THE ECONOMIC WEEKLY August 22, 1964

Book Review Light on Pahari Culture Imtiaz Ahmad Hindus of the Himalayas by Gerald D Berreman, Bombay, Oxford University Press, 1963; pp X +430, price Rs 25.00.

THE Paharis living on the Himala- tern of landholding and structure of cial and economic levels. Thus, the yan foothills have always been re­ authority and political power. pure polluted or high-low caste dicho­ garded as Hindus, but there has hardly tomy is a striking feature of the Pahari been any serious attempt so far to The study is concerned primarily caste structure as distinguished from study their social structure and culture with an analysis of the village social the multiple division of the plains. Se­ and to compare them with the social system. The author shows that ties of condly, there are few ranked subcastes structure and culture of Hindus in kinship, caste and community consti­ among the indigeneous hill castes in and other culture areas. Berreman's tute three important levels of organiza­ around Bhatbair; the sub-divisions book is the first systematic anthropolo­ tion in the lives of the villagers. They (gotra, sib) are of equal rank and purity. gical study attempted on Pahari provide the structural basis for Pahari culture, and one of the very few studies culture and social interaction, and It seems that the author has over­ that have dealt with the Himalayan pe­ come into prominence in varying de­ stated the pure-polluted dichotomy in ople. It describes a central Pahari villa­ grees in different contexts. The ties Pahari caste structure in trying to dis­ ge in the broader contexts of Pahari of kinships are of most immediate sig­ tinguish it from the caste structure in and North Indian culture areas. nificance, and the patrilineal extended the plains. In the first place, he has family is the basic economic, social and failed to see that in the hill areas there The Village ritual unit. It is the residential unit, are certain sociological and demographic The village described by Berreman is the property owning group, the group factors which affect the caste composi­ called Sirkanda and il; is within ten that finds brides for its sons, that par­ tion of the Pahari villages. In the hill air miles of Dehra Dun, the valley ticipates most effectively in the life- areas the villages are generally small town in western Uttar Pradesh. Cul­ cycle ceremonies of its members, that and the number of castes living in them turally, it lies in the area known as worships common gods together and is extremely limited. Usually, the vill­ Bhatbair comprising nearly 60 villages applies social safeguards and social age consists of one or two high castes with a total population of 5,000. It sanctions to its members to keep the who own the village lands and few has a population of 384 of whom 178 family reputation untarnished. Above essential artisan castes. It contains no are permanently living there, 43 stay it, the lineage, clan, sib and kinderd intermediate cultivators, traders and there at regular intervals and the re­ are groups which function in many practioners of secular occupations. In maining 163 rarely or never reside there contexts as social and religious units of the absence of intermediate caste though they too are recognised by vill- progressively less relevance to the indi­ groups the pure-polluted dichotomy agers as members of the Sirkanda vil- vidual. Caste is significant in the re­ automatically becomes obvious. The age community. Ninety per cent of gulation of marriages and other social people, however, do not consider the the population of the village comprising and ritual contacts, in its influence on caste structure as a system of two fold thirty extended families and fourteen the religious and economic activities of division. The evidence in the book nuclear families are high caste (Brah­ its members, and as an effective identi­ suggests that the people recognise the min 8 per cent and Rajput 87 per cent) fication group for its members. It is an multiple divisions as the essential feat­ and 10 per cent comprising three ex­ important tie which cuts throughout the ure of the caste structure. immediate culture area across com­ tended families and four nuclear fami­ Sub-Castes Not Absent lies are low caste (Blacksmith, Barber munity boundaries and transcends com­ and Bajgi). munity loyalties. It may also be wrong to say that the Pahari caste structure is characterized The village is mainly agricultural The author argues that the Pahari by the absence of ranked sub-caste di­ with animal husbandry as a subsidiary caste structure differs from the caste visions. The Brahmins in Sirkanda are occupation. Agriculture is, however, structure of the plains, though it is themselves grouped into two ranked the primary preserve of only the high well within the range of regional vari­ groups. The ceremonial cooks enjoy castes who own most of the land in ation. Firstly, it is characterized by a ritual superiority over other Brahmins. Sirkanda and the outlying areas; the two fold division into high caste group The Rajputs too are similarly divided (Brahmins and Rajputs) and low caste low castes derive their subsistence into various sub-groups according to artisan group collectively known as partly from performance of traditional ritual criteria. As regards the lower Dom. The latter are accorded the posi­ services and partly from agricultural castes, the distinctions are more of a and other kinds of labour within and tion of untouchables and include most territorial nature. The sub-caste is a outside the village. The Rajputs are of the occupational groups found both localized group and the members be­ the dominant caste enjoying numerical among the clean Sudras and the un­ longing to a sub-caste are generally dis­ preponderance and weilding economic touchables in the plains. Although and political power. Although Sirkan­ there is status differentiation within tributed over a particular geographical da is larger than an average village each of these broad divisions it is not area and within that area marriages are both in the district and the neighbour­ of the same order as that of the main contracted and other ritual social con­ ing area of Tehri Garhwal it is typical divisions. Even intermarriages are tacts are maintained. Outside the area of the area in caste composition, pat­ tolerated between castes of similar so­ other sub-castes live and neither marri- 1385 August 22, 1964 THE ECONOMIC WEEKLY COUNTRIES WE EXPORT TO (5) THE ECONOMIC WEEKLY August 22, 1964

ages are contracted nor intimate social tions and values, low caste plains traditional patterns in the village, contact is maintained with that area. groups adopt sanskritic behaviour for­ though outside their behaviour is But this is as much a feature of the merly denied them rather than follow westernized and urbanized. plains villages in Western and Central the high castes in their new line. Economic Ties Uttar Pradesh as of the hills villages. Paharis, like the low caste group?, have It does not mean that there are no sub­ lacked the experience and facilities for Berreman distinguishes four kinds of divisions among lower castes. Perhaps acquiring the knowledge and compet­ economic dealing in the village. First- it might be more correct to say that the ence necessary for the adoption of non- ly, there is the exchange of the Brah­ sub-caste divisions in the lower castes traditional reference systems. In Sir­ mins' ritual services with his clients are co-terminous with their territorial kanda, cultural, physical and intellec­ for traditional gifts paid in grain or localization. tual isolation has, in all castes, militat­ other goods. This exchange is referred It is doubtful if all artisan groups in ed against adoption of alien reference to as the jajmani. Secondly, there is Sirkanda can really be referred to as groups to any significant degree. Plains exchange of an artisans' specialized untouchables. The account of ritual people have long served as something of traditional services with annual pay- services received by the high castes a reference group for them and have ments in grain. The Pahari term which show that the Barber performs a number been known to them. Increased contact Sirkanda villagers normally use in re- of ritual services in which he comes in has resulted in increased knowledge of ference to an artisans' services, parallel intimate contact with the high caste their own viewpoints. This, combined to their use of the term jajmani, is patrons. If he is an untouchable his with increased wealth, has enabled the gaiku. A third kind of economic deal­ position must be different from other Paharis to push toward higher status in ing is that of exchange of services untouchables such as Drummer and their eyes by emulating them. Since among castes. Finally, many cervices leather worker. If it is so, the author Pahari experience has for the most part are performed on piece-rate or daily should have clarified in what ways he been with plains people who advocate wage basis with cash or grain used for is distinguished from other untouch­ a traditional world-view, emulation has payment. Berreman also mentions that ables and what is the basic principle been in this direction. gaiku relationships are generally un­ underlying this distinction. Two Patterns stable with much jockeying for the better paying clients on the one hand, Sanskritization In the early part of this century the and for the better performing artisan on hill area was a centre of considerable The study shows that in the Pahari the other. He, however, does not men­ missionary activity. The Census Re­ tion the basis on which he has distin­ villages there is an increasing trend to­ ports mention that a large proportion wards sanskritization. The people in guished these four categories of econo­ of the untouchables (Doms) was con- mic dealing. In the sociological liter- and around Sirkanda are trying to pat­ verted to Christianity. Through con­ tern their way of life according to the ature dealing with the network of ser­ version the basis of westernization was vice relationships in Indian villages all plains customs, worship plains gods and laid out. Since the spread of Western fast after the plains people. The real economic dealings are generally dealt education in the hill areas the Paharis with under the jajmani system. Re- motivation for this is the desire for have been migrating for higher educa­ mobility. They hope that by adopting cently Pocock has distinguished three tion and in search of jobs to plains categories of service relationships on some of the plains customs, they may cities like Delhi and Lucknow. These be able to improve their social status the principle of the ritual quality of emigrants have adopted a Western occupation and the nature of specializa­ in the eyes of the plains people. Instru­ model for emulation and live like other mental in this change have been those tion. On the basis of a survey of the urban westernized plains people. They existing literature on the subject I Paharis who have had the most inten­ have, however, also maintained their sive and extensive contacts with and have found that the economic dealings contacts with the villages. But, as the generally treated under the jajmani exposure to orthodox plains attitudes author himself mentions rightly, social and who feel their status most threat­ system can be grouped under different pressure is one factor which keeps categories according to the nature of ened by invidious comparisons with people from bringing urban or other plains Hindus. payment, stability or otherwise of the alien traits into the village, and people relationship and the tenure of service. The process of sanskritisation in the conform to different reference groups Berreman's data on village economic hill areas, according to the author, has in different contexts. When they are could be extremely useful for a com­ two distinct features. In the first place, in the village they conform to the parative study of the jajmani relation­ there is little caste differentiation in the traditional model of social behaviour. ship if he had made clear the basis of plains-ward mobitity of Paharis. While However, in the city they pattern their his classification. In the absence of a in the plains generally the upper castes way of life according to the Western more thorough discussion of the prin­ take to sanskritization and the lower ideas. This is also borne out by the ciple underlying the classification of castes are able to take to it only with example given by Berreman of a man economic dealings his data remains difficulty, in the hills both the high and who has migrated to Delhi. He gener­ purely of local interest. low castes have moved simultaneously. ally lives like an urbanized youth when Secondly, few Paharis have adopted the he is in the city but when he comes to The author has made a semi-inten­ values and the ideas associated with the village he conforms to the village sive study of the village rather than the urban living which have been adopted ways. Thus, one cannot deny the pro* culture area of Bhatbair. Recent field by some plains people, especially those cess of westernization in the hill areas. studies of Indian village communities of the upper castes. It may be more correct to say that have shown that a single village is not Berreman argues that the reasons for while the process of westernization has a self-sufficient commune of the nin- the inability of the Paharis to adopt been underway, it has not yet become teenth century historical literature. On westernization are very similar to those a dominant feature of the Pahari the contrary, the village is dependent which account for the fact that when society. Most Paharis who have be­ on the outside world, and this depen­ the high castes adopt modern aspira­ come westernised generally follow the dence has increased in recent years as 1387 August 22, 1964 THE ECONOMIC WEEKLY a result of the development in com­ The figures quoted exclude invest­ million), South Africa (£12.9 million), munications, increasing state influence, ments in oil, Insurance, and banking. and New Zealand (£7.4 million). urbanization and education, etc. The Also included in the Journal is the The other distinctive feature of the ties of the village flow far beyond the latest valuation of the direct invest­ flow of British companies' direct in- village into the outside world. The ments overseas of British companies. vestments in 1962 was the increased extreme community-centredness of the Total direct investment (i e, in factories, share going to Western Europe. This book obscures the fact of village in­ plant and building) by British compa­ amounted to 24 per cent compared sufficiency. For instance, it does not nies overseas in 1963 amounted to with 18 per cent in 1961. Most of this tell anything at all about the admini­ £223 million compared with £209 mil­ increase went to countries of the Euro­ stration and local representation in the lion in 1962. Although total investment pean Free Trade Association, but there Uttar Pradesh Assembly though the figures are available for 1963, 1962 is was also on balance a further increase Village falls administratively in the pro­ the latest year for which a regional in investment in countries of the Euro­ vince of Uttar Pradesh where Pahari breakdown can be given, and this shows pean Economic Community. Villages are in a minority. Nor does it the oversea Sterling Area (including all Latest estimates of the book value tell anything about the position of re­ Commonwealth countries excepting of British companies' direct investments venue and police officials in the village Canada) as by far the largest recipient abroad (excluding oil, insurance and structure, the nature of their authority of British capital, accounting for 59 banking) at end-1962 have been revised and the bureaucratic rules which keep per cent in 1962, compared with 55 per upwards to £3,600 million. This is a them in and out of line, although they cent in 1961. rather nominal valuation, since in are frequently referred to in the book. Within this group, Australia was many cases current market values are The genealogical and census data show again the chief recipient, her share of much higher, and the figure excludes that more than one third of the villagers the Sterling Area total in 1962 amount­ oil, banking and insurance, in which have left the village, aside from marri­ ing to 40 per cent (£44.9 million). The British companies have made very large ages, and the author also mentions that next largest recipients were India (£13.1 investments overseas. in caste and religion certain of the specialists come from outside. But the book hardly mentions anything about the nature of relationship of the Sir- kanda villagers with the outside world. Though it is obvious that this has happened, Berreman does not indicate Whether there has been any change in the nature of contacts of the villagers with the outside such that emigrants now leave the village for secular rather than religious reasons such as pilgri­ mages or throwing the pinda of dead ancestors in the Ganges at Hardwar. These problems should have been in­ vestigated by studying a frame-work wider than the single village. The author himself states that there are few books written about the Hima­ layan people and one has to start some­ where. This is a worthwhile attempt. It provides much valuable material on Pahari caste and kinship and religion, etc, and opens up many new problems of research, It is expected that Berre- man's study will be supplemented in the future by studies of other areas in the hills.

British Investment in India THE most recent valuation of direct investment in India by British companies puts the figure at £256 mil­ lion. This figure is given in an article in the latest issue of the Board of Trade Journal published in London. India is high in the list of Sterling Area countries benefitting from British Investment and is surpassed only by Australia (£522 million) and South Africa (£269 million). Total British private business investment in the Sterling Area is given as £1,964 million. 1388