ManÒur al-Yaman’s Kitab al-kashf and Strothmann’s introduction there, pp. 15-38; see also Arba¨a kutub isma¨iliyya (=Gnosis-Texte der Ismailiten), ed. R. Strothmann, Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1943, and the table on p. 178; Ikhwan al-∑afaˆ, al-Risala al-jami¨a, vol. I pp. 521-525, 528-532; M. M. Bar-Asher, «Outlines of Early Isma¨ili-Fa†imid Qurˆan Exegesis», Journal Asiatique 296/2 (2008), pp. 287-289. It seems (on the basis of a pre- liminary examination) that many signs in the Isma¨ili cryptograph (namely, in Kitab al- kashf and Arba¨a kutub isma¨iliyya) are not similar to those found in the ¨anqaˆ manu- scripts. However, the signs in Kitab al-kashf and Arba¨a kutub isma¨iliyya representing the letters j and Ò are indeed similar in some cases to their counterparts in the ¨anqaˆ manu- scripts. Furthermore, several signs in the two cryptograph systems are very similar but represent different letters. For example, the sign representing the letter s in the ¨anqaˆ manuscripts is similar to one of the signs that represent the letter k in the Isma¨ili crypto- graph; the sign representing the letter n in the ¨anqaˆ is similar to the other sign that represents the letter k in the Isma¨ili cryptograph; and the sign representing the letter d in the ¨anqaˆ is similar to one of the signs that represent the letter h in the Isma¨ili crypto- graph. Further research is required in order to outline the similarities and dissimilarities between the two cryptograph systems (including that of the Ikhwan) and to underscore the possible reasons for their emergence. It should also be noted that in the Druze religion (which has its origins in the Isma¨ili tradition), rumuz («hints») and alghaz («riddles») are employed as techniques for transmitting secrets of the faith through letters, numerals, etc.; see Layish, p. 251. Finally, in the Imami as well as in the Isma¨ili literature, the names of the first three Caliphs after MuÌammad are disguised by various epithets, many of which are derogatory; see E. Kohlberg, «Some Imami Shi¨i Views on the ∑aÌaba», Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam 5 (1984), pp. 147, 162-167; and Bar-Asher, «Out- lines», p. 287 n. 95.

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Its goal is to make it difficult for the unworthy readers to discover the secret contents, on the one hand, while at the same time to force the worthy and skilled readers to exert themselves to read the work or corpus over and over again — often in a particular sequence — in order to unveil the hidden secrets. Consequently, the relevant work or literary corpus becomes difficult to understand; the discussion in the passages is often partial, inadequate and vague and is only understood in light of other passages. This technique, which presumably stems from the eso- tericism of late antiquity, is characteristic of the Jabirian corpus and can be found in early Shi¨ite literature, in the epistles of Ikhwan al-∑afaˆ and in the writings of Ibn al-¨Arabi. It should be emphasized that the term that denotes this technique — tabdid — or its derivatives can be found in the Jabirian corpus as well as in the writings of Ibn al-¨Arabi67.

67 See Kraus, 1943, pp. xxvii-xxxiii; Amir-Moezzi, The Divine Guide, pp. 108, 127, 175 n. 241, 229 n. 679; Kohlberg, «Taqiyya in Shi¨i Theology and Religion», p. 372. On the relevant literary characteristics of Ikhwan al-∑afaˆ’s epistles see Encyclopaedia of Islam (Second Edition), s.v. «IKHWAN AL-∑AFAˆ», vol. III pp. 1074-1075. See also Ikhwan al-∑afaˆ, al-Risala al-jami¨a, vol. I pp. 622-623: «The entire epistle, from begin- ning to end, is based on it [on the concept of science or knowledge] and points to it; it is the goal aimed at throughout the whole epistle; it is the object of wisdom and the secret of creation; it is the command [amr, see above n. 33] above the [Universal] Intellect and Soul and below the Creator, Glory be to Him; [it is] His hidden knowledge and His stored secret; it began with Him and to Him it shall return. We cannot talk about it and point to it clearly in one place, but rather we will talk about it and mention it in one chapter here and we will hint at it (wa-narmuzu ilayhi) in other places by the act of indicating [or hint- ing, bi-l-talwiÌ] which is close to explicating (al-taÒriÌ) and by the act of pointing [or hinting, wa-l-ishara] which is close to a clear expression [¨ibara; compare the last clause with Ibn al-¨Arabi’s statement above in p. 332, «divulging by hinting, not explicating; and informing by rousing attention and indicating/hinting»]. (« ٕفان الرسالة كلها بأجمعها من ٔاولها إلى آخرها مبنية عليه مشيرة إليه وهو الغرض المقصود إليه في جميعها وهو موضوع الحكمة وسر الخلقة وهو الأمر الذي فوق العقل والنفس ودون الباري سبحانه وعلمه المكنون وسره المخزون منه ٔبدا وإليه يعود ولا يمكننا القول عليه ٕوالاشارة إليه بالبيان في مكان واحد بل نقوله ونذكره في فصل من هذا الموضع ونرمز إليه في غيره بالتلويح القريب من التصريح ٕوالاشارة القريبة من العبارة»). See also ibid., vol. I pp. 8, 152-153, vol. II p. 3. On the use of the term tabdid or its derivatives by Ibn al-¨Arabi, see, for example, al-FutuÌat, vol. I p. 77 (the introduction): «Concerning the explication of the beliefs of the chosen ones: I did not set aside a specific [chapter] for these beliefs due to their obscurity. However, I have scattered them (jiˆtu biha mubaddadatan) throughout the chapters of this book, complete and clarified; yet, as we have mentioned, they are dispersed [mutafarriqa; on this term in relation to tabdid see Kraus, 1943, p. xxix notes 1, 3]. Therefore, whoever has been granted understanding by Allah in relation to them knows their affair and will distinguish between them and other

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4. Conclusions

Secrecy constitutes an important aspect of religious experience in both the Shi¨ite tradition and Sunnite mysticism. The discussion in this article has focused on the centrality of secrecy in Isma¨ili thought and on some significant links and affinities between Shi¨ite-Isma¨ili esotericism and the esotericism of Ibn al-¨Arabi. The context of secrecy in both these traditions (walaya and eschatology); the way in which secrecy is expressed and symbolized (amana/rahn, ¨ahd and mithaq,); various liter- ary techniques aimed at concealing secret contents (the cryptograph and tabdid al-¨ilm) and more — all these factors point to a deep affinity between Shi¨ite esotericism, especially in its Isma¨ili form, and the eso- tericism of Ibn al-¨Arabi. This affinity, I believe, can also be detected with respect to other topics such as walaya and awliyaˆ, Neoplatonic schemes and concepts, letter speculations, etc. These subjects warrant further discussion and require separate studies which I hope to conduct in due course. What can we make of the affinities between the esotericism of the Shi¨ite-Isma¨ili tradition and that of Ibn al-¨Arabi? They can be explained in a phenomenological and ahistorical way, a perspective that is charac- teristic of Henry Corbin’s work68. Yet, in my view, the material at hand allows us to highlight the historical significance of these affinities. In addition to mutual influences that must have existed in the central and eastern parts of the Islamic world (see above n. 10) between the Shi¨a and Sunnite mysticism in their formative period (up to the 10th Century),

matters; for this constitutes true knowledge and honest speech […]»; see also p. 88: «Concerning the beliefs pertaining to Allah, may He be exalted, of the chosen ones among the unique ones: this is a matter beyond this [matter]. We have scattered it throughout this book, because most minds that are veiled by their thoughts are unable to perceive this matter, since they are unqualified for abstraction». (« ٔواما التصريح بعقيدة الخلاصة فما ٔافردتها على التعيين لما فيها من الغموض لكن جئت بها مبددة في ٔابواب هذا الكتاب مستوفاة مبينة لكنها كما ذكرنا متفرقة فمن رزقه الله الفهم فيها يعرف ٔامرها ويميزها من غيرها ٕفانه العلم الحق والقول الصدق […]»; « ٔواما عقيدة خلاصة الخاصة في الله تعالى فأمر فوق هذا جعلناه مبددا في هذا الكتاب لكون ٔاكثر العقول المحجوبة بأفكارها تقصر عن إدراكه لعدم تجريدها»). 68 See, for example, H. Corbin, Creative Imagination in the ∑ufism of Ibn ¨Arabi (trans- lated by R. Manheim), Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1969, pp. 3-38, 77-101 and s.v. «Ismailianism» in the index.

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one should also consider the possibility that Isma¨ili thought — imported into Egypt and North-Africa by the Fa†imids from the beginning of the 10th Century onwards — had an impact on Andalusian philosophy and mysticism. Strangely enough, this impact has been underscored by mod- ern scholars only in relation to Jewish thought69; and even in this field there is a need for further research, particularly in weighing the evidence from the Jewish tradition vis-à-vis the Islamic data. To highlight this need, I will conclude this article with an example that bears witness to a possible Isma¨ili impact on Jewish Andalusian esotericism. P. Kraus has already pointed out that Maimonides employs the tech- nique of tabdid al-¨ilm in his The Guide of the Perplexed, and that in this context he uses the term mubaddad, derived from tabdid 70. One may add that in the introduction to his book, Maimonides administers an oath to his reader in a way which is very similar to what we have seen in Isma¨ili literature: «I adjure — by God, may He be exalted! [wa-ana uÌlifu bi- llahi ta¨ala, literally: I hereby bind by an oath to God] — every reader of this Treatise of mine not to comment upon a single word of it and not to explain to another anything in it save that which has been explained and commented upon in the words of the famous Sages of our Law who preceded me. But whatever he understands from this Treatise of those things that have not been said by any of our famous Sages other than

69 See, for instance, Sh. Pines, «Shi¨ite Terms and Conceptions in Judah Halevi’s Kuzari», Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam 2 (1980), pp. 165-251; E. Krinis, The Idea of the Chosen People in Judah Halevi’s al-Kitab al-Khazari and its Origins in Shi¨i Imami Doctrine (a doctoral thesis), Beer Sheva: 2008; S. O. H. Wilensky, «The ‘First Created Being’ In Early : Philosophical and Isma¨ilian Sources», Binah: Studies in Jewish History, Thought and Culture 3 (1994), pp. 65-77; A. L. Ivry, «Isma¨ili Theo- logy and Maimonides’ Philosophy», in D. Frank (ed.) The Jews of Medieval Islam: Com- munity, Society, and Identity (Proceedings of an International Conference Held by the Institute of Jewish Studies, University College London, 1992), Leiden: Brill, 1995, pp. 271-299. A. E. Affifi has indeed called attention to a possible Isma¨ili influence on Ibn al-¨Arabi, especially via the epistles of Ikhwan al-Òafaˆ; see his work The Mystical Philosophy of Muhyid Din-Ibnul Arabi, Lahore: Sh. Ashraf, 1964 (a reprint of the 1939 Cambridge edition), pp. 182, 184-188, and s.v. «IkhwanuÒ-∑afa» and «Isma¨ilis» in the index. However, the affinities between Isma¨ili thought and Ibn al-¨Arabi’s writings deserve much more attention. 70 See Kraus, 1943, p. xxxii; Moshe ben Maymon, Dalalat al-Ìaˆirina, ed. Sh. Munk, Paris: 1856, vol. I p. 3; translated by Sh. Pines, The Guide of the Perplexed, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1963, vol. I p. 6 (3b). On the links and affinities between Maimonides’s philosophy and Isma¨ili thought see Ivry, esp. pp. 282-284, 298.

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myself should not be explained to another; nor should he hasten to refute me, for that which he understood me to say might be contrary to my intention. He thus would harm me in return for my having wanted to benefit him and would repay evil for good»71. The existence of a powerful and dominant Isma¨ili Empire in Egypt and North-Africa during the 10th-12th centuries — an empire which main- tained an important esoteric tradition — strengthens the hypothesis posed in this article, namely that Shi¨ite-Isma¨ili esotericism had a far greater impact than has hitherto been acknowledged on Andalusian mysticism and esotericism, in Islam and beyond.

SUMMARY The article surveys some of the main features and functions of secrecy in Shi¨ism, primarily in the Isma¨ili tradition. It discusses the terms taqiyya and kitman and elucidates their two aspects: that of survival and that of esotericism. In addition, the article describes the role of secrecy in the thought of the famous Andalusian Sunnite mystic MuÌyi al-Din Ibn al-¨Arabi, with the aim of underscoring links and affinities between Shi¨ite-Isma¨ili esotericism and the esotericism of Ibn al-¨Arabi. The theory propounded by the author is that in addition to early mutual influences between the Shi¨ite world and Sunnite mysticism, Isma¨ili thought (imported into Egypt and North-Africa by the Fa†imid empire) had an impact on the development of Andalusian philosophy and mysticism. Keywords: Shi¨ism, Isma¨ilis, Ibn al-¨Arabi, Islamic mysticism, esotericism, secrecy, Andalus, Fa†imids, taqiyya, kitman.

RÉSUMÉ Cet article rend compte de plusieurs des traits et fonctions essentiels du secret dans le shi¨isme, notamment dans la tradition ismaélienne. Examinant les termes taqiyya et kitman, il en éclaire les deux dimensions: souci de sécurité et ésoté- risme. Il décrit aussi le rôle du secret dans la pensée du célèbre mystique sunnite

71 Pines’s translation, p. 15 (9a) for the Arabic source see Munk’s edition, vol. I p. 9. The hypothesis posed here is not meant to detract from the importance of the general philosophical framework in which Maimonides was operating: the general rule in Arabic- during medieval times was that one must hide the philosophical truth from the «common people» (¨amma, cf. above n. 19); see S. Harvey, «Islamic Philosophy and », in P. Adamson and R. C. Taylor (eds.) The Cambridge Compan- ion to Arabic Philosophy, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005, pp. 357-361.

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andalou MuÌyi al-Din Ibn al-¨Arabi en vue de mettre en évidence les liens et les affinités de son ésotérisme avec celui du shi¨isme ismaélien. L’auteur de cet article propose l’hypothèse suivante: outre les influences mutuelles anciennes qui s’exercèrent entre le monde shi¨ite et le mysticisme sunnite, la pensée ismaé- lienne (que l’Empire fatimide importa en Égypte et en Afrique du Nord) influença le développement de la philosophie et du mysticisme andalou. Mots-clés: shi¨isme, ismaéliens, Ibn al-¨Arabi, mysticisme islamique, ésotérisme, secret, Andalous, Fatimides, taqiyya, kitman.

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