C LIMATE A LERT

A Publication of the Climate Institute | Protecting the balance between climate and life on Earth How does black carbon

change the climate debate?

Volume 19, No. 4 No. 19, Volume

— Autumn 2009 Autumn

WITH ANALYSIS OF SOURCES • EFFECTS Autumn 2009 CHALLENGES • SOLUTIONS Volume 19, No. 4 Climate Alert A MESSAGE FROM THE PRESIDENT The past three years ward a shorter time period, perhaps 20 (from inefficient two stroke engines, die- have seen a cascade of years rather than 100, to calculate Global sel particulates, etc.) and about 8% to findings suggesting that Warming Potential (GWP). the industrial sector. Together with resi- climate change may be Already, much greater attention is dential sector emissions, these are a ma- happening far faster than being paid to the need for accelerated jor factor in the outdoor air pollution that any of us had anticipated, and that it may reductions of black carbon. The Pacific claims about 800,000 lives each year. be feeding on itself much as a cancer dev- island nation of Micronesia, working An innovative strategy to slash black astates a previously healthy body. How- closely with the Institute for Governance carbon may have many elements: ever, thanks to recent enterprising work and Sustainable Development, has man- Establish a value for black carbon in by climate scientists, perceptive analysts, aged to include discussions of black car- greenhouse trading systems; and leaders of small island states, human- bon reductions in the ongoing climate Build black carbon into a life cycle ity may have an opportunity to prevent negotiations. The United Nations Envi- analysis of greenhouse drivers being catastrophic climate change. ronment Programme (UNEP) has developed for an ISO that may shape In March 2008, Ramanathan and Car- launched a concerted effort to assess investment patterns; michael published an article indicating how black carbon reductions might play Move GWPs to a shorter time frame that black carbon, a key component of a role in climate stabilization. The United to encourage more near-term reduc- soot from incomplete combustion of fos- Nations Foundation, already committed tions in radiative forcing; sil fuels and biomass, plays a very powerful to a clean cookstove initiative to save Foster experimentation with strategies role in the radiative forcing driving the cli- lives, now sees this effort as having that combine climate and air quality mate change that we are now experiencing. added value in reducing the radiative protection (already several states in Refining the calculations used by the IPCC in forcing that is driving much of the current Central Mexico that hope to have a re- its Fourth Assessment Report published in warming, melting polar ice, and threaten- gional emissions agreement in place be- early 2007, they estimated that the warm- ing island states and coastal regions alike. fore COP 16 seek to include black carbon); ing caused by atmospheric black carbon There is a huge win-win potential if we Highlight benefits of black carbon between 2000-2003 was equivalent to 55% can get this right. About 26% of black reductions in reducing particulate of the warming caused by atmospheric CO2 carbon comes from the residential sector deposition in regions such as the Hi- over the same period. Even 55% may - essentially from incomplete combustion malayas and thus slowing glacial melt underestimate black carbon’s total effect, in cookstoves that burn fossil fuel and that affects future water supplies; as it does not allow for the changed al- biomass. The health and climate bene- Develop a cookstove transformation bedo from deposition of black carbon on fits of transforming the world’s stove that engages the ingenuity of grass- Himalayan, Andean and other glaciers culture are enormous. Over 1.9 million roots NGOs, entrepreneurs and com- and on snow and ice across the planet. people worldwide, roughly 85% women munications media; and In June 2008, Dr. Michael Mac- and children, die annually from indoor Remove barriers to recycling of indus- Cracken, the Climate Institute’s Chief air pollution from stoves. Technologies trial waste heat for electricity. Scientist for Climate Change Programs, already exist that can make a difference It is short-sighted to view black carbon wrote a landmark paper proposing North at manageable costs even if applied to as a problem only for developing coun- -South reciprocal climate action. Under the roughly 780 million traditional cook- tries. In the US, per capita emissions are this plan, richer countries would move stoves across the planet: about $100 will slightly above the global average. Reduc- on all fronts toward climate stabilization buy a solar oven that achieves 100% tions are underway in the transportation while industrializing countries would black carbon reductions, and $25 buys a sector due to tougher diesel particulate focus on reducing emissions of black more efficient burner of biomass or fossil standards and fleet turnover. Still, archaic carbon and short-lived greenhouse gases fuel that can achieve 80% reductions. anti-competitive rules inhibit energy re- such as methane, as well as implement- Besides saving millions of lives over the cycling. Not only do these rules squander ing win-win CO2 control measures such next decade and freeing women from low cost reductions of carbon dioxide, as ending deforestation and increasing much of the drudgery in biomass gather- they also forego large potential additional energy efficiency. Working with Frances ing, the potential climate benefits are reductions in black carbon emissions. A Moore, Dr. MacCracken has proposed a startling. Eliminating all black carbon concerted effort in countries North and Lifetime Leveraging Framework that emissions from cookstoves over 20 years South alike would not only save many would enhance incentives to achieve would be roughly equivalent to changing lives but also give hope to the people of near- and medium-term reductions. every car and light truck on Earth to a the Maldives and Micronesia that they These would include establishing a value zero carbon dioxide emitter. About 19% may have a future in the 22nd century. for black carbon in emissions trading and of black carbon emissions globally are related credit systems and moving to- attributable to the transportation sector Commentary by John C. Topping, Jr. Page 2 Climate Institute | www.climate.org Volume 19, No. 4 Black Carbon: An Emerging Climate Change Culprit Sir Crispin Tickell, Climate Institute Chairman Emeritus

n the last few years, climate change ticularly for those, usually women, who What then should be done if black in one form or another has entered live by home cook fires in India and China. carbon emissions are to be reduced? I public debate. Of course There is the usual difficulty global climate and local weather Radiative Forcing (watts per square meter) in fixing priorities. They re- are always changing, but it is the late to most other issues at idea that human activities, par- From IPCC AR4 (2007) Copenhagen. Obviously we 2 ticularly since the industrial Carbon Dioxide (CO2) 1.66 W/m need to tackle energy policy, 2 revolution, are responsible for Methane (CH4) 0.48 W/m reduce dependence on fossil dangerous and accelerating 2 fuels, improve energy effi- change, that is now causing Black carbon in the atmosphere 0.44 W/m ciency and invest in new alarm. Successive Assessments Black carbon deposited on snow and ice 0.10 W/m2 transport technologies. We of the Intergovernmental Panel also need to ban or regulate on Climate Change have brought From Ramanathan & Carmichael (2008) slash-and-burn clearing of out the role of such greenhouse Black carbon in the atmosphere 0.90 W/m2 forests, limit combustion of gases as carbon dioxide and agricultural and other methane in promoting global warming In the light of recent research it has wastes, and introduce new systems for and climatic destabilization, but so far the been suggested that the warming effects home cooking stoves and heating. Se- importance of black carbon, otherwise of black carbon exceed those of all questration of biochar will also be impor- known as soot has been underestimated. greenhouse gases except carbon dioxide. tant. The list is long and connected with This is now changing as a result of current Obviously many uncertainties remain. virtually all other environmental prob- scientific research, notably by V. Rama- But at least it should be a prime subject lems, including resource depletion, hu- nathan at the Scripps Institution at La Jolla. for discussion at the forthcoming meet- man population increase and migration, Soot is usually associated with local ing of the signatories to the UN Frame- and loss of biodiversity. pollution rather than global warming. It work Convention on Climate Change Perhaps most difficult will be how to comes from smoke arising from burning (COP 15) at Copenhagen in December. combine practical measures on the in all its forms, ranging from forest fires, Unlike the effects of greenhouse gases ground with distribution of financial help power stations and cooking stoves to which remain in the atmosphere for hun- between countries. In short, who should diesel exhaust from vehicles. It has cre- dreds of years, reductions in black carbon pay for what. Still more important will ated the famous atmospheric brown could have effects within days or weeks. be the creation of some institution to cloud which, when seen from space, cov- It is never easy to attribute responsi- regulate and enforce whatever agree- ers much of Asia, and sprinkles black bility for black carbon emissions, but in ment can be reached. My own view is droplets as far away as the Arctic and the global terms the largest emissions come that sooner rather than later we need a Antarctic. The science is far from simple from South and East Asia as a product of World Environment Organization to be or even certain. Some of the compo- biomass burning, and in per capita terms the partner of the World Trade Organiza-

The warming caused by 460 tons of CO2 The warming caused by one ton of black carbon over a 100-year period over its 1-2 week lifetime is equal to: The warming caused by 1600 tons of CO2 Based on IPCC data over a 20-year period nents of black carbon can reflect solar from the United States, Europe and the tion, and coordinate the 200 or more radiation back into space, and therefore OECD countries as a product of power environmental and related agreements have cooling effects. But in general it generation and use of diesel in cars and which already exist. Reduction of black has warming effects, notably on ice and heavy trucks. There is obviously room carbon is too important to become the snow cover, whether at the Poles or for contentious debate at Copenhagen occasion for point-scoring in conference along such mountain ranges as the Hima- not only on responsibility for what is debate. It is overwhelmingly in the inter- layas and the Andes. It may reduce mois- already happening but also on issues of est of every country and every person in ture in the atmosphere and thus affect human health. We also need properly the world. It is also a great opportunity patterns of rainfall. The monsoon could funded research to improve understand- for helping to avert what could other- be particularly affected. It is also pro- ing of an especially complex set of issues. wise be a climate tragedy of unknowable foundly damaging for human health, par- proportions.

Page 3 Climate Institute | [email protected] Climate Alert THE ACHIEVABLE PATH TO CLIMATE PROTECTION

Dr. Michael MacCracken, Chief Scientist for Climate Change Programs, Climate Institute The world is warming, sea level is rising, latitudes. But this is a problem as well in relatively quickly. The world must start sea ice and glaciers are melting back, lower latitudes, and the CO2 concentra- acting aggressively and comprehensively permafrost is thawing, ice sheets are tion projected for 2050 will cause ocean to reduce emissions. First, the developed losing mass, ranges of plant and animal chemistry to be unsuitable for coral reefs nations, which have relatively high per species are shifting poleward, and, de- around the world. Thus, not only are the capita emissions, must make very large pending on location and time, extreme coral atolls that are home to many island reductions in their emissions of CO2 and precipitation is becom- the other (i.e., non-CO2) ing more intense while Figure 1: Black Carbon Emissions in 2000 greenhouse gases. drought and wildfire are Open Burning Without such reduc- likewise intensifying. tions, there is no 3.5 Closed Combustion There is no question chance of limiting that the climate is 3.0 global warming to the changing, and there is 2.5 2°C (3.6°F) increase no viable alternative to over preindustrial that 2.0 the primary cause of is increasingly being global warming being 1.5 recognized as the combustion of coal, oil, 1.0 t h r e s h o l d f o r and natural gas. Con- Megatons(Mt) ‘dangerous’ conse- 0.5 tinuing to rely on these quences and impacts. fossil fuels for energy 0.0 The more challenging and allowing uncon- US/Canada Latin America Europe/Former Africa Asia/Oceania USSR question is to define strained emissions of Data from: Bond et al, 2007 the role for the devel- carbon dioxide will surely oping nations, because lead to much more warming, many more nations threatened by sea level rise, but their contribution to reducing climate impacts, and quite possibly exceeding also by the more acidic ocean waters. change over coming decades has to al- thresholds that could greatly accelerate the The world community simply has to low for generation of the additional en- pace of warming and associated impacts. take action to halt this destructive on- ergy needed to raise their populations Even if societies around the world slaught, and many favor taking action. out of poverty — basically, if one is not could adapt to all of these impacts, the The problem is that roughly 80% of the going to survive until next year, it makes rising atmospheric CO2 concentration is world’s energy comes from fossil fuels; little sense to worry about impacts over pushing more and more CO2 into the the only way to cut CO2 emissions to decades. Fortunately, there are actions The problem is that roughly 80% near zero is to completely transform the that can be taken by developing nations global energy system, and this will take of the world’s energy comes decades, decades the environment can- The under-appreciated path to from fossil fuels; the only way to not easily withstand. climate protection is for the cut CO2 emissions to near zero is developing countries… to So, is there no hope? Have we simply to completely transform the substantially reduce their waited too long after the first report on global energy system, and this this problem went to President Johnson emissions of the non-CO2 will take decades, decades the and Congress in 1965? Has all the clamor- greenhouse gases and climate environment cannot easily ing about the details of the science not be- warming black soot. withstand. ing firm enough cost us the global land- scape and coastline on which we all directly that will both limit climate change and ocean. As this occurs, the ocean is be- or indirectly depend? Are all the conflicts in simultaneously improve their economies, coming more acidic. The result is that viewpoint between the developed and de- their environment, and the health and organisms that make their shells and veloping nations just imitating Nero, playing well-being of their citizens. skeletons from the dissolved carbonate games while the world starts to burn? The under-appreciated path to climate are less able to do so. Indeed, the depth We believe there is still a path through protection is for the developing coun- in the ocean at which shells and skeletons to a world with only modest impacts to tries, in addition to committing to sub- dissolve is rising toward the ocean surface, the environment and society—but it is a stantial improvement in energy effi- especially in the colder waters in high narrow path and the sides are closing in ciency (which will improve their eco-

Page 4 Climate Institute | www.climate.org Volume 19, No. 4 nomic development) and reversing de- For black soot, the case is even Further black carbon reading forestation (which will help preserve stronger. Emissions of black soot are just from Climate Institute authors: valuable soils and biodiversity), to sub- throwing away unburned fuel, plus they stantially reduce their emissions of the are a very important health threat. With Scientific Expert Group on Climate Change (SEG), 2007: Confronting Climate non-CO2 greenhouse gases and climate respect to their climatic influence, on a Change: Avoiding the Unmanageable warming black soot. The non-CO2, and per unit mass basis, black carbon exerts a particularly short-lived, greenhouse warming influence hundreds of times as and Managing the Unavoidable, Rosina M. Bierbaum, John P. Holdren, Michael gases include methane, air pollutants much as CO2; in addition, if the black that increase the tropospheric ozone carbon is deposited on mountain gla- C. MacCracken, Richard H. Moss, and concentration, and black carbon, which is ciers, melting is accelerated, and so Peter H. Raven (eds.), Report prepared the subject of this for the United Nations issue of Climate Alert. Figure 2: Black Carbon Emissions 2000, Per Capita Commission on Sus- tainable Development Each of these spe- Open Burning by Sigma Xi, Research cies exerts a very 3.0 Closed Combustion Triangle Park, NC, and large warming influ- 2.5 the United Nations ence on the atmos- Foundation, Washing- phere compared to 2.0 ton, DC, 144 pp. the same mass of emissions of carbon 1.5 MacCracken, M. C., dioxide. For methane 2008: Prospects for 1.0 the ratio is 22 if inte- Future Climate Change and the Reasons for grated over 100 years, 0.5 but, more importantly, people 1,000 Tons per Early Action, Journal of is 75 if integrated over 0.0 the Air and Waste the 20 years when its US/Canada Latin America Europe/Former Africa Asia/Oceania Management Associa- USSR tion, 58, 735-786. influence is strongest. Data from: Bond et al, 2007; UN Statistics Division

Methane (CH4) emis- sions can be economically reduced by greatly affecting water resources. Cost MacCracken, M.C., 2009: Moderating capturing leaks from coal mines (causing effective technologies exist to reduce Climate Change by Limiting Emissions of explosions if not evacuated), waste treat- these emissions, as has largely, but not Both Short– and Long-Lived Greenhouse ment, landfills, and the fossil fuel distri- yet sufficiently, been accomplished by Gases, To appear in the Proceedings of bution system. Even emissions from agri- the developed nations. the 42nd Session of the International culture (rice growing, ruminants, etc.) Thus, not surprisingly, although devel- Seminars on Planetary Emergencies, can be substantially reduced. Once cap- oping nations are generally unwilling to August 20-23, 2009, Erice, Italy. tured, methane (chemically equivalent to accept hard limits on their overall CO2 Moore, F. C., and M. C. MacCracken, natural gas) is an energy source, which emissions as that would relegate their 2009: Mitigation of Short-Lived Green- helps to pay for its capture. people to a seriously limited standard of house Gases as the Foundation for a Fair The air pollutants leading to tropo- living, reducing their emissions of meth- and Effective Climate Compromise be- spheric ozone include emissions of vola- ane, ozone-producing pollutants, and tween China and the West, submitted to tile organics, nitrogen oxides, and carbon especially black carbon would substan- the Conference on China and Global Cli- monoxide. The largest ozone influence is tially reduce the near-term warming in- mate Change, June 18-19, 2009, Lingnan typically in and around major cities fluence of their overall emissions and University, Hong Kong, China. Confer- where the more common name for this temporarily offset the growth in warming ence website: http://www.ln.edu.hk/ caps/conference.php mixture is photochemical smog. For the influence caused by their ongoing CO2 health and well-being of their citizens, it emissions. By contributing in this way Moore, F. C., and M. C. MacCracken, is vital that developing nations reduce until the developed countries demon- 2009: Lifetime-leveraging: An approach their high pollution levels, and many are strate how a modern economy can pros- to achieving international agreement and already setting automobile emission per with low per capita greenhouse gas effective climate protection using mitiga- standards to do just this. Not only will emissions, the developing nations would tion of short-lived greenhouse gases, such actions improve health, but they be making a very substantial contribution International Journal of Climate Change will also lead to lower costs by improving to the partnership that must develop Strategies and Management 1, 42-62. fuel efficiency and, fortunately, and quite among all nations in order to have a good fortuitously, these actions will also help chance of really protecting the climate. to limit global warming.

Page 5 Climate Institute | [email protected] Climate Alert Opportunities to Reduce Black Carbon Emissions John-Michael Cross Black carbon is a major contributor to black carbon, with the rest from burning signed to reduce particulate matter in climate change. Fortunately, technolo- agricultural residue, animal waste, and general, but stoves engineered specifi- gies to reduce black carbon are, for the diesel fuel. cally for black carbon could potentially most part, available and cost-effective. Portable cookstove technology is the see reductions closer to 80%. Envirofit The primary obstacles to black carbon primary short-term solution to address International, a non-profit clean energy mitigation are the distribution and adop- residential black carbon. Longer-term op- product developer, has designed a cook- tion of these technologies. Black carbon tions are tied in closely with development, stove that reduces total particulate emis- emissions per capita are spread fairly such as the ability to cook with electricity or sions by 80% and fuel consumption by evenly by region, (see Figure 2 on p. 5) gas. The two main categories of portable 60%. The cookstove, which retails for US meaning mitigation must be a global cookstoves are improved-combustion $25 and comes with a 5-year warranty, effort. Countries should adopt appropri- stoves and solar-powered stoves. has sold 60,000 units in India in the past ate technologies according to each coun- year and will soon be introduced to new try’s emissions profile and economy. Solar stoves eliminate the need for markets. fuel and thus emit no black carbon. This Eight megatons of black carbon are alone makes solar stoves a promising The transportation sector emits nearly emitted annually. Of that, 4.7 megatons, option, but the technology presents sev- 19% of global black carbon. On-road or 59%, are emitted through closed com- eral issues. For one, as is the case with engines account for 62% of these emis- bustion sources, including cooking fires any solar technology, lack of adequate sions, with the remainder due to off-road and diesel engines. The remaining 41% is sunshine makes the stove inoperable, sources such as ships, trains, construc- emitted through the open burning of which limits its usefulness. There are tion vehicles, and farming equipment. biomass. (See Figure 4 on p. 7) For the also durability issues, as well as cultural Both on- and off-road emissions are pre- purposes of this article, open burning will barriers to switching to non-flame-based dominantly attributable to diesel fuel be set aside, as it is too intertwined with heat, as this will have an effect on the use. Black carbon from transportation is the issues of deforestation and land deg- taste of food. Finally, the cost of some heavily concentrated in urban areas; radation to go into detail here. Offered models, US $100 for a single-family stove reducing these emissions will lead to instead are means to reduce emissions in and $400 for a community stove, will improved urban air quality. the three key areas of closed combus- likely prove prohibitive when compared Reducing black carbon from the trans- tion: residential, transportation, and in- with improved-combustion stoves. port sector first requires an upgrade to dustrial sources. Improved-combustion stoves use tra- higher quality, low-sulfur diesel fuel. In Residential emissions constitute 26% ditional fuels, but with an optimized air- many countries, the sulfur content in of global black carbon. Emissions result flow that reduces emissions through diesel is often 500 parts per million or from inefficient combustion of fuel for cleaner burning and improved fuel effi- higher. Black carbon reductions are best home heating and cooking, largely in the ciency. Black carbon savings vary by achieved with the use of ultra-low sulfur developing world. Wood and coal use stove design, with the high end roughly diesel (ULSD), defined as 15 parts per account for two-thirds of residential near 50%. Stoves have mostly been de- million sulfur or less. In the United States, ULSD costs a premium of US Data from: $0.08 per gallon at retail. Figure 3: Black Carbon Emissions from Closed Bond et al, 2007 On its own, ULSD only marginally re- Combustion 1900-2000 duces black carbon. It must be used in 2.4 tandem with improved engine technolo- gies to achieve the maximum benefit. 2.0 Thus, there is a need to accelerate the 1.6 turnover of diesel fleets to new, more 1.2 efficient models. 2007-model diesel engine buses and trucks emit 90% less 0.8 pollution than 2004 models, including a 99% reduction in black carbon and other Megatons (Mt) Megatons 0.4 fine particulates. Ensuring that these 0.0 standards are present in all of the 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 350,000 buses sold globally each year will lead to large gains as fleets turn USA / Europe East Asia South Asia Latin America / Africa over. Accelerating the rate of turnover

Page 6 Climate Institute | www.climate.org Volume 19, No. 4

LOCAL AIR POLLUTION AND HUMAN HEALTH Dr. Devra Davis, Climate Institute Board of Directors; Author, When Smoke Ran Like Water Much of the public discussion on climate Black carbon, as a component of soot, human health is borne by people in de- change has been focused on long-term can constitute a major component of air veloping countries as a result of tradi- effects such as warmer temperatures, pollution as either an aerosol or sus- tional cooking or heating methods in the higher sea levels, extreme weather pended particulate matter. Found in both home. In addition, citizens in these re- events, alterations in the ecology of in- indoor and outdoor air pollution, black gions usually lack access to cleaner tech- fectious diseases, and radical changes in carbon can have a variety of negative nologies in industry and transportation, land use. However, what is frequently left impacts on human health. Worldwide, two sectors that contribute the most out of the conversation is the fact that three billion people rely on traditional black carbon to outdoor air pollution. some of the same actions that reduce the cooking and heating methods, which Scientists have long understood that long-term accumulation of greenhouse comprise the main source of indoor air the size of particles is directly linked to gases (GHG) can also yield powerful bene- pollution that typically includes black their potential for causing health prob- fits to public health in the short-term by carbon as a major component. The WHO lems: smaller particles less than 10 mi- reducing the adverse effects of local air estimates that as a result of indoor air crometers in diameter pose the greatest pollution. Decreasing fossil fuel combus- pollution, 1.9 million people die each problems because they can infiltrate tion will reduce GHG emissions and si- year. The great majority of deaths from deep into the lungs. Those particles that multaneously reduce associated co- this pollution, some 85%, occurs in are small enough to slip through the cell pollutants that affect human health: women and children. Overall, more than black carbon is one such co-pollutant. half of the burden from air pollution on (Continued on page 13) will yield greater short-term older plants that are being benefits. Natural gas-fueled phased out. Coal indeed is the vehicles are a low-black carbon source of industrial black carbon, alternative, but are more expen- but the vast majority is due to the sive and require a separate fuel- coal used in iron and steel produc- ing infrastructure. tion. Coal is used in these indus- Realistically, many developing tries to fuel coke ovens and blast countries will continue to rely furnaces. Modern techniques and on older, heavy-polluting diesel existing emissions trapping tech- vehicles, and a healthy market nologies can significantly lower for used buses and trucks will black carbon emissions. Proper continue to exist. Engine retro- Data from: Bond et al, 2004 regulations and self-monitoring in fits can be used to reduce black heavy steel and iron-producing carbon from older vehicles. One such similar performance and greatly reduce countries, combined with technology retrofit is the diesel particulate filter black carbon and other pollutants. One transfer, can bring about swift drops in (DPF). The filter is inserted as part of the two-stroke scooter emits fifty times the industrial black carbon. vehicle's exhaust stream and can be used particulate matter that a car does. Ret- Substantial black carbon reductions are in both on- and off-road vehicles. DPFs rofit technology transforms two-stroke possible in the transportation, residential, typically cost between US $5,000-7,500 engines into fuel-injection engines, re- and industrial sectors. The technologies and reduce particulate matter (PM) emis- ducing emissions by 70% at a cost of to do so are largely already available at sions, black carbon included, by 85 to $350. However, the logistics of retrofit- competitive prices. Wider distribution, 97%. However, these results have only ting a substantial number of existing two- combined with economic assistance and been achieved on models built since strokes are difficult. Black carbon reductions incentives, will likely lead to large scale 1994. Like new engines, DPFs only work may be best achieved through regulation adoption of these technologies. Reduced well when in combination with ULSD. and economic incentives to steer new black carbon emissions results in greater scooter and rickshaw purchases toward economic efficiency, improved human One final method of reducing black four-stroke and fuel injection technologies. carbon from transportation is to phase health, and cleaner air. These reasons out the use of two-stroke engines. Two- Emissions from the industrial sector alone warrant aggressive action on black strokes are highly popular in the develop- account for 8% of global black carbon. carbon. It is, however, the opportunity to ing world both for scooters and motor- While coal-fired power plants may come mitigate the severity of near-term climate ized rickshaws. Four-stroke engines, to mind as the culprit, in truth they emit change that gives the international com- while more expensive and larger, offer just 0.1% of the annual total, mostly from munity the greatest incentive to imple- ment these technologies immediately. Page 7 Climate Institute | [email protected] Climate Alert THE HIGH STAKES FOR SMALL ISLANDS

Hon. Tom Roper, Climate Institute Project Director, Global Sustainable Energy Islands Initiative Global warming and climate change are storms and king tides. More frequent the President of the Maldives called an accelerating. The grave conclusions of floods will bring salt water incursions, underwater meeting on October 17 for the last Intergovernmental Panel on Cli- threatening islands’ meager water re- his cabinet, who wore scuba gear. mate Change Report (IPCC) are being sources. Higher temperatures will also For the SIDS, most of whom generate overtaken by events. Emissions of car- change sea water chemistry, endangering 100 percent of their power from im- bon dioxide, the most common green- reefs and fisheries that sustain the islands’ ported diesel, transitioning to renewable house gas, grew at a rate of 3.5 percent energy makes good economic sense. per year between 2000 and 2007, up These small, largely resource-poor from 1.1 percent between 1990 and economies are as vulnerable to changes 1999. Temperatures are increasing. Sea in the price of oil as the islands are to the levels are rising some 3.1 mm per year. changing climate. Higher diesel prices Nowhere is the urgency of climate have had a huge impact on both national change more visible and immediate than balances of payment and national econo- in Small Island Developing States mies. Some islands can barely afford for (SIDS). Already, many Pacific countries the tanker to call. Last year Kiribati fuel Courtesy of the report regular flooding, and in Papua Associated Press imports were 25 percent of GDP. Custom- New Guinea, the world’s first climate The Maldives held an underwater cabinet meeting ers in the Cook and Solomon Islands are refugees are being evacuated. They are to demonstrate the urgency of sea level rise paying US $0.50 or more per kWh. Majuro unlikely to be the last. John Church, one residents were taking out light bulbs and of the lead authors of the most recent environment and economy. Altered turning off necessary appliances. weather patterns will change the ranges IPCC Report’s chapter on sea level, pre- Renewable energy, including wind, of disease-carrying species, increasing dicts a 21st century sea level rise of at solar, hydro, biomass, and even coconut islanders’ exposure to new illnesses. least 1 metre. NASA’s James Hansen oil, is now cost competitive with diesel. predicts 2 metres. Even a sea level rise Small Island States are already at the More and more, islands are turning to of half a metre would place SIDS like Tu- mercy of the elements. In 2008, the in- renewable energy to provide their resi- valu, the Marshall Islands, Kiribati, and surance company Munich Re reported dents with power. Individual systems the Maldives in existential danger. that in Oceania, 50 natural catastrophes are beginning to provide light to the 70 The plight of Small Island States, which such as storms, cyclones, and flooding percent of Pacific Islanders with no ac- have been responsible for less than 1 caused US $2.4 billion of damage, some cess to the diesel-based grid, as coun- percent of global greenhouse gas emis- half of which was in the Islands. In April tries like the Marshall Islands plan to sions to date, demands immediate and 2004, Cyclone Sudal destroyed or dam- “solarize” their outer atolls. The Global drastic action. But progress on a new inter- aged 90 percent of homes in Yap. Many Sustainable Energy Islands Initiative national climate agreement has been slow, scientists believe that higher water tem- (GSEII) has partnered with islands in the and even if major emitters were able to peratures, which hit a record in June and Pacific and Caribbean to develop sustain- mobilize swiftly to reduce their carbon July, make cyclones more powerful and able energy plans, investigate renewable multiply their threat to life and property. dioxide (CO2) emissions, the CO2 that has energy options, improve energy effi- already been emitted will remain in the The governments of Small Island States ciency, and educate residents about the atmosphere for centuries to come, continu- have been active in educating the world benefits of mitigation. ing to warm the earth. At current rates of of the dangers, and they are increasingly But GSEII and our island partners know sea level rise, SIDS can not afford to wait setting an example by adopting ambi- that unless the major emitters can learn for centuries. Reductions in emissions of tious targets for reducing their own de- from the islands’ example and act soon short-lived greenhouse gases, especially pendence on fossil fuels. At the Alliance to reduce heat-trapping emissions, the black carbon, will be necessary to buy of Small Island States summit on Septem- SIDS will have to spend all of their re- time for these most vulnerable members ber 21 of this year, the representatives sources on adaptation to our changing of the international community. of the SIDS declared, “While SIDS con- climate. Currently, financing for adapta- While rising sea levels may be the tribute the least to global emissions, and tion and mitigation efforts on SIDS is most obvious threat they face, SIDS will have limited human, financial, and tech- inadequate. All too often donors are also be exposed to increasing extreme nical resources, our nations continue to generous with emergency aid but miserly weather events. Higher temperatures take significant actions towards the re- with funds to reduce future impacts. The will bring more heat waves, and higher duction of our own emissions.” As a SIDS are littered with too many failed symbolic gesture of the dangers to come, sea levels will exacerbate flooding during (Continued on page 13) Page 8 Climate Institute | www.climate.org Volume 19, No. 4

Community-level Technology Transfer Lynn Kirshbaum Technology transfer has been central in began in 2000 and gave no subsidies to The extent to which a new technology climate change discussions between de- end users, demonstrated that such a pro- is transferable to a community will also veloped and developing countries. gram could be successful, and suggests greatly affect the extent to which it is Though much of this debate has focused that in fact “direct end user subsidy should adopted. Technologies that are not per- on cleaner high-tech, industrial technolo- be discouraged for the continued use of ceived as better or do not fit with tradi- gies at the state level, transfers of sim- ICS and the sustainability of the program.” tions will not be embraced. Improved pler technologies for community or indi- However, new clean technologies can- technologies that use materials that are vidual household use are also essential not be priced equivalently in developing not native or readily available on the lo- for black carbon reduction. At the individ- and developed countries, and inappropri- cal market will fail. Though use of easily ual level however, there have been social, ate pricing schemes have been the down- attainable materials is an important fac- cultural, and institutional barriers to adop- fall of many new technology dissemina- tor, so is the local production capacity: tion of new technologies. The implications tion programs. In an improved stove pro- local producers that cannot meet local of reducing black carbon are immense for gram in Nicaragua, the initial price of a demand will be ineffectual in promoting climate change, but technologies intended new stove (US $35 and $45 for two dif- adoption and sustained use of new tech- to mitigate black carbon emissions are ferent models) was too high for potential nologies. Inability to meet demand could useless if not implemented effectively. buyers, being equivalent to about one arise from a lack of materials, production Since the 1970s, governments and non- month’s salary for many households. equipment, or workers. Ensuring that these governmental organizations in the devel- Though people were interested in pur- three resources are available to local pro- oping world have promoted improved cook- chasing the cleaner technology, the initial ducers will help to promote the success stove programs with varying degrees of suc- mispricing of the stoves ultimately of an improved technology program. cess. The efficacy of a new technology’s im- caused the program to fail even after the Community Involvement plementation can be attributed to factors in program organizers lowered prices and Community engagement in designing three overarching categories: financing, local employed credit mechanisms. Pricing a and implementing new technology pro- conditions, and community involvement. new product too high will disallow indi- grams greatly enhances their success: Financing viduals from purchasing it, even if they new technologies that are attuned to desire to adopt the new technology. Financing is an integral component of local needs and are promoted by local any new technology program, especially Local Conditions people are more likely to not only be at the individual level. Whether a new New technology implementation is adopted, but to enjoy sustained use and technology is affordable can be a key greatly affected by the conditions within improvements. A community that is determinant in its widespread adoption. a particular country or community. Even aware of its need for improved technol- Subsidies provided either by the host different regions within a country will ogy will be far more likely to adopt it. In government or by donor countries or have varying levels of success with the the case of cookstoves, those communi- organizations can make new technologies same product due to different hyper- ties that lack fuel wood or understand affordable, but ultimately diminish the local conditions. First, the rural-urban the health impacts of traditional cooking value placed on them by the users. In divide affects the adoption of a technol- methods are more eager to adopt a new western Africa, for example, the market ogy: while urbanites buy the products program. Community members should for improved stoves decreased dramati- they need, in rural areas those same also be involved in the design and pro- cally in the late 1980s when there was no products are grown, made or traded by duction of new technologies, as pro- longer project financing by the state or individual households within a commu- grams that do not employ traditional by international donors. Such examples nity. Prior to a USAID program in Bangla- designs or local producers are more likely have led many in the development com- desh, “the households in the target com- to fail. The engagement of women is also munity to believe that new products and munities did not typically purchase an effective method of increasing the technologies should not be given out for stoves, but instead constructed them at success rate of new technologies, espe- free or at a drastically reduced cost. Vari- home,” adding another challenge to the cially those that are primarily used in the ous cases have shown that a consumer is program’s implementation. Furthermore, home, such as cookstoves. more likely to value and use a product any new technology that is implemented New technology implementation is by she had to pay for than one that was effectively on a broad scale must be ac- no means guaranteed even with the most given to her for free. Therefore, pro- cessible to residents of both urban and well-planned programs, but success rates grams should require users to purchase rural communities: sound infrastructure, can be increased drastically by consider- new products so as to reinforce their availability of information, and replace- ing the factors outlined above. By ensur- value and encourage their use. Nepal’s ment components of new technologies ing that these challenges to implementa- latest improved stove program, which are important for sustained adoption. tion are overcome, new technology pro- grams will be much more effective. Page 9 Climate Institute | [email protected] Climate Alert REASSESSING RESPONSIBILITIES Fran Moore, Yale School of Forestry and Environmental Studies As laid out in other articles in this issue, it is emissions, and emissions intensity. Emis- The first graph (figure 5A) shows per- increasingly apparent that black carbon is sions from land use changes and open capita emissions for both CO2 and black playing an important role in global climate burning are excluded. carbon. It is interesting in that a key fea- change and, because of its ture of the climate change short lifetime, offers substantial 7 0.0014 problem, namely up to an order opportunities to reduce radia- CO2 of magnitude difference in per- 6 0.0012 tive forcing. In a paper pub- Black Carbon capita CO2 emissions between lished in 2009 (available on the developed and developing 5 0.001 Climate Institute website), countries, is not reproduced in

Michael MacCracken and I out- 4 0.0008 the black carbon graph. Instead, lined the ‘lifetime leveraging’ per-capita black carbon emis- proposal – a framework for an 3 0.0006 sions in all regions are roughly effective climate change agree- comparable. In particular, de- ment in which high-income 2 0.0004 veloping regions such as Asia countries commit to substantial and sub-Saharan Africa have 1 0.0002 reductions of all greenhouse the same per-capita black car- gases while middle-income na- 0 0 Per-CapitaBC (tons Emissions person/yr) C bon emissions as Europe. This tions work to reduce short-lived Per-CapitaEmissions CO2 (tonsC person/yr US/Canada Europe Latin America Asia Sub-Saharan homogeneity in per-capita black greenhouse gases such as black Africa carbon emissions, in contrast to carbon, methane and ozone 2500 2500 CO2 emissions, results from the

until they are rich enough to CO2 fact that abatement technolo-

. . begin reducing CO2 emissions. Black Carbon gies have been developed and 2000 2000 This article evaluates the deployed in high-income coun- lifetime leveraging proposal tries during industrialization be- with respect to the UNFCCC 1500 1500 cause of air pollution concerns. principle that mitigation bur- Assigning responsibility solely dens should be shared accord- on the basis of absolute emis- 1000 1000 ing to the common but differ- sions would again result in North entiated responsibility and re- America and Europe having high spective capabilities of nations. 500 500 responsibility for CO2 emissions

This principle is reiterated in the but far lower responsibility for BC Emissions (thousand tons C / yr) yr) / C tons (thousand Emissions BC

Berlin Mandate (1995, para- yr) / C tons (million Emissions CO2 black carbon. Asia is responsible 0 0 graph 1), the Kyoto Protocol US/Canada Europe Latin America Asia Sub-Saharan for high-levels of both while (1997, Article 10), the Mar- Africa South America and sub-Saharan rakesh Accords (2001, para- African release minimal levels of 450 0.45

graphs D and H) and the Bali CO2 both. In the context of this paper

. . Roadmap (2006, paragraph 1). 400 Black Carbon 0.4 it is interesting to note the rela- Responsibility 350 0.35 tive responsibilities for CO2 and black carbon emissions. So while The common but differenti- 300 0.3 ated responsibility (CBDR) North America, Europe and Asia principle has become near- 250 0.25 are responsible for roughly universal in mitigation burden 200 0.2 equal proportions of total CO2 emissions (30-40 percent), Asia sharing proposals. Despite its 150 0.15 ubiquity, multiple metrics for is responsible for a far greater responsibility have been put 100 0.1 proportion of the black carbon emissions (59 percent) than ei- forward by countries. Figure 5 50 0.05 $) millino per C (tons Intensity BC ther Europe (12 percent) or shows three of the more $) million per C (tons Intensity Carbon 0 0 North America (9 percent). Simi- commonly used responsibility US/Canada Europe Latin America Asia Sub-Saharan Africa larly, Africa is responsible for metrics for fossil fuel CO2 emissions and closed combus- Figure 5. A: per-capita CO2 and black carbon emissions. B: absolute less than one percent of CO2 tion black carbon emissions: emissions. C: CO2 and black carbon intensity (normalized by GDP). emissions but just under 10 per- (Bond, et al., 2007; WRI, 2008). absolute emissions, per-capita cent of black carbon emissions. Page 10 Climate Institute | www.climate.org Volume 19, No. 4

Using the carbon intensity metric finds its roots in a long-standing and funda- long before global warming became a shows low responsibility in the service- mental tradition of international environ- serious policy concern speaks to another based economies of North America and mental policy – that developing nations element of the capability principle. Pollu- Europe but high responsibility in both should not have to sacrifice scarce re- tion control confers benefits as well as Asia and Africa. The intensity metric, sources to environmental improvement in costs and a country is more capable of however, is of dubious use as an indica- the face of more pressing basic develop- controlling pollution to the extent that it tor of responsibility because it obscures ment needs. Implementation of this princi- can benefit from those efforts – not only the historical increase in greenhouse gas ple has seen many international environ- does it make it more economically bene- emissions associated with GDP growth, mental treaties include temporary exemp- ficial, but also more politically feasible in which is a key structural fact of the cli- tions for developing countries or financial that measures can be justified to con- mate change problem. Nevertheless, transfers from the North to the South to stituents on the basis of local environ- comparing the most efficient with the aid compliance with commitments. mental improvements. Table 1 compares least efficient gives an impression of the Figure 3 (page 6) shows the historical the geographical and temporal distribu- scope for improvement. So a unit of trends in black carbon emissions, par- tion of direct benefits from the abate- wealth produced in Asia is associated ticularly the differences between devel- ment of black carbon and fossil-fuel CO2 with 3.5 times more CO2 emissions but oped and developing regions. Technolo- emissions. Industrializing countries will with almost 20 times more black carbon gies to reduce black carbon (and to a be more capable of mitigation to the emissions than an equivalent unit produced lesser extent tropospheric ozone) have extent that a greater fraction of benefits in North America, suggesting significant already been developed and deployed in occur locally and immediately as op- scope for black carbon emission reduction. the United States in order to abate air posed to globally in the distant future. Most importantly, all responsibility pollution, resulting in a reduction of From Table 1, it is clear that abatement metrics show the developing world as black carbon emissions by over half be- of black carbon is a far better fit with the relatively more responsible for black car- tween 1950 and 2000 and by almost capabilities of industrializing countries in bon than for the CO2 problem. In the face three quarters since emissions peaked in that it would result in an immediately- of mitigation resource constraints, this 1920. Similar declines have occurred in apparent improvement of local air qual- finding suggests that it is fair for mitiga- Western Europe since the 1950s. In con- ity. In fact, governments in developing tion actions to be differentiated according trast, no developed nation has managed countries are already implementing poli- to the ‘lifetime-leveraging’ proposal so to truly bring fossil fuel CO2 emissions cies to improve local air quality: New that developed nations work on reducing under control and there are no examples Delhi is switching the municipal bus sys- long-lived greenhouse gas emissions and of large, wealthy countries with per- tem to compressed natural gas to reduce industrializing nations work on short-lived capita emissions low enough to be con- air pollution while Beijing is considering emissions and particularly black carbon. sidered sustainable. In other words, it is making pollution-control measures imple- Capability as yet unclear what a low carbon society mented for the Olympics permanent. with a high standard of living would look Although less frequently cited as a princi- Integrating these existing and emerging like, which is not the case for short-lived ple of mitigation burden sharing than CBDR, air pollution policies with climate change greenhouse gases that are also air pollutants. differentiating responsibilities based on mitigation efforts could both generate ‘respective capabilities’ is also an important The fact that air pollution abatement significant improvements for the climate principle of the Convention. The principle technologies were deployed in the North and overcome the developed-developing state deadlock in the negotiations. Local Regional Global Reduced morbidity Reduced ABC formation Conclusion Reduced impacts and mortality from and associated glacier melt, It is clear from the evidence presented Benefit: from global climate Black indoor and urban monsoonal disruption and change. above that middle-income, industrializing Carbon air pollution. surface dimming. countries are both more responsible for Relative and O3 Substantial Small to moderate Moderate Magnitude: black carbon emissions than for fossil- Time Scale: Immediate Immediate to decadal Multi-decadal fuel CO2 emissions and are more capable Reduced impacts of reducing those emissions. Thus a life- Benefit: None None from global climate Fossil time-leveraging framework not only is change. Fuel effective in keeping temperatures below Relative NA NA Very Substantial CO2 Magnitude: 2-2.5 degrees (demonstrated in Moore & Time Scale: NA NA Multi-decadal MacCracken, 2009), but is also consistent with principles of fairness embodied in Table 1. Comparison of the geographical and temporal distribution of benefits for black carbon the UNFCCC. While this may not mean the and fossil fuel CO2 emissions. The magnitude of the benefits is subjectively assessed and is rela- tive to the total benefits for that action. Variations in time scale result from differential re- proposal is necessarily immediately politi- sponses of different natural systems. Based on Ramanathan (2008) and WHO (2005). cally feasible, it does suggest that political Page 11 Climate Institute | [email protected] hurdles may not be insurmountable. Climate Alert

ARCTIC AMPLIFICATION Saya Kitasei The Arctic, an area with a small population accelerates warming. Some incoming solar carbon dioxide, will significantly accelerate and even smaller political influence, is also radiation is reflected by the Earth, while global warming by compounding the ef- one of the most important – and the most the remainder is absorbed, warming the fects of carbon dioxide emissions. “If the vulnerable – to climate change. Research planet’s surface. Fresh snow and sea ice response of the Arctic carbon cycle to cli- warns that the Arctic, with the rest of the reflect 80-90 and 50-70 percent of incident mate change results in substantial net re- planet in tow, could approach major tipping sunlight, respectively, thereby helping to leases of greenhouse gases,” the study’s points within decades, allowing less time regulate the planet’s temperature. As gla- lead author warned, “this could compro- than we thought we had to act on global ciers and sea ice retreat, they reveal much mise mitigation efforts that we have in warming. If we are to prevent these out- darker surfaces like bare soil or water, mind for controlling the carbon cycle.” comes, immediate and serious mitigations in which reflect only a fraction of the light Black carbon plays a central role in Arctic carbon dioxide emissions must be comple- that snow and ice can. Thus as the Arctic warming and so must play a central role in mented by reductions in short-lived warming warms and ice and snow melt, the Earth’s preventing the Arctic from undergoing agents such as black carbon and methane. reflectivity, or albedo, decreases, driving irreversible climate change. In a Nature The Arctic is warming twice as fast as the further warming and further melting. Geoscience review published last year, rest of the planet. According to the Arctic Veerabhadran Ramanathan and Greg Car- Climate Impact Assessment, while global michael conclude that the deposition of average surface temperatures rose 0.78˚C black carbon, which absorbs solar energy between 1890 and 2007, the Arctic and heats the ice and snow below it, is warmed by a total of 1.9˚C. This breakneck responsible for 0.5 to 1.0˚C (or up to 50 warming is disrupting the delicate balance percent) of temperature increase in the between ice, water, and sun in the Arctic – Arctic. Even organic carbon, light-reflecting a balance which plays a vital role in main- particles that tend to be emitted together taining the Earth’s climate as we know it. Lynn Kirshbaum with black carbon and normally mitigate The Arctic’s iconic sea ice and glaciers are An aerial view of a thawing ice shelf in Northern the effect of black carbon by increasing vanishing. Peter Wadhams, a leading polar Canada; note the thaw pond in the upper left corner. albedo, is less reflective than snow cover scientist from the UK, recently announced and can contribute to local warming. new evidence that the Arctic Ocean will be Second, higher temperatures could re- New atmospheric models reveal that ice-free during the summer within twenty lease large amounts of carbon dioxide cur- black carbon emitted north of 40˚N is most years. The rapid decline in Arctic sea ice rently stored in the Arctic Ocean and per- likely to be transported to the Arctic. Thus portends serious consequences for the en- mafrost. This month, a joint study by the while Europe, North America and the for- tire climate system. This October, the Na- Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Pro- mer Soviet Union are responsible for only tional Oceanic and Atmospheric Administra- gram, the Climate in the Cryosphere Pro- about 17 percent of the world’s black car- tion’s Arctic Report Card noted that the loss gram, and the International Arctic Science bon emissions (Europe: 7 percent; North of summer sea ice is affecting large scale Committee announced that the Arctic ac- America: 6 percent, former Soviet Union: 4 wind patterns as well as Arctic plant, animal counts for 10 to 15 percent of the global percent), these countries’ emissions have a and fish species. Scientists at Rutgers Uni- carbon sink. Normal soils contain decompos- disproportionate effect on the Arctic and, versity and the University of Delaware warn ing organic matter, which emits carbon diox- in turn, on the global climate. These coun- that a warmer Arctic will affect weather ide, but permafrost, or permanently frozen tries have the resources and the responsi- throughout the Northern Hemisphere. soil, does not decompose – as long as it stays bility to curb their black carbon emissions frozen. But warmer temperatures are causing As Arctic ice melts, it also contributes to and protect the Arctic. permafrosts to thaw, and scientists worry sea level rise, a serious threat to small island A great deal is at stake in the Arc- that this large volume of ancient organic and low-lying coastal populations as outlined tic. The lifestyles of indigenous peoples, matter will resume en masse the carbon- by Tom Roper in this issue. The IPCC esti- the health of local economies, and the emitting process of decomposition that has mates that if the 2.9 million km3 of ice con- survival of arctic species hang in the bal- been on pause for thousands of years. tained in the Greenland Ice Sheet melted, ance. But the Arctic also plays a major sea level would rise about 7.3 meters. Finally, global warming is transforming stabilizing role in the global climate sys- once-frozen soils into waterlogged incuba- Because feedback loops in the Arctic tem, and warmer temperatures in the tors for methane-producing organisms. amplify the effect of global warming, a de- Arctic will amplify existing climate im- The Arctic currently releases as much as 50 stabilized Arctic could initiate dangerous pacts. Swift action to reduce black carbon million metric tons of methane per year. chain reactions in the global climate system. and other short-lived greenhouse gases Even higher emissions of methane, a could prevent disastrous Arctic melting that First, reduction in snow and ice cover greenhouse gas 23 times more potent than would have ramifications across the globe.

Page 12 Climate Institute | www.climate.org

Climate Institute | [email protected] | Institute Climate

13 Page

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. adults and children in damage lung os f ug ucin Otor i pollu- air Outdoor function. lung of loss ) 7 page from continued (Health,

4 No. 19, Volume Climate Alert Cookstove Technology Standards Scott Cooper, Vice President, American National Standards Institute More than two billion people worldwide ones. In a classic application of Gresham’s cook food under an intense, hot heat. In burn traditional biomass (e.g., wood, law, bad cookstoves can easily drive good other places a slow, prolonged heat is dung, crop residues and charcoal), in- cookstoves from the marketplace. required. Furthermore, stoves must be doors on a stove or three-stone fire for A potential solution to this challenge is both durable under daily use and yet their home cooking and heating. The to develop a set of internationally recog- cheap enough to induce mass produc- health effects from the resulting indoor nized testing and inspection protocols tion. Simple lab tests, such as how much air pollution ranks as the fourth worst that establish a common mechanism for fuel and/or how long it takes to bring health risk in poor countries. According to ensuring that relevant benchmark levels water to boil, are not all that helpful. A the World Health Organization, breathing for cookstove emissions are met. By pro- lot more field testing is needed. elevated levels of indoor smoke results in moting agreed-upon testing protocols, These variables have impeded current the premature deaths of an estimated 1.9 individual countries or organizations efforts to scale the use of efficient cook- million people each year – over 4,000 each stoves. There are many admirable pro- day – with women and children most jects to build stoves in a number of re- significantly affected. Exposures to par- gions of the world, but the production ticulate matter in developing countries rates are –at best– in the tens of thousands are often hundreds of times the levels annually. The problem to be addressed acceptable in the U.S. for ambient air. measures in the millions. The use of current inefficient cook- There are signs of hope, however. The stoves, which require on average 50% House-passed Energy bill (H.R. 2454) di- more fuel than efficient cook stoves, is rects the EPA Administrator to work with also a major contributor to deforestation the State Department (and others) to and desertification in countries where develop programs to scale cookstoves to they are used. Recent studies show that 20 million homes in five years with goals poorly-combusted biomass (commonly to increase stove efficiencies by 50%, called soot, or black carbon) is likely re- reduce black carbon by 60% and reduce sponsible for up to 18% of the planet’s the incidence of pneumonia in children warming, making it the #2 contributor to A cookstove by Envirofit, one of many under five by 30%. All those goals are rising global temperatures, after carbon companies developing clean stove technology achievable, and should be a down pay- dioxide. As the New York Times stated in ment for a continuing series of improve- an article earlier this year (4/16/09), could set their own benchmark level, but ments as we learn more about how to “Replacing primitive cook stoves with the same standards would be used to build, test, scale and situate efficient modern versions that emit far less soot determine compliance with the require- cookstoves in the nearly one billion homes could provide a much-needed stopgap, ments. Test protocols for cookstoves that will greatly benefit from their use. while nations struggle with the more dif- have been developed, but are currently There needs to be collaboration be- ficult task of enacting programs and de- in only sporadic use by individual compa- tween all those who recognize both the veloping technologies to curb carbon nies and organizations. seriousness of the issue, and the compel- dioxide emissions from fossil fuels.” There is however, wide-spread agree- ling opportunity to effectuate solutions A sustainable and market-efficient ment that getting efficient cookstoves that will make significant improvements means of reducing cookstove emissions is into the marketplace –and thus into in the lives of billions of people and in the to foster the design, manufacture, distri- homes in developing countries– is an health of our planet. The World Health bution and use of clean, efficient cook- important health and environment issue. Organization, the United Nations, and the stoves. However, according to the WHO, If the implementation issues were easy, World Bank can all play a role in meeting there are currently no commonly ac- given the consensus about the serious- this challenge. Governments, founda- cepted standards for cookstove emis- ness of the problem, they would have tions, standards developers, NGOs and sions criteria, or methods to assess them. been overcome by now. But there are still the private sector all need to participate One of the primary challenges in arriving many problems that must be addressed. in developing practicable solutions. And I at a consensus on standards is that there For one, cooking styles and food prepa- expect when solutions are found, we will is no differentiation between “clean” and ration vary widely by region. Some cul- then wonder why it took so long to solve “unclean” cookstoves in the marketplace. tures stir pots vigorously, which means such an obvious and compelling problem. Cheap, inefficient cookstoves can look that tipping controls are important. In But to get to that point, we need to call very similar to efficient, more durable other places, an attached griddle must the initial meeting to order.

Page 14 Climate Institute | www.climate.org Volume 19, No. 4 Stove Revolution: Cookstove Improvement Projects in China Elisa Chih-Yin Lai China is responsible for 19% of global NISP’s educational campaign eased duced; this carbon financing keeps the black carbon emissions, equivalent to 1.5 public anxiety about using new products. stoves’ retail cost affordable and ensures times the black carbon emissions of European The investment in R&D and training laid the project’s economic viability. and North American countries combined. the foundation for NISP’s successful im- Furthermore, this year in sunny Ningxia The major source of black carbon in plementation. However, reviewing NISP a Province, a local company called Ningxia China comes from the residential sector decade later, there is a glaring lack in Fenlian Co. Ltd. conducted a CDM project in the North and the industrial sector in project sustainability. Some rural fami- financing 120,000 solar cookstoves to poor the South. Residents in Northern China lies shifted back to using traditional cook- farmers. The use of the solar cookstoves is use biomass or coal as their major energy stoves because stoves installed by NISP expected to save 1.2 million tons of coal source for heating and cooking. Southern gradually deteriorated and improved fuel during the 10 year implementation period. China on the other hand is rapidly indus- was more costly than coal and wood. Projects in which private companies take trializing, and coal is burned in power, advantage of CDMs to promote improved iron, and steel plants. These uses com- cookstoves are relatively new, and it is still bine to make coal the primary contribu- too early to assess project sustainability. tor to black carbon emissions in China. However, the public-private-academia Black carbon reduction projects in cooperation will likely be an ideal model for China have focused on improving tradi- implementing future cookstove projects. tional cookstoves, especially in rural ar- Learning from Past Lessons: Policy eas where they are most prevalent. Recommendations National Improved Stove Program NISP succeeded largely due to its use of Since the 1980s, China has progres- public education and training. However, sively implemented numerous cookstove public outreach and education are not inte- improvement projects to benefit public grated in current cookstove improvement health and air quality. The Chinese Na- projects. Enhancing the public’s under- tional Improved Stove Program (NISP), standing of black carbon’s impacts on initiated by the Ministry of Agriculture, Improved cookstoves could save 900 kg/year health and the environment should be in- ambitiously replaced and introduced 129 of coal per household in Shaanxi, China corporated as part of a long-term strategy. million stoves to rural areas between The price of fuel is a major determi- A New Wave 1982 and 1992. More than 60% of tradi- nant for whether households continue to tional stoves in rural households were After NISP, stove improvement pro- use clean cookstoves. Some rural house- replaced by improved stoves, and 90% of jects were no longer implemented at a holds shifted back to traditional cook- improved stoves that were installed glob- national level. City- and provincial-level stoves because of the low price of gov- ally were installed in China. In Shaanxi, projects, such as those sponsored by the ernment-subsidized coal. Revealing the the new cookstoves saved 2.7kg of coal Wuhan city government and the Guizhou true cost of coal, including its health per day, or 900kg per year. provincial government became the norm. costs, may make alternative fuels more The coordination of the central govern- Recently China’s private sector has taken competitive. ment and the cooperation of the local a lead role in updating cookstoves. In The model of private-public-academia government formed a strong chain of 2007, the Camco Group and Pioneer Car- cooperation through CDMs may be the policy implementation from the top bon initiated a stove replacement project most efficient and effective way to imple- down. The direct cost of purchasing and in cooperation with the Government of ment cookstove improvement projects. installing the stoves was mostly borne by Yanqing County. The project aimed to Private companies implementing cook- households and only subsidized margin- install over 1 million stoves within a 3 stove replacement through the CDM ally by the government. In addition, the year period, eliminating 28 Mt of CO2 would gain carbon credits and thus have governmental subsidization system was emissions in the first five years. The more incentive to fund future cookstove tailored according to different needs of Daxu stove, a central feature of the pro- projects. Hu Jintao’s recent statements provinces, allowing the system high flexi- ject and the winner of the 2007 Ashden have demonstrated China’s positive atti- bility and efficiency in expenditure. In- Award for Sustainable Energy, is pro- tude on clean technologies. Under the stead of fully subsidizing improved jected to be over 40% more efficient, scope of CDM, private companies in stoves, the government spent most fund- reducing emissions by about 8 tonnes of China may increasingly undertake cook- ing on R&D, training, product demonstra- CO2 per year. Camco and Pioneer have stove improvement projects and other tion and public outreach. exclusive rights to the carbon credits pro- black carbon reduction initiatives.

Page 15 Climate Institute | [email protected]

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Climate Alert Published periodically by the Climate Institute © Copyright 2009 ISSN 1071 –3271

Mark Goldberg, Chairman John C. Topping, President Corinne Kisner, Editor-in-Chief photo: Lynn Kirshbaum Front cover image: Black carbon concentrations in the atmosphere, February 2007. Credit: NOAA.

Editor’s note: While sizable uncertainties exist in the black carbon data, only midrange values are included in this issue. For more detailed information regarding the data, as well as for all citations and references, see the electronic version of this newsletter at www.climate.org.