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Burgermacht Op Eigen Kracht? Burgermacht op eigen kracht? Burgermacht op eigen kracht? Een brede verkenning van ontwikkelingen in burgerparticipatie Pepijn van Houwelingen Anita Boele Paul Dekker Sociaal en Cultureel Planbureau Den Haag, maart 2014 Het Sociaal en Cultureel Planbureau is ingesteld bij Koninklijk Besluit van 30 maart 1973. Het Bureau heeft tot taak: a wetenschappelijke verkenningen te verrichten met het doel te komen tot een samenhangende beschrijving van de situatie van het sociaal en cultureel welzijn hier te lande en van de op dit gebied te verwachten ontwikkelingen; b bij te dragen tot een verantwoorde keuze van beleidsdoelen, benevens het aangeven van voor- en nadelen van de verschillende wegen om deze doeleinden te bereiken; c informatie te verwerven met betrekking tot de uitvoering van interdepartementaal beleid op het gebied van sociaal en cultureel welzijn, teneinde de evaluatie van deze uitvoering mogelijk te maken. Het scp verricht deze taken in het bijzonder bij problemen die het beleid van meer dan één departement raken. De minister van Volksgezondheid, Welzijn en Sport is als coördinerend minister voor het sociaal en cultureel welzijn verantwoordelijk voor het door het scp te voeren beleid. Over de hoofdzaken hiervan heeft hij/zij overleg met de minister van Algemene Zaken; van Veiligheid en Justitie; van Binnenlandse Zaken en Koninkrijksrelaties; van Onderwijs, Cultuur en Wetenschap; van Financiën; van Infrastructuur en Milieu; van Economische Zaken; en van Sociale Zaken en Werkgelegenheid. © Sociaal en Cultureel Planbureau, Den Haag 2014 scp-publicatie 2014-7 Zet- en binnenwerk: Textcetera, Den Haag Figuren: Mantext, Moerkapelle Vertaling samenvatting: Julian Ross, Carlisle, Engeland Omslagontwerp: bureau Stijlzorg, Utrecht Omslagfoto’s: Evelyne Jacq (maquette) en Bert Beelen (rode overall) / Hollandse Hoogte isbn 978 90 377 0635 2 nur 740 Voor zover het maken van reprografische verveelvoudigingen uit deze uitgave is toegestaan op grond van artikel 16h Auteurswet 1912 dient men de daarvoor wettelijk verschuldigde vergoedingen te voldoen aan de Stichting Reprorecht (Postbus 3060, 2130 kb Hoofddorp, www.repro-recht.nl). Voor het overnemen van (een) gedeelte(n) uit deze uitgave in bloemlezingen, readers en andere compilatiewerken (art. 16 Auteurswet 1912) kan men zich wenden tot de Stichting pro (Stichting Publicatie- en Reproductierechten Organisatie, Postbus 3060, 2130 kb Hoofddorp, www.cedar.nl/pro). Sociaal en Cultureel Planbureau Rijnstraat 50 2515 xp Den Haag (070) 340 70 00 www.scp.nl [email protected] De auteurs van scp-publicaties zijn per e-mail te benaderen via de website. Daar kunt u zich ook kosteloos abonneren op elektronische attendering bij het verschijnen van nieuwe uitgaven. inhoud Inhoud Voorwoord 9 Samenvatting 11 1 Van inspraak naar inspanning en invloed? 17 1.1 Overheid en burger 17 1.2 Wat is burgerparticipatie? 19 1.3 Waarom burgerparticipatie? 23 1.4 Onderzoeksvragen en opzet 26 Noten 27 deel a Burgerparticipatie in Nederland 31 2 Participatieontwikkelingen in Nederland 33 2.1 Ontwikkelingen in beleid 33 2.2 Lidmaatschap, vrijwilligerswerk en collectieve actie 37 2.3 Politieke betrokkenheid en participatie 42 2.4 Tot slot 47 Noten 48 3 Participatieverschillen in Nederland 49 3.1 Sociale achtergronden van participanten 49 3.2 Drijfveren voor participatie 58 3.3 Representativiteit van participanten 62 3.4 Tot slot 63 Noten 64 deel b Burgers en participatie in vijf vernieuwende gemeenten 65 4 De vijf gemeenten 67 4.1 Vergelijkende cijfers 68 4.2 Berkelland 75 4.3 Emmen 78 4.4 Peel en Maas 81 4.5 Schouwen-Duiveland 84 4.6 Zeist 86 4.7 Tot slot 89 Noten 90 5 burgermacht op eigen kracht? 5 Betrokkenheid en participatie 92 5.1 Belangstelling voor nieuws en politiek 92 5.2 Betrokkenheid bij organisaties en vrijwilligerswerk 94 5.3 Politieke participatie 98 5.4 Participatie voor de woonomgeving 101 5.5 Participatie in de vijf gemeenten 111 5.6 Tot slot 120 Noten 121 6 Participanten en non-participanten 122 6.1 Groepen burgers 122 6.2 Achtergronden van lokale participanten 125 6.3 Opvattingen over participatie 127 6.4 Opvattingen over de politiek en de bezuinigingen 130 6.5 Tot slot 133 Noten 135 7 Lokale participatieperspectieven 136 7.1 Eigenaarschap 136 7.2 Gewaardeerd of gebruikt? 137 7.3 Luisteren en serieus nemen 139 7.4 Kleinschaligheid 141 7.5 Persoonlijk contact 144 7.6 Grote kern versus kleine dorpen 144 7.7 Wet- en regelgeving 145 7.8 Het belang van informatie en de pers 146 7.9 Grenzen aan zelf doen 146 7.10 Tot slot 147 Noten 148 deel c Inspiratiebronnen ver weg en ervaringen dichtbij 149 8 Burgerparticipatie in de vroegmoderne Nederlanden 151 8.1 Waarom de vroegmoderne tijd? 151 8.2 Lokale autonomie 152 8.3 Organisatievormen 153 8.4 De spelers 159 8.5 De rol van de lokale overheid 160 8.6 Vrijwilligheid en plicht 162 8.7 Discussie en conclusie 164 6 inhoud 9 Buurtparticipatie in Japan 167 9.1 Waarom Japan? 167 9.2 Een zwakke civil society? 168 9.3 De cijfers 170 9.4 Het verband 172 9.5 Van shakai hoshi naar borantia en van buurtgroep naar npo 178 9.6 Conclusies en trends 181 Noten 183 10 Big Society in Groot-Brittannië 184 10.1 Waarom Groot-Brittannië? 184 10.2 Vertrouwen en participatie 184 10.3 Het probleem: Broken Britain 189 10.4 Van Big Government naar Big Society: beleid en uitvoering 191 10.5 De publieke opinie en de Big Society 196 10.5 Conclusie en discussie 200 Noten 203 11 Bürgerkommunen in Duitsland 205 11.1 Waarom Duitsland? 205 11.2 Bürgerkommune 206 11.3 Achtergrond en tradities 207 11.4 Politieke participatie 209 11.5 Participatiebevordering vanuit Berlijn 211 11.6 Burgerbegrotingen 213 11.7 Procedures 214 11.8 Ervaringen en evaluatie 215 11.9 Zelfbeheer 217 11.10 Coöperaties en lokale gemeenschapsfondsen 218 11.11 Ten slotte 220 Noten 221 12 Hoe verder met burgerparticipatie in een participatiesamenleving? 222 12.1 Antwoorden op de onderzoeksvragen 222 12.2 Leerpunten voor de Nederlandse praktijk 227 12.3 Dilemma’s voor de participatiebevordering 229 12.4 Intermezzo: twee reflecties 233 12.5 De risico’s van een ‘participatierage’ 238 Noten 241 7 burgermacht op eigen kracht? Summary 242 Bijlagen (te vinden via www.scp.nl bij het desbetreffende rapport) Bijlage A Verantwoording van het onderzoek in de vijf gemeenten Bijlage B Nederland, Groot-Brittannië en Duitsland (achtergrondgegevens bij hoofdstuk 10 en 11) Literatuur 249 Publicaties van het Sociaal en Cultureel Planbureau 264 8 voorwoord Voorwoord Het kabinet wenst en voorziet de ontwikkeling van een ‘participatiesamenleving’ waarin mensen vaker zelf het heft in handen nemen in plaats van een beroep doen op overheidsvoorzieningen. Dat geldt voor allerlei terreinen, waarbij arbeid en zorg het meest in het oog springen. In deze publicatie gaat het niet om die kerngebieden van de participatiesamenleving, maar om de deelname op vrijwillige basis aan maatschappelijke en politieke activiteiten, ook wel burgerparticipatie genoemd. Betaald werk en mantel- zorg vallen daar niet onder, maar samen met de buren het groen onderhouden of een burgerinitiatief starten wel. De verwachtingen liggen ook hier hoog. Er is de afgelopen jaren al veel onderzoek naar burgerparticipatie verschenen (zie hoofd- stuk 1). Wat zouden we daar als Sociaal en Cultureel Planbureau (scp) nog aan kunnen toevoegen? Hopelijk een versteviging van de empirische basis voor beleidsdiscussies en een verbreding van perspectief. Zijn de verwachtingen van burgerparticipatie terecht? In de discussies wisselen sombere beschouwingen over burgerschap in het land soms nogal gemakkelijk af met euforische verwachtingen van specifieke projecten. In onderzoek van die projecten krijgen de inzichten van direct betrokken actieve burgers en bestuurders veel aandacht. In deze publicatie gaat het meer om de bevolkingsbrede trends en patronen en komen ook de betrokkenheid en voorkeuren van de niet zo opvallend participerende bur- gers aan bod. Dat gebeurt hier ook met nieuw onderzoek in vijf Nederlandse gemeenten met opvallend participatiebeleid. Het perspectief wordt daarnaast verbreed in bijdragen over burgerparticipatie in de vroegmoderne Nederlanden en in Japan, Groot-Brittannië en Duitsland. Daaraan zijn inspiratie, voorbeelden en waarschuwingen voor de ontwikkeling van participatie in Nederland in de komende jaren te ontlenen. Óf er meer burgerparticipatie gewenst is en wat de aard ervan moet zijn, zijn uitein- delijk normatieve vragen. We proberen voor de beantwoording daarvan relevante onderzoeks resultaten en overwegingen aan te dragen, maar geven als planbureau op deze vragen geen antwoorden. Wel hebben we Rienk Janssens, secretaris van de Raad voor Maatschappelijke Ontwikkeling (rmo), en Paul Schnabel, oud-directeur van het scp, gevraagd om elk een visie op de toekomst van de burgerparticipatie te geven. Onder hun leiding hebben de rmo en het scp jarenlang bijgedragen aan de inzichten rond de wens en werkelijkheid van burgerschap en burgerparticipatie. We zijn hen daarom zeer erken- telijk voor de bereidheid om vanuit die ervaringen op dit nieuwe onderzoek te reflecteren. Dank zijn we ook verschuldigd aan twee stagiaires, Ellen Dingemans en Eelco Harteveld, die eerder met veel inzet onze nieuwe data verkenden en voorwerk verrichtten voor bijlage B respectievelijk hoofdstuk 3. Tot slot, het lokale onderzoek is deels in samenwerking met en medegefinancierd door het ministerie van Binnenlandse Zaken en Koninkrijksrelaties verricht. We willen in dit verband in het bijzonder Jan Schrijver en Jantine Los bedanken voor hun werk en betrokkenheid. Prof. dr. Kim Putters Directeur Sociaal en Cultureel Planbureau 9 samenvatting Samenvatting Een brede verkenning van ontwikkelingen in burgerparticipatie We onderscheiden in deze publicatie twee vormen van ‘burgerparticipatie’, namelijk zelf- redzame en beleidsbeïnvloedende. In het eerste geval gaat het om vormen van participeren waarbij men vooral zelf aan de slag gaat, zoals de buurt schoonmaken of een voorziening draaiende houden. In het tweede geval gaat het om invloed uitoefenen op het beleid van een instantie, zoals stemmen, lobbyen of gebruik maken van inspraak en medezeggen- schap.
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