Durham E-Theses A reassessment of the early Christian' archaeology of Cumbria O'Sullivan, Deirdre M. How to cite: O'Sullivan, Deirdre M. (1980) A reassessment of the early Christian' archaeology of Cumbria, Durham theses, Durham University. Available at Durham E-Theses Online: http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/7869/ Use policy The full-text may be used and/or reproduced, and given to third parties in any format or medium, without prior permission or charge, for personal research or study, educational, or not-for-prot purposes provided that: • a full bibliographic reference is made to the original source • a link is made to the metadata record in Durham E-Theses • the full-text is not changed in any way The full-text must not be sold in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. Please consult the full Durham E-Theses policy for further details. Academic Support Oce, Durham University, University Oce, Old Elvet, Durham DH1 3HP e-mail: [email protected] Tel: +44 0191 334 6107 http://etheses.dur.ac.uk Deirdre M. O'Sullivan A reassessment of the Early Christian.' Archaeology of Cumbria ABSTRACT This thesis consists of a survey of events and materia culture in Cumbria for the period-between the withdrawal of Roman troops from Britain circa AD ^10, and the Viking settlement in Cumbria in the tenth century. An attempt has been made to view the archaeological data within the broad framework provided by environmental, historical and onomastic studies. Chapters 1-3 assess the current state of knowledge in these fields in Cumbria, and provide an introduction to the archaeological evidence, presented and discussed in Chapters ^--8, and set out in Appendices 5-10. The archaeological material is constantly related to currents in other disciplines and vice-versa. The concluding chapter concentrates on selected, general themes related- to the data considered and its limitations. A REASSESSMENT OF THE EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHAEOLOGY OF CUMBRIA Thesis presented for the degree of Master of Philosophy by Deirdre Mary O'Sullivan B.A. (N.U.I.) The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. No quotation from it should be published without his prior written consent and information derived from it should be acknowledged. University of Durham January 1980 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. The writer wishes to express her gratitude to everyone who has helped her in her research in any way. In particular she would like to thank the following for much useful discussion, information and^advice: Richard Bailey, Kevin Brown, Elizabeth Coatsworth, Peter Corser, Alison Donaldson, Clare Fell, John Mann, Christopher Morris, Charles Thomas, Jean Ward, Victor Watts, Angus Winchester and Robert Young. She would also like to express her gratitude for much help from Leslie Webster of the British Museum, Colin Richardson, of Whitehaven Museum and later of Tullie House Museum, Carlisle; David Smith, of the University Museum, Newcastle upon Tyneand David Williams of the Craven Museum, Skipton; the staff of the Public Record Office, Carlisle; and Professor J. K. St. Joseph and Rowan Whimster. She would also like to thank Peter Corser, Brian Gill and Robert Young for much practical assistance with maps, plans and fieldwork; Mrs. J. M. Towers, for typing the manuscript and Peter Cutting, Tom Middlemass and Trevor Woods for photographic assistance with the maps, plates and figures. Most especially, she would like to acknowledge the constant encouragement of her supervisor, Professor R. J. Cramp. - ii - CONTENTS Page Acknowledgements i Table of Contents ii List of figures v List of plates vii List of maps ix Introduction \s Chapter 1: The physical and environmental background 15 Geology 16 Vegetation and vegetational history 21 Chapter 2: The documentary evidence 32 The sources 36 The Welsh material 36 Cumbria and the British North h2 Cumbria and the Anglo-Saxons ^9 Christianity and the Church 56 Chapter 3: The place-name evidence 82 Chapter h: Post-Roman settlement sites 119 - iii - Page Chapter 5°« Pagan Anglo-Saxon burials 169 Chapter 6: The Early Christian evidence 196 I St. Ninian and St. Kentigern; the archaeological evidence: 199 Old Church, Brampton 200 Ninekirks, Brougham 203 Sites connected with St. Kentigern 2lh II The Addingham cross-slab 219 III Early Christian burials and _ cemeteries 223 IV Curvilinear churchyards 2^1 V Holy wells 253 Chapter 7- The evidence of Anglo-Saxon sculpture 273 Distribution and location 277 Form and function 279 The context of the sculpture 291 Connections and some implications 303 The significance of some other sites with Viking period sculpture 310 Chapter 8: The evidence of stray finds 320 The numismatic evidence 321 Non-numismatic evidence 328 Conclusion 3^3 - iv - Appendices: 1 British habitational names, and other names which indicate British settlements 2 British non-habitational names 3 English habitational names 1 h- English habitational names 2 5a ?Anglo-Saxon burials described by Greenwell and others 5b Burials for which an Anglo-Saxon date has been suggested, but where there is little or no evidence in support of this; or otherwise dubious Anglo-Saxon burials 6 Evidencefor Christianity in Roman Cumbria 7 Early Christian burial sites in Cumbria 8a Complete, or almost complete, curvilinear churchyards 8b Partially curvilinear churchyards 8c Doubtfully partially curvilinear churchyards 9a Holy wells 9b Rejected holy wells 10a Coin hoards and stray coin finds 10b Stray finds Bibliography List of abbreviations used in bibliography List of other abbreviations - V - List of Figures Figure 1.1 Graph of C.Ik determinations for 'Brigantian' clearance in Cumbria !+.l Settlement at Ewe Close, Crosby Ravensworth (after R.C.H.M.) *+.2 Settlement at Cow Green, Crosby Ravensworth (after R.C.H.M.) Site in Glencoyndale, Patterdale (after R.C.H.M.) if A Site in Troutbeck Park (after R.C.H.M.) h.5 Garranes, Co. Cork (after S.P.C'R.) and Castlest.eads Yanwath Wood (after R.C.H.M.) 5.1 The finds from Crosby Garrett and Kirkby Stephen 6.1 Location map of Old Church, Brampton 6.2 Location map-of Ninekirks, Brougham 6.3 The cropmarks at Ninekirks, Brougham 6.h Complete curvilinear churchyards - Barton, Beckermet, Clifton, Crosthwaite 6.5 Complete curvilinear churchyards - Distington, Dufton, Ireby, Kentmere 6.6 Complete curvilinear churchyards - Loweswater, Ormside, Pennington, Skelton 6.7 Complete curvilinear churchards - Warwick 6.8 Partially curvilinear churchyards - Alston, Ambleside, Appleby Bongate, Cliburn 6.9 Partially curvilinear churchyards - Crosby-on- Eden, Dacre, Dalston, Dent - vi - Figure 6.10 Partially curvilinear churchyards - Embleton, Grinsdale, Harrington, Langwathby 6.11 Partially curvilinear churchyards - Lorton, Stapleton, Thursby, Troutbeck 6.12 Partially curvilinear churchyards • Watermillock, Westward, Winster 6.13 Doubtfully curvilinear churchyards - Crosby Garrett, Heversham, Kirkcambeck, Kirklinton 6.lh Doubtfully curvilinear churchyards - Matterdale, Melmerby, Waberthwaite 7-1 Dacre: drain in churchyard (after F. Hudleston) 7.2 Heversham. Location of early foundations 7 = 3 Bewcastle: plan of fort showing areas excavated (after C. M. Daniels) - vii - List of Plates Plate ^-.1 Brough-under-Stainmore: The Roman fort and churchyard (photo. J.K. St. J.) k.2 The Roman fort at Brougham (photo. D.U.A.D.) if.3 The hillfort on Carrock Fell (photo. D.U.A.D.) k.h The enclosures on Aughertree Fell (photo. D.U.A.D.) k.5 Severals settlement, Crosby Garrett (photo. D.U.A.D.) 6.1 The Kirkby Stephen cist (photo. Cumberland and Westmorland Herald) 6.2 Ninekirks from the air (photo. J.K. St. J.) 7.1 The drain in Dacre churchyard (photo. F. Hudleston) 7.2 Bewcastle from the air (photo. J.K. St. J.) 8.1 Gilt bronze pin from Birdoswald a.) face b) reverse c) detail of headplate 8.2 Buckle from Brough-under-Stainmore a) face b) reverse 8.3 Sword handle from Cumberland (photo. British Museum) 8.k Gilt bronze head from Furness (photo. British Museum) 8.5 The 3 bead types from Haverbrack (photo. Lancaster Museum) a) opaque blue glass bead b) translucent blue glass bead c) segmented yellow glass bead 8.6 Gold runic ring from Kingsmoor (photo. British Museum) - viii - Plate 8.7 Silver trefoil ornament from Kirkoswald (photo. British Museum) 8.8 Small bronze pennannular brooch from Meolsgate a.) face b) reverse 8.9 Glass spindle-whorl from Moresby (photo. British Museum) 8.10 Proto hand-pin from Moresby (photo. British Museum) 8.11 Gilt (?) bronze mount from Ninekirks (from an engraving by L. Jewitt) 8.12 The Ormside Bowl a) interior b) exterior (photo. British Museum) 8.13 Gilt-bronze mount from the Crosthwaite Museum, Kesv/ick a) face b) reverse 8.1*+ Enamelled escutcheon from the Crosthwaite Museum, Keswick • a) face b) reverse - ix - List of Maps Map I The post-Roman environment: sites of pollen diagrams II Roman Cumbria III North Britain IV British habitational names, and other names which indicate British settlements V British non-habitationa.l names VI English habitational names 1 VII English habitational names 2 VIII Settlement sites, 1000 B.C.-A.D. (based on data compiled for Clark & Gosling, 1976) IX ? Pagan Anglo-Saxon burials X Early Christian burial sites XI Curvilinear churchyards XII Holy wells XIII Anglo-Saxon sculpture (after R. N. Bailey) XIV Viking sculpture (after R. N. Bailey) XV Stray finds and coin hoards - 1 - INTRODUCTION This thesis is an attempt to explore events, material culture and settlement in Cumbria in the centuries between the end of Roman rule and the Viking settlement in the north-west. The period was selected because it is of interest to the writer; the area, because it has been largely neglected by archaeologists in practical terms until recently, and also because it is an area of considerable interest, though not perhaps of political importance, in the post-Roman centuries.