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Secrecy in Isma¨Ili Tradition and in the Mystical Thought of Ibn Al-¨Arabi

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Secrecy in Isma¨Ili Tradition and in the Mystical Thought of Ibn Al-¨Arabi SECRECY IN ISMA¨ILI TRADITION AND IN THE MYSTICAL THOUGHT OF IBN AL-¨ARABI BY MICHAEL EBSTEIN1 Secrecy plays an important role in human culture in general and in religious traditions in particular. The desire to conceal beliefs and doc- trines, for whatever reasons, is universal; it is manifested in various reli- gions and philosophical traditions in the ancient world, from Hellenistic and Roman times, to the medieval period, to the modern era2. In Islam, secrecy and the different aspects related to it are characteristic of both the Shi¨ite tradition and Sunnite mysticism. The aim of this article is twofold: first, to elucidate some of the main features and functions of secrecy in Shi¨ism and Sunnite mysticism, primarily in the Isma¨ili tradition and in the mystical thought of Ibn al-¨Arabi; and secondly, to underscore possible links and affinities between Andalusian mysticism — here represented mainly by Ibn al-¨Arabi — and Isma¨ili doctrines. The importance of these links and affinities for the study of the history of Islamic thought and especially that of Islamic mysticism and esotericism will be discussed in the con- cluding paragraph of this article. 1 The following article is based on my doctoral thesis, «Philosophy, Mysticism and Esotericism: Isma¨ili Thought and Andalusian Mysticism», currently being written under the supervision of Prof. Meir Bar-Asher and Prof. Sara Sviri from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. I wish to thank them both for their important comments on this article and for their assistance throughout my work. 2 See K. W. Bolle (ed.), Secrecy in Religions, Leiden: Brill, 1987; H. G. Kippenberg and G. G. Stroumsa (eds.), Secrecy and Concealment: Studies in the History of Mediter- ranean and Near Eastern Religions, Leiden: Brill, 1995; E. R. Wolfson (ed.), Rending the Veil: Concealment and Secrecy in the History of Religions, New York: Seven Bridges Press, 1999; G. G. Stroumsa, Hidden Wisdom: Esoteric Traditions and the Roots of Chris- tian Mysticism, Leiden: Brill, 2005; The Encyclopedia of Religion (ed. M. Eliade, 1987), s.v. «ESOTERICISM», vol. V pp. 156-163 (A. Faivre). Journal Asiatique 298.2 (2010): 303-343 doi: 10.2143/JA.298.2.2062437 993806_JA_2010_2_CS4ME_02_.indd3806_JA_2010_2_CS4ME_02_.indd 303303 114/02/114/02/11 008:408:40 304 M. EBSTEIN 1. The Shi¨ite Background: Taqiyya and Kitman In early Islam, the concept of secrecy was most highly developed in the Shi¨ite milieu. The two main terms in Shi¨ite tradition pertaining to this concept are taqiyya (prudence, the concealment of true beliefs, or dissimulation) and kitman (secrecy or concealment). Though the term taqiyya may have originated among antigovernment groups known as khawarij3, there is no doubt that taqiyya was the most prominent in Shi¨ite circles. The centrality of secrecy in the Shi¨ite tradition is due first of all to the complex and problematic relationship between the Shi¨ites and their Sun- nite rivals. Shi¨ite claims regarding the nature of political-religious rule, the rapport between the believer and his ideal leader (the Imam) and the very essence of religious belief itself constituted a threat, both political and religious, to the Sunnite majority throughout Islamic history. As a minority group, the Shi¨ites were forced to develop a strategy of prudence and secrecy that would enable them to adhere to their faith while living in a hostile Sunnite environment. The principles of taqiyya and kitman were thus adopted by most Shi¨ite sects, namely: the Imamis or Ithna ¨Asharis (the «Twelvers»), the Isma¨ilis, the Druzes (who had split from the Isma¨ilis in the first half of the 11th century) and the heterodox NuÒayris4. True, most Zaydis objected to the use of taqiyya and advo- 3 See E. Kohlberg, «Taqiyya in Shi¨i Theology and Religion», in Kippenberg and Stroumsa (eds.) Secrecy and Concealment, p. 361; M. A. Amir-Moezzi, The Divine Guide in Early Shi¨ism: the Sources of Esotericism in Islam (translated by D. Streight), Albany: State University of New York Press, 1994, p. 230 n. 680; M. Hodgson, «Isma¨ili Piety: Esotericism and Hierarchy», in S. H. Nasr, H. Dabashi and S. V. R. Nasr (eds.) Shi¨ism: Doctrines, Thought, and Spirituality, Albany: State University of New York Press, 1988, p. 90. On the khawarij see the Encyclopaedia of Islam (Second Edition), s.v. «KHARID- JITES», vol. IV pp. 1074-1077 (G. L. Della Vida). 4 See the Encyclopaedia of Islam (Second Edition), s.v. «TAËIYYA», vol. X pp. 134- 135 (R. Strothmann and M. Djebli); I. Goldziher, «Das Prinzip der taÈijja im Islam», Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft 60 (1906), pp. 213-226; E. Meyer, «Anlass und Anwendungsbereich der taqiyya», Der Islam 57 (1980), pp. 247- 280; Kohlberg, «Taqiyya in Shi¨i Theology and Religion», pp. 345-380; idem, «Some Imami-Shi¨i Views on Taqiyya», Journal of American Oriental Society 95 (1975), pp. 395- 402 (reprinted in E. Kohlberg, Belief and Law in Imami Shi¨ism, Aldershot: Variorum, 1991, III); M. A. Amir-Moezzi, La religion discréte: croyances et pratiques spirituelles dans l’islam shi¨ite, Paris: J. Vrin, 2006, s.v. «taqiyya» in the index; idem, «Dissimula- tion», in The Encyclopaedia of the Qurˆan (ed. J. D. McAuliffe), Leiden: Brill, 2001-2006, Journal Asiatique 298.2 (2010): 303-343 993806_JA_2010_2_CS4ME_02_.indd3806_JA_2010_2_CS4ME_02_.indd 304304 114/02/114/02/11 008:408:40 SECRECY IN ISMA{ILI TRADITION AND IN MYSTICAL THOUGHT 305 cated a more active and militant approach towards their Sunnite foes (one known as khuruj, «going forth», as opposed to qu¨ud, «sitting»). A sim- ilar attitude can also be found in various Imami and Isma¨ili traditions; rather than commending the principle of taqiyya, these traditions empha- size and praise jihad (holy war or war conducted according to the laws of the Shari¨a) and shahada or istishhad (martyrdom)5. In addition, taqi- yya as a precautionary measure was less important for Imami and Isma¨ili believers who lived under pro-Imami or under Isma¨ili rule — for instance, during the reign of the Buwayhid (945-1055) and Fa†imid (909- 1171) dynasties. Nevertheless, taqiyya and kitman clearly constitute a central and important component of most Shi¨ite doctrines. As a rule, Shi¨ite believers were required to conceal all their specifi- cally Shi¨ite doctrines, such as the identity of their Imams (to them, the sole legitimate rulers of the Islamic community, who are descendents of ¨Ali b. Abi ™alib, the cousin of the Prophet MuÌammad and his son in law); the identity of their Mahdi («the rightly guided one», i.e. the Shi¨ite ‘messiah’) and the time of his eschatological reappearance; the Imams’ unique spiritual status — for instance, the special knowledge they possess and their ability to perform miracles and communicate with angels (hence the term muÌaddathun, «those who are spoken to»); and more. The Shi¨ite believers are even allowed — or obliged, depending on the socio- political circumstances and the relevant legal opinion — to manifest out- wardly doctrines that contradict their true beliefs. In this connection, a differentiation is drawn in Shi¨ite sources between the external realm vol. I pp. 540-542 (I thank the editors of Journal Asiatique for the last two references); F. Daftary, The Isma¨ilis: Their History and Doctrines, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990. s.v. «taqiyya» in the index; D. Steigerwald, «La dissimulation (taqiyya) de la foi dans le Shi¨isme Ismaélien», Studies in Religion (=Sciences religieuses) 27/1 (1998), pp. 39-59; A. Layish, «Taqiyya Among the Druzes», Asian and African Studies 19 (1985), pp. 245-281; N. M. Abu-Izzeddin, The Druzes: A New Study of Their History, Faith and Society, Leiden: Brill, 1984, pp. 119-120; K. M. Firro, A History of the Druzes, Leiden: Brill, 1992, pp. 20-23; M. M. Bar-Asher and A. Kofsky, «Dogma and Ritual in Kitab al-Ma¨arif by the NuÒayri Theologian Abu Sa¨id Maymun b. al-Qasim al-™abarani (d. 426/1034-35)», Arabica LII/1 (2005), pp. 51, 62-65. 5 Kohlberg, «Taqiyya in Shi¨i Theology and Religion», pp. 354 n. 50, 365-367, 378; idem, «Some Imami-Shi¨i Views on Taqiyya», pp. 398-401. On the Zaydis see the Ency- clopaedia of Islam (Second Edition), s.v. «ZAYDIYYA», vol. XI pp. 477-480 (W. Made- lung). Journal Asiatique 298.2 (2010): 303-343 993806_JA_2010_2_CS4ME_02_.indd3806_JA_2010_2_CS4ME_02_.indd 305305 114/02/114/02/11 008:408:40 306 M. EBSTEIN (Âahir) and the internal one (ba†in): the believer may act outwardly in a way which goes against Shi¨ite doctrines, as long as his internal belief remains unwavering6. However, secrecy in Shi¨ite tradition is not only a means of securing the believers’ survival in a hostile and dangerous environment. Rather, Shi¨ite secrecy has an important esoteric role: to protect the sacred Shi¨ite faith. In this sense, the Shi¨ite faith is perceived as a secret that must be concealed — not only from external enemies, but also from fellow Shi¨ite believers who are not qualified to understand the full true meaning of their faith. The purpose of concealment is thus to protect the secret faith itself and at the same time to maintain the religious stability and spiritual wellbeing of those believers who are unable to comprehend the secrets of their faith7. Moreover, the concealment of the secret faith on the one hand, and its slow and gradual disclosure to the initiates on the other, are perceived as an essential component of religion itself; they are viewed as an imperative condition for the faith’s efficacy and often shape its very character and relevant rituals.
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