arts

Article Animals in Human Situations in Ancient Egyptian Ostraca and Papyri

Azza Ezzat

Writing and Scripts Center, Bibliotheca Alexandrina, Alexandria Governorate 21526, Egypt; [email protected]

Abstract: It has been said that the ancient Egyptians were raised to tolerate all kinds of toil and hardship; they nevertheless also liked to amuse themselves with comic relief in their everyday life. For example, ancient Egyptian drawing can be quite accurate and at times even spirited. What scholars have described as caricatures are as informative and artistic as supposed serious works of art. Ancient Egyptians have left countless images representing religious, political, economic, and/or social aspects of their life. Scenes in Egyptian tombs could be imitated on ostraca (potsherds) that portray animals as characters performing what would normally be human roles, behaviors, or occupations. These scenes reveal the artists’ sense of comedy and humor and demonstrate their freedom of thought and expression to reproduce such lighthearted imitations of religious or funeral


scenes. This paper will focus on a selection of drawings on ostraca as well as three papyri that show
 animals—often dressed in human garb and posing with human gestures—performing parodies of Citation: Ezzat, Azza. 2021. Animals human pursuits (such as scribes, servants, musicians, dancers, leaders, and herdsmen). in Human Situations in Ancient Egyptian Ostraca and Papyri. Arts 10: Keywords: animals; anthropomorphism; humor; parody; satire; ostraca; papyri; ancient Egypt 40. https://doi.org/10.3390/ arts10030040

Academic Editors: Branko F. van 1. Introduction Oppen de Ruiter, Chiara Cavallo and Depictions of animals in scenes of daily life are commonly found in ancient Egyptian Annetta Alexandridis tombs, mainly the Old Kingdom mastabas and the rock cut tombs of the New Kingdom

Received: 14 April 2020 (Evans 2000, p. 73; Germond and Livet 2001, p. 7). Egyptians carefully studied animals, Accepted: 19 May 2021 understood their physical characteristics, and admired their nature. Animals that were Published: 22 June 2021 dangerous or had powers human beings lacked were especially respected. To be sure, many deities of the Egyptian pantheon we represented fully or partially as animals—often

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with an animal’s head (te Velde 1980, pp. 76–82). In addition, Egyptians represented with regard to jurisdictional claims in animal genera accurately in their hieroglyphic signs (McDonald 2009, p. 361; Germond published maps and institutional affil- and Livet 2001, p. 107). Modern scholars have divided Egyptian hieroglyphs into some iations. 25 categories, ranging from depictions of people, animals, and plants to those of common objects. Among about 700 hieroglyphs, about 170 take their inspiration from the animal kingdom (Germond and Livet 2001, p. 110). Animals were sacrificed, hunted, tamed, and raised, but also venerated and mummified. They served as a source of nourishment, a

Copyright: © 2021 by the author. means of transportation, a source of medical remedies, companions, and objects of worship Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. (Betz 2015, p. 22). One example of animal representation is imagery of animals performing 1 This article is an open access article human professions found in New Kingdom papyri and ostraca. These animals are clearly distributed under the terms and depicted to have unusually human mannerisms. They are also portrayed in ways that are conditions of the Creative Commons not true to their own nature. This type of representation therefore anthropomorphizes Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// animals (Babcock 2014, pp. 120–21). When compared to the more familiar formal repre- creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ sentations on monuments of the majority of Egyptian “high” art, scholars have until very 4.0/).

1 Ostracon (plural: ostraca) is the Classical Greek term for “potsherd”; the term is used in Egyptological studies both for sherds of pottery and flat limestone flakes. In ancient Egyptian, the word used is nDr, nD (“splinter, break, sherd”); the literal meaning is thus “fragment,” but ostraca are whole works of art (Davies and Garis 1917, p. 234; Brunner-Traut 1979, p. 1).

Arts 2021, 10, 40. https://doi.org/10.3390/arts10030040 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/arts Arts 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 20

Arts 2021, 10, 40 2 of 20

more familiar formal representations on monuments of the majority of Egyptian “high” art, scholars have until very recently considered such scenes on ostraca and papyri of lit- tle artisticrecently merit consideredand academic such interest—if scenes on they ostraca consider and papyri them ofat littleall.2 artistic merit and academic 2 Whatinterest—if these images they considercould have them meant at all. to the ancient Egyptians is impossible to de- termine withoutWhat written these images sources could to elucidate have meant their to thethoughts. ancient This Egyptians paper isaims impossible to shed to deter- light onmine the depiction without writtenof animals sources performing to elucidate human their professions thoughts. on This ostraca paper and aims papyri to shed light during theon theNew depiction Kingdom, of animalsfocusing performing on a selection human of drawings professions that on show ostraca animals and papyri paro- during dying humanthe New professions Kingdom, (such focusing as scribes, on a selection servants, of musicians, drawings thatdancers, show leaders, animals and parodying human professions (such as scribes, servants, musicians, dancers, leaders, and herdsmen). herdsmen). These scenes often portray animals dressed in human clothes, posing with These scenes often portray animals dressed in human clothes, posing with human gestures, human gestures, and engaging in human pursuits. I will differentiate “humor,” “satire,” and engaging in human pursuits. I will differentiate “humor,” “satire,” and “parody” to and “parody” to provide a better understanding of the comic intent of the artists. I will provide a better understanding of the comic intent of the artists. I will discuss why these discuss why these scenes were drawn without any texts. Additionally, I will address the scenes were drawn without any texts. Additionally, I will address the question of whether question of whether these drawings were indeed meant to mock elite society. these drawings were indeed meant to mock elite society. Understanding the exact meaning of these scenes is challenging due to the lack of Understanding the exact meaning of these scenes is challenging due to the lack of supporting archaeological or textual evidence. These images are not quite understood supporting archaeological or textual evidence. These images are not quite understood because of the lack of knowledge of the cultural habits of the ancient Egyptians; such because of the lack of knowledge of the cultural habits of the ancient Egyptians; such knowledge would have shed light on what these anthropomorphized animal behaviors knowledge would have shed light on what these anthropomorphized animal behaviors mean. Anothermean. Another problem problem is that the is thatexact the findspot exact findspot (called “provenance” (called “provenance” or “provenience” or “provenience” in specialistin specialist circles) circles)of the ostraca of the ostraca and pa andpyri papyri is often is unknown—a often unknown—a problem problem more more gener- generally ally facingfacing Egyptian Egyptian artefacts artefacts dispersed dispersed to various to various institutional institutional and and private private collections collections in in the the 19th19th and and early early 20th 20th centuries. centuries. Had Had the the find findspotspot been been known forfor allall thethe drawings drawings in in question, question,it wouldit would have have been been possible possible to to relate relate them them to to one one another another (Babcock (Babcock 2014 2014,, p. p. 1). 1).

2. The Artists2. The of Artists Deir ofel-Medina Deir el-Medina During Duringthe New the Kingdom New Kingdom (ca. 1550–1078/77 (ca. 1550–1078/77 BCE), EgyptianBCE), Egyptian artists living artists in living a village in a village near thenear Valley the Valleyof Kings of Kings drew drew sketches sketches base basedd on onexisting existing monuments. monuments. This This village, village, called called “The“The Place Place of of Truth” Truth” ( S.t Ma ῾at) at thethe time,time, isis nownow commonlycommonly knownknown byby the the Arabic Ara- name bic nameDeir Deir el-Medina el-Medina (“Monastery (“Monastery of of the the Town”),Town”), andand isis located on the the Western Western Bank Bank of the of the Nile acrossacross fromfrom Thebes Thebes (present-day (present-day Karnak Karnak and and Luxor). Luxor).3 Enlarged3 Enlarged in thein Ramessidethe RamessidePeriod Period (19th (19th and 20thand Dynasties),20th Dynasties), the village the village was inhabited was inhabited by successive by successive generations of generationsworkmen of workmen and their and families their families until the unti beginningl the beginning of the so-called of the so-called Third Intermediate Third In- Period termediate(Wilkinson Period (Wilkinson2005, p. 63). 2005, Workmen p. 63). Wo ofrkmen different of different talents living talents in living the village in the atvil- the time lage at thenormally time normally numbered numbered between between forty and forty seventy and seventy (Redford (Redford 2001, vol. 2001, 1, p.vol. 368). 1, p. Among 368). Amongthose workmenthose workmen were carpenters, were carpenters, stonecutters, stonecutters, relief sculptors, relief sculptors, and painters, and paint- who painted ers, whothe painted royal tombsthe royal as well tombs as theiras well own as tombs their own (Redford tombs 2001 (Redford, vol. 3, 2001, p. 8). vol. They 3, were, p. 8). in other They were,words, in other skilled words, craftsmen skilled and craftsmen often would and often work would their entire work lives their on entire a single lives royal on tomb. a singleThe royal workmen tomb. The spent workmen eight days spent of theeight Egyptian days of weekthe Egyptian camped week near theircamped work near site in the their workValley site of in the the Kings Valley (Yurco of the 1999 Kings, p. (Y 247).urco On 1999, their p. days 247). off On and their on holidays,days off and they on returned holidays,to they the village, returned where to the their village, families wher residede their (familiesYurco 1999 resided, p. 248). (Yurco Many 1999, of thep. 248). inhabitants Many ofwere the literate,inhabitants certainly were theliterate, scribes. certainly In addition the scribes. to their In everyday addition records,to their theyeveryday left writings records,ranging they left from writings humorous ranging satirical from notes humorous and sketches satirical to notes pious and religious sketches inscriptions to pious ( Reeves religiousand inscriptions Wilkinson (Reeves 1996, p. and 20). Wilkinson 1996, p. 20). Serious Seriousthemes themeswere illustrated were illustrated in Theban in Theban tombs tombs that were that werecopied copied at times at times on os- on ostraca traca oror papyri papyri in ina more a more light-hearted light-hearted and and less less formal formal manner. manner. In Egyptian In Egyptian fables, fables, ani- animals mals couldcould appear appear as ascharacters characters performing performing human human roles, roles, behaviors, behaviors, or occupations. or occupations. Os- Ostraca traca scenesscenes in in particular particular provide provide a a large large number of thesethese imitationsimitations ofof well-knownwell-known themes themes foundfound onon tomb tomb walls walls in whichin which animals animals likewise likewise replace replace human human figures. figures. The light-hearted The light-hearteddrawings drawings appear appear to parody to parody or satirize or humansatirize behavior.human behavior. These scenes These can scenes be understood can as a reflection of the humorous, comic spirit of the artists. They reveal the freedom of thought be understood as a reflection of the humorous, comic spirit of the artists. They reveal the and expression to reproduce such comical works that imitate religious or funeral scenes. Drawings of this sort on ostraca or papyri are found in every sizable Egyptian collection 2 Scholars such as Nina and Norman de Garis Davies, Patrick Houlihan, Emma Brunner-Traut, and William Peck state that the figured ostraca are examples of popular art or “non-elite” art. 2 Scholars such as Nina and Norman de Garis Davies, Patrick Houlihan, Emma Brunner-Traut, and William Peck state that the figured ostraca are 3 Situatedexamples in the desert of popular on the art West or “non-elite” Bank of art. the Nile at Thebes, in a bay in the cliffs north of the Valley of the Queens; for which, see (Yurco3 Situated 1999, in p. the 247; desert Janssen on the and West Janssen Bank of1996, the Nilep. 9; at Malek Thebes, 1993, in a bayp. 112). in the cliffs north of the Valley of the Queens; for which, see (Yurco 1999, p. 247; Janssen and Janssen 1996, p. 9; Malek 1993, p. 112).

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(Davies and Garis 1917, p. 234). On average, ostraca are about the size of a human hand, though some papyri specimens are more than a meter in length (Houlihan 1996, p. 211). Artists used them for drafts in the planning of large murals and for sketches made while talking, or for taking notes. Pupils could use ostraca for painting exercises following models supplied by the tutors (Brunner-Traut 1979, p. 7). Because they were cheap (in fact, worthless), potsherds and limestone flakes were used in this manner from the beginnings of history until recent times and are found all along the Nile Valley (Brunner-Traut 1979, p. 1). Due to the dry conditions of the site, ostraca and flakes have been unearthed in great quantities, particularly at Deir el-Medina, and offer invaluable evidence of everyday life of the workmen and their families (Davies and Garis 1917, p. 234; Houlihan 1996, p. 211). Apparently, some artists felt the desire to express themselves in a lighthearted manner. So, instead of using ostraca to jot down a note or figure an account, as did the scribes working in the area, they used them to draw images at their leisure to entertain themselves and their families (Scott 1962, pp. 152–53). Egyptian papyri contain images of satirical fables as well. To reiterate, the artists or artisans drawing these humorous scenes were the same workmen who built and decorated the tombs of the New Kingdom pharaohs in the Valley of the Kings, as well as the burial places of members of the royal family in the Valley of the Queens (Janssen and Janssen 1996, p. 8). Egyptian artisans thus display a freedom of imagination that is rarely seen in their official compositions in which their artistic talents were controlled by strict conventions of representation (Houlihan 1996, pp. 211–12). Free from these formal regulations, the artisans were not hampered by the inflexible instruments in their hands or the sturdy material in which official scenes were rendered (Davies and Garis 1917, p. 237). On the contrary, sherds, flakes, or papyri are easy to draw on and the brush is smooth. These conditions were adapted to sketching humorous or ludicrous episodes of daily life. The scenes they depicted appear unrelated to the formal images of Egyptian art (Malek 1993, p. 114). Their sketches are free of the conventions of “high” art in which professional gravity, propriety, and reputation were at stake (Davies and Garis 1917, p. 235). The satire expressed in the scene in question was eminently suited to the brush of the Egyptian artist, whose ability is particularly admirable in the portrayal of animals (Davies and Garis 1917, p. 236).

3. Defining Humorous Scenes An important question to address is the purpose of the humorous or comical illustra- tions in question. They have been referred to as “caricature,” “comedy,” “humor,” “parody,” “satire,” and so forth. It might therefore be useful to clarify the difference between some of these terms.4 “Humor” is the ability of particular experiences to provoke laughter and provide amusement. Humor in jokes can thus be comic, absurd, incongruous, ludicrous, or otherwise funny. In ancient Egypt, humor was considered an element of common sense or even part of the kind of wisdom that places things in their correct or appropriate perspective (Luck 2000, p. 266). Humor has the capacity to undermine the normal decorum of society (Shaw and Nicholson 1997, p. 134). From the ancient Greek song of revel, “comedy” now refers to visual or literary depictions of generally light and humorous characters engaged in amusing actions typically resulting in a happy ending. The word “caricature,” derived from the Italian caricatura, meaning to exaggerate a person’s characteristics, traits, and features, refers to drawings intended to poke fun at an individual. Although in origin designating humorous portraits of existing historical figures, by extension caricature may denote a comical, silly, derisive, grotesque, insulting, jokingly distorted, or critical depiction or description of a broader social phenomenon.

4 For definitions of these terms, see CED sub voc. (available online: https://dictionary.cambridge.org) and MWD sub voc. (available online: https://www.merriam-webster.com) [both accessed on 4 December 2020]. Arts 2021, 10, 40 4 of 20

Although originating from the Latin word for “sated” (with food)—rather than the Greek satyr—“satire” can be defined as a form of criticizing, exposing, or ridiculing some- one or something by means of humor, irony, or exaggeration to reveal the stupidity, immorality, or vices of the person, idea, or situation, particularly in the context of con- temporary politics and public debates (Brunner-Traut 1984, p. 489). A “parody” can be described as a work of literary or visual art intentionally imitating another serious work of art, performance, situation, or genre, often with a deliberate exaggeration for comic effect. It may involve humor, burlesque, satire, or irony. In other words, a parody falls short of the real thing, and can thus be considered a travesty. It should be clear, therefore, that most of these terms shade into each other, as their definitions are mostly circular. Still, satire should be seen as a serious artistic or symbolic expression of criticism through which individual, societal, or political faults and vices (shortcomings, stupidities, follies, weaknesses, abuses, or cruelties) are held up to censure by means of ridicule, derision, burlesque, grotesque, irony, or other methods, with an intent to bring about improvement; it does not always involve humor or comedy (Brunner-Traut 1984, p. 489; Rose 1993, pp. 80–81). In other words, satire contains an ethical, philosophical, or political purpose to educate, improve, and/or correct a societal ill. Its ultimate goal is to censure, criticize, or ridicule contemporary people, issues, and/or situations. Satire uses every resource, from laughter to indignation. In current usage, parody is a work created to mock, comment on, or make fun of an original work, its subject, author, style, or some other target, by means of humorous, satirical, or ironic imitation. In other words, parody is not necessarily critical and nearer to humor than satire (Brunner-Traut 1984, p. 489). As Jennifer Babcock has recently pointed out, anthropomorphized animals have long been understood as examples of social satire, in which the lower class ridicules the social elite. Babcock, however, argues that these images should be understood as parodies—rather than satire—of elite iconography; and that the artists drawing these parodies considered themselves to be a part of the elite class. Indeed, they were represented in their own tombs at Deir el-Medina as members of the elite. Even if their wealth did not match that of the officials who are evidently part of the socio-economic elite class, the cultural sophistication of the Deir el-Medina artists sets them apart from the lower classes. Babcock rightly emphasizes that the artists drawing the anthropomorphized animals were clearly familiar with the numerous motifs found in elite and royal contexts that they parodied. They thus felt an intimate connection with elite culture (Babcock 2014, pp. 136–37). She is also correct that scenes of anthropomorphized animals cannot all be understood as expressions of social satire. Not all drawings reflect a reversal of the natural or social order, and much of the imagery may simply have been intended humorously. David O’Conner likewise suggests that the Turin papyrus can best be designated as parody, mainly intended to provoke laughter at subjects that were understood by a sophisticated audience. According to O’Conner, the drawings are derived from topics on temple walls or paintings in tomb chapels, whereas the human section may have been inspired by certain “love-songs” (O’Connor 2011, pp. 362, 378–80). He thus refutes the interpretation of the drawings as satirical, stating that they do not ridicule individuals or aspects of classes or society and that it would be inappropriate to mock deities or disrespect kings (O’Connor 2011, pp. 362, 376–77). Earlier, German Egyptologist Emma Brunner-Traut studied the images in question in great depth and understood them as illustrations of animal fables (Brunner-Traut 1979, p. 15). If that were true, though, one would expect text accompanying such scenes, at least in papyri. Yet, the hundreds of drawings bear no accompanying text. For his part, Christopher Eyre proposes that the figured ostraca and the Turin, Cairo, and British Museum papyri may have been used as storytelling aids for children (Eyre 2011, p. 177). His proposal explains why the drawings are not accompanied by texts, as children appreciate a visual image better than text. According to Patrick Houlihan, the illustrations on the three papyri mentioned above were likely drawn by artisans belonging to the group of at least forty Arts 2021, 10, 40 5 of 20

percent of the inhabitants of Deir el-Medina that were literate, thus confirming their elite social status (Houlihan 2001, p. 62). A set of stock characters and motifs seems to appear in these images of animals engaged in human activities (Babcock 2013, pp. 52–55). The aforementioned Brunner- Traut noted that the repetition of various figures, such as noble mice and servant cats, implies that they refer to now-lost stories or indeed fables (Brunner-Traut 1979, pp. 15–16). Perhaps these stories are not so much lost as that they were passed down from generation to generation through oral tradition, and were therefore never preserved in the literary evidence.5 Seen in this light, the interpretations of Brunner-Traut and Eyre would actually complement each other, in that the images represent stories passed down to children through storytelling. Still, it should be emphasized that one of the main characteristics of Egyptian art is the combination of figures and inscriptions in the same scene, often leaving little empty space. Captions are added to give the names and titles of the tomb owner and his family members, or to indicate the activities he is observing or performing. Short phrases are also inscribed in front of the workmen, indicating the dialogues that took place between them at work. These inscriptions form an integral part of a scene and are essential for its understanding. They also tell us a great deal about the various steps of any task and about the language, the humor, and the different classes and professions. Examining the images of animals on ostraca and papyri in their cultural context will offer a better understanding of their function and significance, and may provide clues about their meaning. The central question that remains despite generations of scholarly interest is why animals were depicted as humans, and for what purpose (Germond and Livet 2001, p. 210). It might be beneficial for the reader to bear out the historical background in which these sketches were drawn. After the political and religious crisis of the 18th Dynasty under Akhenaten (r. ca. 1352–1335 BCE) and Tutankhamun (r. ca. 1334–1325 BCE), Egypt witnessed an age of prosperity and stability during the 19th Dynasty, founded by Ramesses I (r. ca. 1295/0 BCE). It reached the height of its power during the long reign of Ramesses II (1279–1213 BCE), when building programs were particularly active. The last powerful pharaoh of the New Kingdom is generally considered to be Ramesses III (r. 1186–1155 BCE), at the beginning of the 20th Dynasty. However, invasions from the west and north(-east) by land and sea, the volcanic eruption of Hekla on Iceland causing decades of poor air quality (ca. 1159–1140 BCE), economic hardship recorded in Deir el-Medina by a workers’ strike, and corruption of sections of the administration, led to a general decline of central power. Respect for royal authority waned as the Theban tombs were robbed. Against this backdrop, it is not difficult to understand drawings of animals ridiculing elite activities as expressions of bitter sarcasm toward the corrupt ruling elite unable to retain firm control over the beautiful Nile Valley. It is not impossible that they reflect contemporary economic, social, and political disorder. Is it not wiser to simply take these drawings at face value? Are they just amusing works of minor artistic worth, or are they biting satirical expressions of the dire conditions of the time at the dusk of the New Kingdom?

4. Selected Figures of Animals on Ostraca and Papyri The preserved corpus of scenes depicting animals in human roles comprises drawings on 81 ostraca and three papyri held in private or institutional collections (Babcock 2014, p. 3). The preserved, though fragmentary, illustrated papyri form the core of this paper; they are held by museum collections in Cairo, London, and Turin. These fragments have come to be known as “satirical papyri,” for they all contain a series of drawings thought to illustrate fables or fairy tales featuring wild and domestic animals engaged in human behavior.

5 See also Brunner-Traut(1963, p. 44). Arts 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 20

4. Selected Figures of Animals on Ostraca and Papyri The preserved corpus of scenes depicting animals in human roles comprises draw- ings on 81 ostraca and three papyri held in private or institutional collections (Babcock 2014, p. 3). The preserved, though fragmentary, illustrated papyri form the core of this paper; they are held by museum collections in Cairo, London, and Turin. These frag- ments have come to be known as “satirical papyri,” for they all contain a series of draw- Arts 2021, 10, 40 ings thought6 of 20 to illustrate fables or fairy tales featuring wild and domestic animals en- gaged in human behavior. The themes are varied on the ostraca and papyri scenes depicting animals posing, The themes are varied on the ostraca and papyri scenes depicting animalsdressed posing, and acting as humans in ancient Egyptian art (Houlihan 1996, p. 212; Brun- dressed and acting as humans in ancient Egyptian art (Houlihan 1996, p.ner-Traut 212; Brunner- 1979, p. 11). Still, Babcock notes that there are recurring motifs in the imagery, Traut 1979, p. 11). Still, Babcock notes that there are recurring motifs in thesuch imagery, as animals such playing games, musicians at banquets, noble mice before an offering ta- as animals playing games, musicians at banquets, noble mice before an offeringble, and pastoral table, scenes (Babcock 2014, p. 66). Although not necessarily the main theme, and pastoral scenes (Babcock 2014, p. 66). Although not necessarily thesometimes main theme, there was a kind of role reversal in the vignettes (Babcock 2014, pp. 5–6). For sometimes there was a kind of role reversal in the vignettes (Babcock 2014,the pp. present 5–6). For paper, the selected animals comprise cats, mice, lions, baboons, dogs and the present paper, the selected animals comprise cats, mice, lions, baboons, dogsfoxes, and and foxes, donkeys. Birds are excluded here, as they require separate study. The majori- and donkeys. Birds are excluded here, as they require separate study. Thety of majority the figured of ostraca in this study do not have a definite findspot. Some of them can the figured ostraca in this study do not have a definite findspot. Some ofbe them attributed can be to Thebes generally, or Deir el-Medina specifically. attributed to Thebes generally, or Deir el-Medina specifically. Cats. The earliest evidence of a relationship between people and cats in Egypt dates Cats. The earliest evidence of a relationship between people and cats inback Egypt to Neolithic dates times (Germond and Livet 2001, p. 75). Cats appear in many ostraca back to Neolithic times (Germond and Livet 2001, p. 75). Cats appear inscenes, many ostraca especially together with mice. Cats seem to have been domesticated during the scenes, especially together with mice. Cats seem to have been domesticatedMiddle during Kingdom. the They were both pets and symbols of feline deities, such as the god- Middle Kingdom. They were both pets and symbols of feline deities, such asdesses the goddesses Sekhmet and Bastet. The ancient Egyptian onomatopoeic word for cat is miw Sekhmet and Bastet. The ancient Egyptian onomatopoeic word for cat is miw (𓏇𓇋𓅱𓃠). JaromirJaromir Malek points out that scenes on the ostraca combine two main subjects Malek points out that scenes on the ostraca combine two main subjects (Malek(Malek 1993 1993,, pp. pp. 115–16). The first is a refreshingly mocking view of the real world of 115–16). The first is a refreshingly mocking view of the real world of thethe workers workers and and the Theban tomb art. The other comprises the depictions of various the Theban tomb art. The other comprises the depictions of various animalanimal characters, characters, in in particular cats, as seen in the paintings of the tombs of Deir particular cats, as seen in the paintings of the tombs of Deir el-Medina. Asel-Medina. Raouf Habib As Raouf Habib comments, cats were the favorite animals of the Egyptian comments, cats were the favorite animals of the Egyptian caricaturists, ascaricaturists, they are by as they are by nature comical—indeed their haughtily independent char- nature comical—indeed their haughtily independent character endows themacter with endows a sense them with a sense of humor (Habib 1980, p. 2). of humor (Habib 1980, p. 2). Perhaps the most famous and often-published ostracon depicting a cat shows an Perhaps the most famous and often-published ostracon depicting aEgyptian cat shows tabby an herding geese (Figure 1) (Vandier d’Abbadie 1937, cat. no. 2266, pl. 39; Egyptian tabby herding geese (Figure1)(Vandier d’Abbadie 1937, cat. no.Atiya 2266, 2005, pl. 39; p. 195; El-Shahawy 2005, p. 266, fig. 179). The scene is drawn in black, yel- Atiya 2005, p. 195; El-Shahawy 2005, p. 266, fig. 179). The scene is drawn inlow, black, and yellow, red on a limestone flake from Deir el-Medina dating to the Ramesside period, and red on a limestone flake from Deir el-Medina dating to the Ramessideand period, is now and housed is in the Egyptian Museum, Cairo. The cat is standing on its hind legs, now housed in the Egyptian Museum, Cairo. The cat is standing on its hindacting legs, as acting a herdsman and protector of a gaggle of six geese, arranged in two registers. as a herdsman and protector of a gaggle of six geese, arranged in two registers.Above Abovethe geese is a nest filled with eggs. The tabby carries a small bag of provisions the geese is a nest filled with eggs. The tabby carries a small bag of provisionssuspended suspended from the end of a long crook, which it carries over its shoulder (Peck 1978, p. from the end of a long crook, which it carries over its shoulder (Peck 1978, p.56; 56; Houlihan 2001, p. 82; Malek 1993, pp. 113–15; Houlihan 1996, p. 212; Vandier 2001, p. 82; Malek 1993, pp. 113–15; Houlihan 1996, p. 212; Vandier d’Abbadied’Abbadie 1937 1937,, pp. 54–55). The scene is a recurring pastoral motif, perhaps a cheerful pp. 54–55). The scene is a recurring pastoral motif, perhaps a cheerful episodeepisode from from an an Egyptian folktale or fable. In the episode not only does an animal per- Egyptian folktale or fable. In the episode not only does an animal perform a humanform a activityhuman activity here, but the roles of the natural world are also humorously re- here, but the roles of the natural world are also humorously reversed. It isversed. possible It thatis possible that such a reversal scene, in which predator herds prey, also had a such a reversal scene, in which predator herds prey, also had a political satiricalpolitical intent. satirical intent. A similar sketch, now in the Museum of Mediterranean and Near Eastern Antiquities, Stockholm, is also drawn on a limestone flake in black (Figure2; cf. Figure 14, right) (Atiya 2005, p. 195). To the (viewer’s) left of the scene is a striped cat, walking towards the right on its hind legs. In one paw, it holds a short, curved stick to goad a gaggle, and in the other, the tabby cradles a gosling to heighten the irony of the scene (Peck 1978, p. 144; Malek 1993, p. 120; Rogers 1948, p. 156; James 1985, p. 61; Houlihan 2001, pp. 65–66; Hambly 1954, pp. 267–68; Habib 1980, p. 3; Beauregard 1894, p. 205). To the right of the cat are four geese. Presenting animals performing human activities might have been a relatively safe means to censure and denounce the ruling elite at a time when the political order was weakened. That is to say, such reversal scenes may reflect a general loss of confidence towards the pharaoh and the country’s administration among the workers and artists, who might have felt that their world was turning upside down (cf. Figure 16, bottom left) (Atiya 2005, p. 195). Arts 2021,Arts 10, 2021x FOR, 10 ,PEER 40 REVIEW 7 of 20 7 of 20

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Figure 1.Figure Cat herding 1.2. Cat herding a flock ageese flockof geese (MM of geese inv.(EMC (EMCno. inv.14051), inv. no. no. limestone JE JE 63801) 63801), flame,, limestonelimestone Deir el-Medina, flake, flake Deir, Deir Ramesside el-Medina, el-Medina period Ramesside, Ramesside (Image period courtesy period (Image of (Image courtesycourtesythe of Medelhavsmuseet,the Egyptian of the Egyptian Museum, Stockholm). Museum, CairoCairo). ).

These ostraca sketches offer a parody of formal art depictions of human beings en- A similarThese ostraca sketch, sketches now in offer the aMuseum parody of of formal Mediterranean art depictions and of human Near Eastern beings en- Antiqui- gaged in similar occupations. A A pastor pastoralal scene in the tomb of PuyemraPuyemra ((PwjPwj m R‛), the ties,Second Stockholm, Prophet is ofalso Amun drawn (Theban on a Tomb limestone no. 39 39),), flake for example, in black shows (Figure a man 2; leadingcf. Figure large 14, right) (Atiyabirds, 2005, including p. 195 cranes, ). To the geese, (viewer’s) and ducks left (Figure of the 33).). 6scene6 Here, is the a man striped on the cat, right walking holds atowards the rightshepherd’s on its crook hind in legs. one hand In one and paw, another it holds stickstick a over short, his shoulder.curved stick The variousto goad fowl a gaggle are , and in thearranged other, in the registers, tabby similar cradles to a the gosling ostraca to scenes. heighten the irony of the scene (Peck 1978, p. 144; Malek 1993, p. 120; Rogers 1948, p. 156; James 1985, p. 61; Houlihan 2001, pp. 65–66; Hambly 1954, pp. 267–68; Habib 1980, p. 3; Beauregard 1894, p. 205). To the right of the cat are four geese. Presenting animals performing human activities might have been a relatively safe means to censure and denounce the ruling elite at a time when the political order was weakened. That is to say, such reversal scenes may reflect a general loss of confidence towards the pharaoh and the country’s administration among the workers and artists, who might have felt that their world was turning upside down (cf. Figure 16, bottom left) (Atiya 2005, p. 195). 6 For TT 39, see (Lythgoe 1923, pp. 186–88; Gardiner and Weigall 1913, p. 18); for the pastoral scene, see (Davies and Garis 1922, pl. 12; Fischer 1978, p. 8, fig. 7). Figure 3. Man leading large birds from the tomb of Puyemra (TT39), El-Khokha (Western Thebes), 18th Dynasty (Image taken from Davies and de Garis 1922, pl. 12).

6 For TT 39, see (Lythgoe 1923, pp. 186–88; Gardiner and Weigall 1913, p. 18); for the pastoral scene, see (Davies and de Garis 1922, pl. 12; Fischer 1978, p. 8, fig. 7).

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Figure 2. Cat herding geese (MM inv. no. 14051), limestone flame, Deir el-Medina, Ramesside period (Image courtesy of the Medelhavsmuseet, Stockholm).

These ostraca sketches offer a parody of formal art depictions of human beings en- gaged in similar occupations. A pastoral scene in the tomb of Puyemra (Pwj m R‛ ), the Second Prophet of Amun (Theban Tomb no. 39), for example, shows a man leading large Figure 2. Cat herding geese (MM inv. no. 14051), limestone flame, Deir el-Medina, Ramesside period (Image courtesy of Figure 2. Cat herding geesebirds (MM inv., including no. 14051), cranes, limestone geese flame,, and Deir ducks el-Medina, (Figure Ramesside 3).6 Here, period the man (Image on courtesy the right of theholds a the Medelhavsmuseet,Medelhavsmuseet, Stockholm Stockholm).shepherd’s). crook in one hand and another stick over his shoulder. The various fowl are arranged in registers, similar to the ostraca scenes. These ostraca sketches offer a parody of formal art depictions of human beings en- gaged in similar occupations. A pastoral scene in the tomb of Puyemra (Pwj m R‛), the Second Prophet of Amun (Theban Tomb no. 39), for example, shows a man leading large birds, including cranes, geese, and ducks (Figure 3).6 Here, the man on the right holds a shepherd’s crook in one hand and another stick over his shoulder. The various fowl are arranged in registers, similar to the ostraca scenes.

Figure 3. Man leading large birds from the tomb of Puyemra (TT39), El-Khokha (Western Thebes), 18th Dynasty (Image Figure 3. Man leading large birds from the tomb of Puyemra (TT39), El-Khokha (Western Thebes), 18th Dynasty (Image taken from Davies and de Garis 1922, pl. 12). taken from Davies and Garis 1922, pl. 12).

An even more common imagery involving cats in anthropomorphized situations involves another theme of reversal, namely, the motif of a seated elite mouse being waited on by a servant cat.7 This motif appears on ostraca as well as the Cairo and British Museum

6 For TT 39, see (Lythgoe 1923, pp. 186–88; Gardiner and Weigall 1913, p. 18); for the pastoral scene, see (Davies and de Garis 7 For1922, interpretations pl. 12; Fischer of this 1978, banquet p. 8, parody,fig. 7). see Alexandre(1892, p. 6); Vandier d’Abbadie(1937, pp. 69–70); Peck(1978, p. 147); Wilson(1997, p. 64); FigureBabcock 3. Man(2014 leading, pp. 21–22). large birds from the tomb of Puyemra (TT39), El-Khokha (Western Thebes), 18th Dynasty (Image taken from Davies and de Garis 1922, pl. 12).

6 For TT 39, see (Lythgoe 1923, pp. 186–88; Gardiner and Weigall 1913, p. 18); for the pastoral scene, see (Davies and de Garis 1922, pl. 12; Fischer 1978, p. 8, fig. 7).

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An even more common imagery involving cats in anthropomorphized situations Arts 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW involves another theme of reversal, namely, the motif of a seated2 of 20 elite mouse being waited on by a servant cat.7 This motif appears on ostraca as well as the Cairo and British

Arts 2021, 10, 40 Museum papyri, and parodies countless funerary scenes of tomb owners being9 of waited 20 on more familiarby servants.formal representations A beautiful onexample, monuments on aof limestone the majority ostracon of Egyptian of unknown “high” findspot (now in art, scholarsBrooklyn), have until showsvery recently an anthropomorphized considered such scenes mouse on ostraca seated and on papyri a folding of lit- stool to the right of tle artistic themerit scene and academic (Figure 4)interest—if (Babcock they 2014, consider pl. 16 them). The at all.mouse2 has drooping breasts and a round papyri, and parodies countless funerary scenes of tomb owners being waited on by servants. Whatbelly, these imageswears acould long have dress, meant and to has the aancient lotus flowerEgyptians on is her impossible forehead; to de-she holds a dish or cup termine withoutA beautifulwritten sources example, to onelucidate a limestone their ostraconthoughts. of This unknown paper findspotaims to (nowshed in Brooklyn), in one paw, and fish bones or a flower as well as a piece of linen cloth in the other paw.8 light on the depictionshows an of anthropomorphizedanimals performing mousehumanseated professions on a folding on ostraca stool and to thepapyri right of the scene during theBefore New(Figure Kingdom, her4 )((toBabcock thefocusing viewer’s 2014 on, pl. a selection 16).left), The a tabby mouseof drawings hasstanding drooping that onshow breasts its animals hind and legs aparo- round and belly, tail wearspressed anx- iouslya long between dress, and its haspaws, a lotus holding flower on a her similar forehead; piece she of holds cloth, a dish waves or cup a in fan one and paw, offers a dying human professions (such as scribes, servants, musicians, dancers, leaders, and8 herdsmen).plucked Theseand fishscenes and bones roasted often or aportray flowerduck animal asor wellgooses asdressed ato piece the in ofmouse human linen. cloth clothes, in the posing other paw.with Before her (to the viewer’s left), a tabby standing on its hind legs and tail pressed anxiously between its human gestures,In and this engaging motif, thein human humorous pursui elementts. I will differentiateof animals “humor,”imitating “satire,” human behavior revolves, paws, holding a similar piece of cloth, waves a fan and offers a plucked and roasted duck and “parody” to provide a better understanding of the comic intent of the artists. I will firstor of goose all, around to the mouse. the parody of banquet scenes frequently depicted in the Theban tombs. discuss why these scenes were drawn without any texts. Additionally, I will address the In thoseIn tomb this motif,scenes, the the humorous deceased element is served of animals his lavish imitating banquet human meal behavior by female revolves, servants. question of whether these drawings were indeed meant to mock elite society. first of all, around the parody of banquet scenes frequently depicted in the Theban tombs. In UnderstandingThe comic the effect exact of meaning animals of actingthese scenes out such is challenging banquet duescenes to the is enhancedlack of by reversing the those tomb scenes, the deceased is served his lavish banquet meal by female servants. The supportingn aturalarchaeological animal ororder textual in evidence.which the These predator images serves are not the quite prey. understood Additionally, the mouse is comic effect of animals acting out such banquet scenes is enhanced by reversing the natural because ofgenerally the lack of understood knowledge ofas thefemale cultural and habits the cat of asthe male, ancient although Egyptians; admittedly such the mouse may animal order in which the predator serves the prey. Additionally, the mouse is generally knowledge would have shed light on what these anthropomorphized animal behaviors alsounderstood portray an as obese female elderly and the catofficial as male, with although drooping admittedly breasts the and mouse the may cat’s also gender portray is inde- mean. Another problem9 is that the exact findspot (called “provenance” or “provenience” terminable.an obese elderly Still, officialanother with humorous drooping breastslevel may and the then cat’s involve gender isa indeterminable.reversal of gender9 Still, roles, as in specialistthe circles) anotherlady ofmouse the humorous ostraca is being leveland paserved maypyri then is by often involve a tom unknown—a a cat, reversal instead ofproblem gender of servant more roles, gener- as girls the lady waiting mouse on is an elite ally facing Egyptian artefacts dispersed to various institutional and private collections in man.being Interpretations served by a tom of cat,these instead parodies of servant of the girls funerary waiting on banquet an elite man. scenes Interpretations range from illus- the 19th and earlyof these 20th parodies centuries. of Had the funerary the findspot banquet been scenes known range for all from the illustrations drawings in of a folk tale or question, ittrations would have of a been folk possible tale or tofable, relate caricatures them to one ofanother the ruling (Babcock elite 2014,, or p. actual 1). satire of the royal family.fable, If, caricatures as Babcock of the notes, ruling elite,the artists or actual drawing satire of the these royal scenes family. felt If, as an Babcock affinity notes, with elite the artists drawing these scenes felt an affinity with elite culture, it is difficult to see the 2. The Artistsculture, ofimagery Deir it isel-Medina as difficult biting satire to see of thatthe sameimagery elite as (Babcock biting 2014 satire, pp. of 21–22). that same Still, theelite comically (Babcock 2014, Duringpp. the topsy-turvy21 New–22) Kingdom. Still, element the (ca. comically of1550–1078/77 role reversal topsy BCE may-turvy), Egyptian well element be a artists reflection of living role of theinreversal a uncertain village may times well of be the a reflec- near the Valleytionlate of of the New Kings uncertain Kingdom—and drew sketches times thusof base the voiced late on ridicule Newexisting atKingdom themonuments. failure— ofand theThis thus ruling village, voice class ridicule to maintain at the fail- called “Theure Place justiceof theof Truth” andruling order (S.t class (Mama ῾toat)). maintainat the time, justice is now and commonly order (knownma῾at). by the Ara- bic name Deir el-Medina (“Monastery of the Town”), and is located on the Western Bank of the Nile across from Thebes (present-day Karnak and Luxor).3 Enlarged in the Ramesside Period (19th and 20th Dynasties), the village was inhabited by successive generations of workmen and their families until the beginning of the so-called Third In- termediate Period (Wilkinson 2005, p. 63). Workmen of different talents living in the vil- lage at the time normally numbered between forty and seventy (Redford 2001, vol. 1, p. 368). Among those workmen were carpenters, stonecutters, relief sculptors, and paint- ers, who painted the royal tombs as well as their own tombs (Redford 2001, vol. 3, p. 8). They were, in other words, skilled craftsmen and often would work their entire lives on a single royal tomb. The workmen spent eight days of the Egyptian week camped near their work site in the Valley of the Kings (Yurco 1999, p. 247). On their days off and on holidays, they returned to the village, where their families resided (Yurco 1999, p. 248). Many of the inhabitants were literate, certainly the scribes. In addition to their everyday records, they left writings ranging from humorous satirical notes and sketches to pious religious inscriptions (Reeves and Wilkinson 1996, p. 20). Serious themes were illustrated in Theban tombs that were copied at times on os- traca or papyri in a more light-hearted and less formal manner. In Egyptian fables, ani- mals could appear as characters performing human roles, behaviors, or occupations. Os- traca scenes in particular provide a large number of these imitations of well-known themes found on tomb walls in which animals likewise replace human figures. The light-hearted drawings appear to parody or satirize human behavior. These scenes can

be understood as a reflection of the humorous, comic spirit of the artists. They reveal the Figure 4. Cat serving seated mouse (Brooklyn Museum acc. no. 37.51E), limestone flake, findspot unknown (Egypt), Figure 4. Cat serving seated mouse (Brooklyn Museum acc. no. 37.51E), limestone flake, findspot unknown (Egypt), Ramesside period (Photography by Gavin Ashworth, courtesy of the Brooklyn Museum, New York). 2 Scholars such as NinaRamesside and Norman period (Photographyde Garis Davies, by GavinPatrick Ashworth, Houlihan, courtesy Emma Brunner-Traut, of the Brooklyn an Museum,d William New Peck York). state that the figured ostraca are examples of popular art or “non-elite” art. 3 Situated in the desert on the West Bank of the Nile at Thebes, in a bay in the cliffs north of the Valley of the Queens; for which, see7 (YurcoFor 1999,interpretations p. 247; Janssen of andthis Janssen banquet 1996, parody, p. 9; Malek see 1993,Alexandre p. 112). (1892, p. 6); Vandier d’Abbadie (1937, pp. 69–70); Peck (1978, p. 147); Wilson (1997, p. 64); Babcock (2014, pp. 21–22). 8 For interpretations of the details of this banquet scene, see Beauregard (1894, p. 222); Peck (1978, p. 147); Malek (1993, pp. 113–14). 9 I would like to thank the anonymous reviewer for this observation.

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AA papyruspapyrus heldheld inin thethe collectioncollection ofof thethe EgyptianEgyptian Museum,Museum, Cairo,Cairo, consistingconsisting ofof twotwo 10 paintedpaintedA papyrus vignettes,vignettes, held showsshows in the aa comparablecomparable collection of scenescene the Egyptian ofof micemice beingbeing Museum, pamperedpampered Cairo, byby consisting cats.cats.10 Here,Here, of two onon thepaintedthe leftleft are vignettes,are fourfour catscats shows servingserving a comparable aa ladylady mousemouse scene atat of herher mice toilet.toilet. being AlthoughAlthough pampered sheshe by isis cats. notnot10 anthropo-anthropo-Here, on morphizedthemorphized left are four toto thethe cats extentexten servingt ofof the athe lady precedingpreceding mouse at imagimage, here, toilet. sheshe isis Although dresseddressed in shein anan is ankle-length notankle anthropomor--length roberobe andphizedand sitssits to onon the aa tall, extenttall, wickerwicker of the stoolstool preceding withwith herher image, feetfeet sheonon aa is footrest;footrest; dressed sheshe in an isis ankle-lengthsippingsipping fromfromrobe aa gobletgoblet and handedsitshanded on a overover tall, wickerbyby aa catcat stool inin frontfront with ofof her her.her. feet BehindBehind on a footrest; her,her, oneone she ofof her isher sipping servantservant from catscats aisis goblet caringcaring handed forfor herher largeoverlarge by wig.wi ag.cat The in cat front even of her.hashas its Behindits ownown her,smallsmall one wig, wig, of herheld held servant up up with with cats a ahairpin. ishairpin. caring The forThe next her next largecat cat farther wig.far- therTheto the catto (viewer’s)the even (viewer’s) has right its own right is gently small is gently carrying wig, carrying held a baby up a with babymouse a hairpin.mouse in a sling, in The a sling,just next like just cat a fartherhumanlike a human tonurse. the nurse.(viewer’s)The last The of rightlastthe fourof is the gently cats four carries carrying cats acarries jar a of baby liquida jar mouse of and liquid infans a and sling, a large fans just sunshade a likelarge a humansunshade to wave nurse. coolto wave Theair. coollast ofair.Mice the four. Ancient cats carriesEgyptians a jar called of liquid the andmouse fans pnw a large ( sunshade). Perhaps to wavethe largest cool air.group of comicalMice scenes. Ancient Ancient of animals Egyptians Egyptians imitating called called humanthe mouse behavior pnw ( 𓊪𓈖𓏌𓅱𓄛depicts). Perhaps Perhaps mice. Apart the largest from the group scenes of comicaldiscussed scenes above of involving animals imitating servant humancats, mice behaviorbehavior are shown depicts in mice.toiletry Apart scenes from and the military scenes discussedscenes (Brunner above -involvingTraut 1979, servant p. 11). cats, In the mice former are showncategory, in mice toiletry may scenes be fanning and military a lady scenesmouse, (Brunner-Traut ( Brunner-Trautcoiffing their own 19791979, hair,, p. 11).or caring In In the the forfo formerrmer their category, category,young carried mice mayin breast be fanning-shawls. a In lady the mouse,military coiffing coiffing category, their mice own may hair, be orriding caring chariots, for theirtheir combatting youngyoung carriedcarried enemies, inin breast-shawls.breast-shawls. or beating captives. In the militaryA figured category, limestone mice ostracon may be sketched riding chariots, in red, combatting black, and whiteenemies, depicts or beating a mouse captives. facing Abackwards figuredfigured limestone riding a chariot ostracon drawn sketched by two in red,horses black, (Figure and 5) white (Brunner depicts-Traut a mousemouse 1984, facingfig.facing 28; backwardsHoulihan 2001, riding pp. a chariot84–85; drawnBabcock by 2014, two horsesphorses. 68–69, (Figure(Figure pl. 265 5))(). Brunner-TrautWearing(Brunner-Traut a pleated 1984 1984, ,kilt fig. fig. deco- 28; 28; Houlihanrated with 20012001, a row, pp.pp. of 84–85;84–85; dots, Babcock Babcock the mouse 2014 2014, , holds p. p. 68–69, 68–69, the pl. reins pl. 26). 26). with Wearing Wearing one apaw. pleated a pleated In ancient kilt decoratedkilt Egypt,deco- ratedwithchariots awith row were a of row dots, employed of the dots, mouse by the kings mouse holds and the holds noblemen reins th withe reins in one war with paw. and one In races, paw. ancient and In Egypt, ancient such scenes chariots Egypt, of chariotsweremice employedimitating were employed bycombat kings scenes andby noblemenkings must and have innoblemen warbeen and intended races,in war and as and witty such races, scenesparody and of (such miceBrunner scenes imitating-Traut of micecombat1984, imitating p. scenes489). The mustcombat question have scenes been remains must intended whetherhave as been witty such intended parody a parody (asBrunner-Traut wittyalso evokes parody 1984an (Brunner-Traut element, p. 489). of The po- 1984,questionlitical p. satire 489). remains in The which whetherquestion the victorious such remains a parody whetherking also is paradoxically su evokesch a parody an element replaced also ofevokes political by the an small satireelement and in whichof weak po- liticalthemouse. victorious satire in kingwhich is the paradoxically victorious king replaced is paradoxically by the small replaced and weak by mouse. the small and weak mouse.

FigureFigure 5.5. Mouse riding chariot (MM inv. inv. no. no. 14049) 14049),, limestone limestone flame flame,, Deir Deir el el-Medina,-Medina, Ramesside Ramesside Figureperiodperiod (Image5.(Image Mouse courtesycourtesy riding chariot ofof thethe Medelhavsmuseet, Medelhavsmuseet,(MM inv. no. 14049), Stockholm).Stockholm limestone). flame, Deir el-Medina, Ramesside period (Image courtesy of the Medelhavsmuseet, Stockholm).

8 For interpretations of the details of this banquet scene, see Beauregard(1894, p. 222); Peck(1978, p. 147); Malek(1993, pp. 113–14). 9 I would like to thank the anonymous reviewer for this observation. 1010 ForFor CairoCairo papyruspapyrus no.no. JEJE 31199,31199, seesee JamesJames (1985,(1985, p.p. 60);60); HoulihanHoulihan (2001,(2001, p.p. 67);67); BabcockBabcock (2014,(2014, pl.pl. 5).5). 10 For Cairo papyrus no. JE 31199, see James(1985, p. 60); Houlihan(2001, p. 67); Babcock(2014, pl. 5).

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Other anthropomorphized combat scenes again involve catscats andand mice,mice, nownow engaged inin battle battle—oftenOther—often anthropomorphized referred referred to to as “The combat War scenes of Mice again and involve Cats”Cats” (catsBrunner-TrautBrunner and -mice,Traut now 19791979, engaged, p. 15 15).). Storiesin battle about—often battles referred between to as “The cats andWar mice of Mice are and known Cats” especially (Brunner from-Traut the 1979, Near p. East15). (StoriesBrunnerBrunner-Traut about-Traut battles 19681968,, pp.pp. between 44–46)44–46 cats),, notnot and toto mentionmention mice are thethe known BatrachomyomachiaBatrachomyomachia especially from or the “Battle Near of East the 11 Frogs(Brunner and and-Traut Mice,” Mice, 1968,” from from pp. Classical 44 Classical–46), not Greek to Greek mention literature. literature. the BatrachomyomachiaA11 popular A popular drawing drawingor of “Battle the cat-and- ofof the catFrogsmouse-and and- warmouse is Mice, foundwar” isfrom onfound the Classical on animal the animal section Greek section of literature. a large of a butlarge11 A highly but popular highly fragmentary drawingfragmentary papyrus of pa- the 12 pyruscatin Turin-and in-mouse Turin (Figures (Figureswar6 and is found7 6; and cf. on Figure7; thecf. Figure animal 16, bottom 16, section bottom center). of center).a largeFrom 12but From highly the the left fragmentary left of of the the scene scene pa- a apyrusgigantic gigantic in mouseTurin mouse (Figures charges charges on6 andon a chariot a 7; chariot cf. Figure drawn drawn by16, two bottomby two dogs center).dogs that tramplethat12 From trample a groupthe aleft group of of cats. the of Otherscene cats. Otheramice gigantic aremice besieging mouse are besieging charges a fortress, aon fortress, a some chariot withsome drawn bow with andby bow two arrows, and dogs arrows, othersthat trample scalingothers scalinga the group wall the of with wallcats. a 13 withOtherladder a miceladder defended are defended besieging by cats, by whoa cats,fortress, appear who some appear to be with begging to bowbe beggin forand mercy. arrows,g for mercy. Theothers imagery13 scalingThe imagery is the usually wall is usuallywithunderstood a ladder understood as andefended imitation as an by imitation or cats, parody who or of appearpar monumentalody toof bemonumental beggin battle scenesg for battle mercy. such scenes as13 thoseThe such imagery at Medinetas those is atusuallyHabu Medinet and understood theHabu Ramesseum and as the an imitationRamesseum (Beauregard or par( B1894eauregardody, pp.of monumental 171–72; 1894, Vandierpp. 171 battle– d’Abbadie72; scenes Vandier such 1937 d’ Abbadieas, p.those 72; 1937atFlores Medinet, p. 2004 72; ,FloresHabu p. 235; and2004, Babcock the p. Ramesseum235; 2014 Babcock, pl. 11). ( 2014,Beauregard pl. 11) .1894, pp. 171–72; Vandier d’Abbadie 1937, p. 72; Flores 2004, p. 235; Babcock 2014, pl. 11).

Figure 6. War of Mice and Cats (detail of CME inv. no. c.2031, CGT no. 55001), papyrus, Deir el-Medina, 20th Dynasty Figure 6. War of Mice and Cats (detail of CME inv. no. c.2031, CGT no. 55001), papyrus, Deir el-Medina, 20th Dynasty (FigureImage 6.courtesy War of of Mice the Egyptianand Cats Museum,(detail of CMETurin )inv.. no. c.2031, CGT no. 55001), papyrus, Deir el-Medina, 20th Dynasty (Image courtesy of the Egyptian Museum, Turin). (Image courtesy of the Egyptian Museum, Turin).

Figure 7. Reconstruction of the animal battle scene of Turin Papyrus 55001 (CME inv. no. C.2031) (Taken from Gaston Maspero,Figure 7. ReconstructionThe Struggle of the of Nationsthe animal (London: battle S.P.C.K.,scene of 1896),Turin p.Papyrus 453). 55001 (CME inv. no. C.2031) (Taken from Gaston Figure 7. Reconstruction of the animal battle scene of Turin Papyrus 55001 (CME inv. no. C.2031) (Taken from Gaston Maspero, The Struggle of the Nations (London: S.P.C.K., 1896), p. 453). Maspero, The Struggle of the Nations (London: S.P.C.K., 1896), p. 453). 11 For the Batrachomyomachia , now see Stallings (2019). 11 For the Batrachomyomachia, now see Stallings(2019). 1211 For the Batrachomyomachiaanimal section of ,Turin now seePapyrus Stallings no. (2019). 55001 (CME inv. no. C.2031), see Omlin (1973, pls. 13, 18); Malek (1993, p. 113); 12 For the animal section of Turin Papyrus no. 55001 (CME inv. no. C.2031), see Omlin(1973, pls. 13, 18); Malek(1993, p. 113); Babcock(2014, pls. 4, 10). 12 Babcock (2014, pls. 4, 10). 13 ForFor interpretations the animal section of the details of Turin of this Papyrus combat scene,no. 55001 see Beauregard (CME inv.(1894 no., pp. C.2031), 169–75); see Erman Omlin(1971 (1973,, p. 520); pls. Brunner-Traut 13, 18); Malek(1974 (1993,, pp. 125, p. 127);113); 13 HabibForBabcock interpretations(1980 (2014,, pp. 2–3); pls. Vycichl 4of, 10the).( 1983 details, pp. of 105, this 107); combat Malek( 1993scene,, pp. see 114, B 118–19);eauregard Houlihan (1894,(1996 pp., p.169 216);–75 Clayton); Erman(1994 (1971,, p. 150); p. 520Houlihan); Brunner(2001,- pp.Traut 13 62–63);(1974,For interpretations Lothpp. (1252006, ,127 p. 49);) ;of Habib O’Connorthe details (1980,(2011 ofpp.) this and 2– Babcock3combat); Vycichl( 2014scene, (1983,, pp. see 26–28). p Bpeauregard. 105, 107) ;(1894, Malek pp. (1993, 169 –pp.75) ;114 Erman, 118 –(1971,19); Houlihan p. 520); Brunner(1996, p.- Traut216); C(1974,layton pp. (1994, 125, p.127 150); Habib); Houlihan (1980, (2001, pp. 2 pp.–3); 62Vycichl–63); Loth (1983, (2006, pp. p.105 49, )107; O’Connor); Malek (2011)(1993, andpp. 114Babcock, 118– (2014,19); Houlihan pp. 26–28 (1996,). p. 216); Clayton (1994, p. 150); Houlihan (2001, pp. 62–63); Loth (2006, p. 49); O’Connor (2011) and Babcock (2014, pp. 26–28).

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Figure 7. Reconstruction of the animal battle scene of Turin Papyrus 55001 (CME inv. no. C.2031). (Taken from Gaston Maspero, The Struggle of the NationsLions (London:. The S.P.C.K., lion was 1896), called p. 453) .mAi or rw in ancient Egyptian ( or ). Although thereLions were. Therelatively lion was few called lions mAi in orPharaonic rw in ancient Egypt, Egyptian they played(𓌳𓄿𓌳𓄿𓃬𓃬 or a 𓃭significant𓏤𓃭𓏤 ). Although role in royal LionsLionsLions. The. The .lion The lion lionwas was wascalled called called mAi mAimAi or or orrw rwrw in in inancient ancient Egyptian Egyptian Egyptian ( ( (㌳ㄿ レoror or ).ロ㏤ ) AlthoughAlthough. Although there ideologythere were andrelatively religious few lions symbolism, in Pharaonic signifying Egypt, they strength, played a significant power, and role majesty.in royal Bold and therethere werewere wererelatively relatively relatively few few few lions lions lions in in Pharaonic in Pharaonic Pharaonic Egypt, Egypt, Egypt, they they they played played played a significant a significanta significant role role in role royal in in royal ideologyroyal magnificent,ideologyand religiousand religiousfierce symbolism, and symbolism, mighty, signifying cruelsignifying strength, and strength,unpredictable, power, power, and majesty. andthe lionmajesty. Bold was and Bold a magnificent,lso anduncharacteris- ideologyideology and and religious religious symbolism, symbolism, signifying signifying strength, strength, power, power, and and majesty. majesty. Bold Bold and and magnificent,fierce and fierce mighty, and cruel mighty, and cruel unpredictable, and unpr theedictable, lion was the also lion uncharacteristically was also uncharacteris- portrayed magnificent,ticallymagnificent, portrayed fierce fierce and inand mighty,human mighty, cruel situations cruel and and unpr unpredictable, (Redictable,aven 2000, the the lionp. lion 71 was )was. On also a lsoone uncharacteris- uncharacteris- of the humorous vi- ticallyin portrayed human situations in human (Raven situations 2000, p.(Raven 71). On 2000, one p. of the71). humorousOn one of vignettes the humorous of a colorfully vi- ticallygnettestically portrayed portrayedof a colorfully in in human human illustrated situations situations papyrus(Raven (Raven 2000, excavated2000, p. p. 71). 71 )On .at On Deirone one of elof the- Medina,the humorous humorous a lion vi- vi- and gazelle gnettesillustrated of a colorfully papyrus illustrated excavated papyrus at Deir el-Medina,excavated at a lionDeir andel-Medina, gazelle area lion shown and gazelle playing the gnettesaregnettes shown of of a colorfullya playing colorfully illustratedthe illustrated board papyrus game papyrus called excavated excavated senet at at (lit.Deir Deir “passing”; el-Medina, el-Medina, aFigure liona lion and and8). gazelle14 gazelle The scene here areare shown shownboard playing playing game called the the board boardsenet game(lit. game “passing”; called called senet senet Figure (lit. (lit. “passing”;8 “passing”;). 14 The scene Figure Figure here 8). 8).14 is14 The notThe ascene scene direct here here reversal isare not shown a direct playing reversal the board or topsy game- turvycalled senetsituation, (lit. “passing”; nor should Figure the 8). vignette14 The scene be understoodhere as is notor a topsy-turvydirect reversal situation, or topsy-turvy nor should situatio the vignetten, nor should be understood the vignette as an be illustration understood of as a folk is isnot not a directa direct reversal reversal or or topsy-turvy topsy-turvy situatio situation,n, nor nor should should the the vignette vignette be be understood understood as as anan illustrationtale; the humor of of a folka lies folk intale; thetale; the pairing humorthe humor of predatorlies in lies the and inpairing preythe pairingplayingof predator games of predatorand as prey if they playingand are friendsprey playing anan illustration illustration of of a folka folk tale; tale; the the humor humor lies lies in in the the pairing pairing of of predator predator and and prey prey playing playing gamesgamesrather as as if if thanthey they naturalare are friends friends enemies. rather rather than thannatural natur enemies.al enemies. gamesgames as as if ifthey they are are friends friends rather rather than than natural natur alenemies. enemies.

FigureFigure 8. 8. Lion Lion and and gazellegazelle playingplaying aa boardboard game game (detail(detail ofof BMBM reg.reg. no.no. EA10016),EA10016), illustratedillustrated papyrus,papyrus, Deir Deir el-Medina,el-Medina, Figure 8. Lion and gazelle playing a board game (detail of BM reg. no. EA10016), illustrated papyrus, Deir el-Medina, RamessideRamesside period period (Image (Image courtesy courtesy of of the the Trustees Trustees of of the the Brit Britishish Museum, Museum, London). London). Ramesside period. (Image courtesy of the Trustees of the British Museum, London). Figure 8.Figure Lion 8.andLion gazelle and gazelle playing playing a board a board game game (detail (detail of of BM reg.reg. no. no. EA10016), EA10016) illustrated, illustrated papyrus, papyrus Deir, el-Medina, Deir el-Medina, Depictions of humans engaged in a game of senet appear frequently in ancient RamessideRamesside period period(Image (Image courtesy courtesyDepictionsDepictions of the of theTrustees of Trustees ofhumans human of of the thesengaged Britishengaged British Museum,Museum,in ina agame game London). London of ofsenet senet). appear appear frequently frequently in inancient ancient Egyptian monuments. The details of the table and chairs, as well as the game pieces EgyptianEgyptian monuments. monuments. The The details details of ofthe the tabl tablee and and chairs, chairs, as as well well as asthe the game game pieces pieces themselves,themselves, contribute contribute to to the the charm charm of of the the parody. parody. Some Some scholars—such scholars—such as as Raouf Raouf Habib Habib themselvesDepictionsDepictions, contribute of of human humans to the scharm engagedengaged of the in a inparody. game a game of Somesenet of scholarsappear senet frequently—appearsuch as frequentlyRaouf in ancient Habib Egyp- in ancient andand Jaromir Jaromir Malek—have Malek—have felt felt a a hint hint of of disrespect disrespect towards towards the the nobility nobility or or the the royal royal house house Egyptianandtian Jaromir monuments. monuments. Malek— Thehave details The felt a details hint of the of table disrespect of the and chairs,table towards and as well the chairs, asnobility the gameas or well the pieces royal as themselves, the house game pieces (Habib 1980, p. 2; Malek 1993, p. 122; cf. Babcock 2014, pl. 25). For the parody recalls (Habib(Habibcontribute 1980, 1980, p. p. to2; 2; theMalek Malek charm 1993, 1993, of thep. p. 122; parody.122; cf. cf. Babcock SomeBabcock scholars—such 2014, 2014, pl. pl. 25). 25 )For as. For Raouf the the parody Habib parody andrecalls recalls Jaromir themselvesscenes such ,as contribute the beautiful to tombthe charm painting of ofthe Queen parody. Nefert Someari, the scholars principal—such consort as ofRaouf Habib scenesscenesMalek—have such such as as the the feltbeautiful beautiful a hint tomb of tomb disrespect painting painting towards of of Queen Queen the Nefert nobility Nefertari,ari, or the the the principal royal principal house consort consort (Habib of of 1980 , andRamesses p.Jaromir 2; Malek II, playing Malek 1993, —a p. gamehave 122; cf.of felt Babcocksenet a hint against 2014 of disrespect,an pl. invisible 25). For tow theopponent parodyards the (QV66), recalls nobility scenes or Ramesses or such the as royal the house RamessesRamesses II, II, playing playing a gamea game of of senet senet against against an an invisible invisible opponent opponent (QV66), (QV66) or, or Ramesses Ramesses (IIIHabib playingbeautiful 1980, the tomb gamep. 2; painting withMalek his of 1993,court Queen ladiesp. Nefertari, 122; in thecf. the Babcocktemple principal at Medinet2014, consort pl. Habu. of 25 Ramesses). Even For themore II, playing parody so a recalls IIIIII playing playing the the game game with with his his court court ladies ladies in in the the temple temple at atMedinet Medinet Habu. Habu. Even Even more more so so than gamethe ostraca of senet drawings,against an this invisible masterful opponent papy (QV66),rus demonstrates or Ramesses that III the playing artist the painting game with thanscenesthan the the suchostraca ostraca as drawings, thedrawings, beautiful this this masterful tombmasterful painting papy papyrusrus ofdemonstrates demonstrates Queen Nefertari, that that the the artistthe artist principalpainting painting consort of thesehis humorous court ladies vignettes in the templebelonged at Medinetto the literary Habu. and Even cultured more so elite. than With the ostracaBabcock, drawings, we theseRamessesthese humorous humorous II, playing vignettes vignettes a belongedgame belonged of tosenet to the the literaryagainst literary and a andn culturedinvisible cultured elite. opponentelite. With With Babcock, Babcock,(QV66) we, weor Ramesses shouldthis note masterful that the papyrus motif is demonstrates not part of the that standard the artist royal painting funerary these iconography, humorous vignettes but shouldIIIshould playing note note thatthe that thegame the motif motif with is is nothis not partcourt part of of ladiesthe the standard stan in dardthe royal temple royal funerary funerary at Medinet iconography, iconography, Habu. but Evenbut more so ratherratherbelonged belongsbelongs to toto the eliteelite literary funeraryfunerary and imageryimagery cultured (Babcock(Babcock elite. With 2014, 2014, Babcock, p. p. 67). 67). we TheThe should depictiondepiction note ofthatof animalsanimals the motif is thanrather the belongs ostraca to elitedrawings, funerary this imagery masterful (Babcock papyrus 2014, p. demonstrates 67). The depiction that of the animals artist painting playingplayingnot games games part of should should the standard therefore therefore royal best best funerary be be understood understood iconography, as as a a witty witty but ratherparody parody belongs of of the the stock tostock elite scene scene funerary playing games should therefore best be understood as a witty parody of the stock scene theseof a imageryman humorous and ( Babcockwife vignettesplaying 2014 ,senet p. belonged 67)., instead The depiction toof thesensing literary of animals some and socio-political playing cultured games elite.critique should With (Peck therefore Babcock, we ofof a aman man and and wife wife playing playing senet senet, instead, instead of ofsensing sensing some some socio-political socio-political critique critique (Peck (Peck should1978,best pp. note be144–46). understood that the asmotif a witty is not parody part of of the the stock standard scene of aroyal man andfunerary wife playing iconography,senet, but 1978,1978, pp. pp. 144–46). 144–46 ). instead of sensing some socio-political critique (Peck 1978, pp. 144–46). 𓈖𓂝 ratherBaboons.Baboons. belongs In In ancient toancient elite Egyptian, Egyptian,funerary the the imagery baboon baboon was (wasBabcock called called ian 2014,ian (spelled (spelled p. 67 variously )variously. The depiction 𓂝𓇋 𓂝𓂝𓃷𓈖𓂝𓇋𓂝𓃷ゝ, ,vel ㈖vel of animals Baboons.Baboons. In ancientIn ancient Egyptian Egyptian,, the the baboon baboon was was called called ianian (spelled(spelled variously variously ㇋ゝゝヷ, vel sim.playingsim.).). TheyThey games werewere popularshouldpopular asthereforeas familyfamily pets,pets, best andand be indeed,understoodindeed, manymany as tombtomb a witty scenesscenes parody showshow baboonsbaboons of the stock scene vel sim.). They were popular popular as as family family pets, pets,and and indeed, indeed, many many tomb tomb scenes scenes show show baboons ba- ledled onon aa leash,leash, oror playingplaying withwith thethe childrenchildren ofof thethe household.household. BaboonsBaboons werewere alsoalso ad-ad- ofboons a led man led on andaon leash, a wifeleash, or playing playingor playing with senet with the, children insteadthe children of of the sensingof household. the household. some Baboons socio Baboons- werepolitical alsowere admired critiquealso (Peck mired for their intelligence. They were trained to dance, sing, and play instruments for mired1978,admiredfor forpp. their their for144 intelligence.their –intelligence.46) .intelligence. They They wereThey were trainedwere trained trained to to dance, dance, to sing,dance, sing, and sing,and play playand instruments instrumentsplay instruments for for human humanhuman entertainment; entertainment; some some were were trained trained to to pi pickck figs figs (Houlihan (Houlihan 1996, 1996, pp. pp. 106–7). 106–7). Due Due to to for entertainment; humanBaboons. entertainment; In someancient were someEgyptian trained were to, trainedthe pick baboon figs to (pickHoulihan was figs called( Houlihan1996, ian pp. (spelled 1996,106–7). pp. Due variously 106 to–7 their). , theirtheir anthropomorph anthropomorphanthropomorph appearance, appearance,appearance, and andand their theirtheir cheerfulness cheerfulnesscheerfulness and andand playfulness, playfulness,playfulness, artists artistsartists were werewere naturally velDue sim. to). their They anthropomorph were popular appearance, as family petsand their, and cheerfulness indeed, many and tombplayfulness, scenes artists show baboons naturallynaturallyinspired inspiredinspired to place toto placeplace them themthem in human inin humanhuman situations sisituationstuations (Vandier (Vandier(Vandier d’Abbadie d’Abbadied’Abbadie 1937, 1937, p.1937, 73). p.p. Monkeys 73).73). Monkeys ledMonkeys on a appearleash,appear or inin majorplayingmajor andand with minorminor the worksworks children ofof artart of playingplaying the household. variousvarious musicalmusical Baboons instrumentsinstruments were also admired 14 For Papyrus BM EA10061, see Alexandreappear in (1892), major p. and 6; Beauregard minor works (1894), of p. art 204; playing Peck (1978), various pp. musical 144–46; instrumentsAllam (1990), togetherp. 83; for their intelligence. They were trained to dance, sing, and play instruments for human André (1991), cat. no. 253, pp. 153 and 199, fig. 138; Quirke and Spencer (1992), pp. 130–31; Shaw and Nicholson (1997), p. 107;

Houlihan (2001), p. 65; Taylorentertainment; (2010), no. 73. some were trained to pick figs (Houlihan 1996, pp. 106–7). Due to their 1414 14 For Papyrus BM EA10061, see Alexandre(1892, p. 6); Beauregard(1894, p. 204); Peck(1978, pp. 144–46); Allam(1990, p. 83); Andr é (1991, cat. no. For For PapyrusPapyrus BMBM EA10061,EA10061, seeseeanthropomorph AlexandreAlexandre (1892,(1892, p. p.appearance, 6);6); BeauregaBeauregardrd and (1894,(1894, their p.p. 204);204); cheerfulness PeckPeck (1978,(1978, pp.pp. and 144–46);144–46); playfulness, AllamAllam (1990,(1990, artists p.p. 83);83); were natu- AndreAndre253,́ ́ (1991,(1991, pp. 153, cat.cat. 199, no.no. fig. 253,253, 138); pp.pp. Quirke 153,153, 199, and199, Spencer fig.fig. 138);138);(1992 QuirkeQuirke, pp. 130–31); andand SpSp Shawencerencer and (1992,(1992, Nicholson pp.pp. 130–31);130–31);(1997, p. Shaw 107);Shaw Houlihan andand NicholsonNicholson(2001, p. 65) (1997,(1997, and p.Taylorp. 107);107);(2010 , no. 73). HoulihanHoulihan (2001, (2001, p. p. 65) 65) and and Taylor Taylorrally (2010, (2010, inspired no. no. 73). 73). to place them in human situations (Vandier d’Abbadie 1937, p. 73). Mon- keys appear in major and minor works of art playing various musical instruments to-

14 For Papyrus BM EA10061, see Alexandre (1892, p. 6); Beauregard (1894, p. 204); Peck (1978, pp. 144–46); Allam (1990, p. 83); André (1991, cat. no. 253, pp. 153, 199, fig. 138); Quirke and Spencer (1992, pp. 130–31); Shaw and Nicholson (1997, p. 107); Houlihan (2001, p. 65) and Taylor (2010, no. 73).

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together with other animals (Vandier d’Abbadie 1937, pp. 57–58). They are also shown together with other withanimalsgether other with(Vandier animals other d’Abba (animalsVandierdie ( d’AbbadieVandier 1937, pp. d’ Abbadie193757–58)., pp. They 1937 57–58). ,are pp. Theyalso 57– 58shown are). alsoThey shown are also involved shown inin- involved in other types of human activities (Redford 2001, vol. 2, p. 429). As baboons are involved in other typesothervolved of typeshuman in other of activities human types activities (Redof humanford (Redford 2001, activities vol. 2001 2, (Redford p., vol. 429). 2, As p.2001, 429).baboons vol. As 2, baboons are p. 429). are As representedbaboons are represented dancing and playing instruments in religious scenes on the walls of major represented dancingdancing representedand playing and playing dancinginstruments instruments and inplaying religious in instruments religious scenes sceneson in the religious onwalls the of wallsscenes major of on major the temples,walls of suchmajor temples, such motifs cannot be understood as satirical (Houlihan 2001, p. 109, fig. 120; temples, such motifsmotifs temples,cannot cannot be such understood be motifs understood cannot as satirical asbe satiricalunderstood (Houlihan (Houlihan as 2001, satirical 2001 p. 109, ,( p.Houlihan fig. 109, 120; fig. 2001, 120; p.Babcock 109, fig. 2014 120;, Babcock 2014, p. 116, pl. 56). Images of baboons and cats are related to the myth of Tef- Babcock 2014, p. 116,p. Babcockpl. 116, 56). pl. Images 2014, 56). p. Imagesof 116, bab pl.oons of 56 baboons )and. Images cats and areof cats baboonsrelated are relatedto and the cats myth to theare of mythre Tef-lated of to Tefnut, the myth and of were Tef- nut, and were likewise not intended as parodies (Brunner-Traut 1968, p. 34; Flores 2004, nut, and were likewiselikewisenut, not and intended not were intended likewise as parodi as not parodieses intended(Brunner-Traut (Brunner-Traut as parodies 1968, (p.1968Brunner 34;, Flores p.- 34;Traut 2004,Flores 1968, 2004 p. 34;, pp. Flores 250–51; 2004, pp. 250–51; Babcock 2014, pp. 11, 108, and 112–14, pls. 46–50). pp. 250–51; Babcock Babcock2014,pp. 250 pp. –2014 51;11, Babcock108,, pp. and 11, 2014, 108,112–14, and pp. pls. 112–14,11, 46–50).108, pls.and 46–50).112–14, pls. 46–50). A limestone fragment now in the Egyptian Museum, Cairo, depicts a baboon A limestone fragmentAA limestone nowlimestone in fragmentthe fragment Egyptian now now inMuseum, the in Egyptian the Cairo, Egyptian Museum, depicts Museum, Cairo, a baboon depicts Cairo, a depicts baboon astanding baboon standing by a granary drawn in red and black (Figure 9) (Vandier d’Abbadie 1937, cat. standing by a granarybystandi drawn a granaryng inby red drawna granary and inblac reddrawnk and(Figure in black red 9) (Figure(Vandierand black9)( d’Abbadie Vandier(Figure 9) d’Abbadie 1937,(Vandier cat. 1937 d’Abbadie, cat. no. 1937 2283,, cat. no. 2283, pl. 40). The monkey, on its hind legs, facing right, is eating from a mound of no. 2283, pl. 40). Thepl. no.monkey, 40).2283, The pl.on 40 monkey,its) .hind The monkey,legs, on its facing hind on right,its legs, hind facingis eatinglegs, right, facing from is aright, eating mound is fromeating of a moundfrom a mound of grain of grain gathered beside the building. He has even made an inventory of a large pile of grain gathered besidegatheredgrain the building. gathered beside theHebeside building.has theeven building. Hemade has an Heeven inventory has made even anof made inventorya large an inventorypile of aof large of pile a large of grain pile in of grain in front of him. Could the drawing be a depiction of Thoth, the god of writing, grain in front of him.frontgr Couldain of in him. frontthe drawing Could of him. the Couldbe drawing a depiction the drawing be a of depiction Thoth, be a depiction the of Thoth,god of of Thoth, thewriting, god the of god writing, of writing, who was who who was variously portrayed in the form of a baboon or an ibis (Germond and Livet who was variously variouslyportrayedwas variously portrayedin the portrayed form in theof ina form baboonthe ofform a or baboon of an a baboonibis or (Germond an or ibis an (Germond ibis and (Germond Livet and Livet and 2001Livet, p.2001, 87)? p. 2001, p. 87)? To the (viewer’s) right of the partial scene, the forearm of another baboon is 2001, p. 87)? To the (viewer’s)To87 the)? To (viewer’s) theright (viewer’s) of rightthe pa of rightrtial the scene, partial of the the scene,partial forearm the scene forearmof, anotherthe forearm of anotherbaboon of is anotherbaboon is baboon still visible, is still still visible,perhaps perhapsthe the mastermaster oror overseer,overseer, holdingholding aa wadjwadj-scepter-scepter (𓇅). Between Between the the two two monkeys still visible, perhaps thevisible, master perhaps or overseer, the master holding or a overseer, wadj-scepter holding (𓇅). Between a wadj- scepterthe two ( ). Between the two monkeys areare two two vertical vertical columns columns of ofhieroglyphic hieroglyphic script script (only (only the the left left is legible), is legible), reading reading sS n tA monkeys are two verticalmonkeys columns are two of vertical columns of hieroglyphic scrt only script the left(only is thelegi- left is legible), reading sS n tA Snwty, “The Scribe of the Granary” ( ). The title suggests that the artist ble), reading sS n tA SnwtySnwtysS n tA,, “The“The Snwty ScribeScribe, “The ofof Scribe thethe Granary”Granary” of the Granary” ( .).( The The title title ).suggests suggestsThe title that that suggests the artist that intended the artist intended to express criticism of human nature in an amusing manner (Vandier the artist intended toto intendedexpress express criticism criticism to express of of human human criticism nature nature of in inhuman an an amusing amusing nature manner manner in an (Vandier (Vandier amusing d’Abbadie manner (1937Vandier, p. d’Abbadie 1937, p. 58). For scenes of overseers inspecting the fields and storehouses d’Abbadie 1937, p. 58).d’Abbadie ForFor scenesscenes 1937 ofof, overseers p.over 58)seers. For inspecting inspecting scenes of the overseersthe fields fields and inspectingand storehouses storehouses the while fields scribes and storehouses inventory while scribes inventory the produce are fairly common in tomb scenes of all periods, es- while scribes inventorythewhile producethe scribesproduce are inventory fairlyare fairly common the common produce in tomb in aretomb scenes fairly scenes of common all of periods, all periods,in tomb especially sceneses- the of New all pe Kingdom.riods, es- pecially the New Kingdom. For instance, compare this ostracon to a scene from the tomb pecially the New Kingdom.Forpecially instance, For the instance, compareNew Kingdom. compar this ostracon eFor this instance, ostracon to a scene compare to froma scene the this from tomb ostracon the of Mennatomb to a scene (TT69), from where the fourtomb of Menna (TT69), where four men are depicted with containers scooping up grain, while of Menna (TT69), wheremenof Menna four are depictedmen (TT69), are depicted withwhere containers four with men containers scoopingare depicted scooping up grain,with up containers while grain, six while scribesscooping record up grain, the event while six scribes record the event (Hodel-Hoenes 2000, p. 91; Hartwig 2013, p. 31). Three of the six scribes record the(Hodel-Hoenes sixevent scribes (Hodel-Hoenes record 2000 the, p. event2000 91; Hartwig, (p.Hodel 91; Hartwig -2013Hoenes, p. 2013, 31)2000,. Three p. p. 31). 91; of ThreeHartwig the scribes of the2013, are p. standing 31). Three on of the the scribes are standing on the left, one is perched on a pile of grain, and two more are seat- scribes are standing left,onscribes the one left, are is perched onestanding is perched on on a the pile on left, ofa pile grain,one of is andgrain,perched two and moreon two a pile are more of seated grain, are seat- to and the two right. more The are joke seated on ed to the right. The joke on the ostracon, however, is not only that the scene parodies ed to the right. The thejoketo the ostracon, on right. the ostracon,The however, joke onho is wever,the not ostracon, only is thatnot however, theonly scene that is parodiesthe not scene only human thatparodies the occupations scene parodies or scribes human human occupations or scribes and overseers, but also that it adds the poignant observa- human occupations andoroccupations scribes overseers, and or butoverseers, scribes also thatand but itoverseers, addsalso that the poignantbutit adds also the that observation poignant it adds the ofobserva- thepoignant baboon observation eating from of the the tion of the baboon eating from the grain he has inventoried. The drawing may thus rep- tion of the baboon eatinggrainbaboon from he has eating the inventoried. grain from he the has The grain inventoried. drawing he has may inventoried.The thus drawing represent The may a drawing thus commentary rep- may on thus human represent greed a resent a commentary on human greed and corruption. resent a commentaryand commentaryon human corruption. greed on human and corruption. greed and corruption.

Figure 9. Baboon feeding from heap of grain (EMC inv. no. JE 63799), limestone flake, Deir Figure 9. Baboon feedingFigure from 9. heapBaboon of feedinggrain (EMC from inv. heap no. of JE grain 63799), (EMC limestone inv. no. flake, JE 63799) Deir , limestone flake, Deir el-Medina, 19thFigure Dynasty 9. Baboon (Illustrat feedingion fromtaken heap from of Vandier grain (EMC d’Abbadie inv. no. (1937), JE 63799), pl. limestone40, courtesy flake, of the Deir el-Medina, el-Medina, 19th Dynastyel (Illustrat-Medina,ion 19 thtaken Dynasty from (VandierIllustration d’Abbadie taken from (1937), Vandier pl. 40, d courtesy’Abbadie of(1937) the , pl. 40, courtesy of the Egyptian Museum,19th Dynasty Cairo). (Illustration taken from Vandier d’Abbadie(1937), pl. 40, courtesy of the Egyptian Egyptian Museum, Cairo).Egyptian Museum, Cairo). Museum, Cairo). On a Deir el-Medina ostracon, drawn in black, dark red, pink, and green, another On a Deir el-Medina Onostracon, a Deir drawnel-Medina in black, ostracon, dark drawn red, pink, in black, and green,dark red, another pink , and green, another primate is portrayedOn a Deiras a el-Medinanobleman ostracon,(Figure 10); drawn its species in black, is dark indeterminable red, pink, and due green, to another primate is portrayedprimate as a nobleman is portrayed (Figure as 10); a nobleman its species (Figure is indeterminable 10); its species due is to indeterminable due to damage onprimate its head is (Vandier portrayed d’Abbadie as a nobleman 1937, (Figure p. 65, cat.10); no. its species2315, pl. is 48; indeterminable Houlihan 2001, due to damage damage on its head (Vandierdamage ond’Abbadie its head 1937,(Vandier p. 65, d’Abbadie cat. no. 2315, 1937 ,pl. p. 65,48; cat.Houlihan no. 2315, 2001, pl. 48; Houlihan 2001, p. p. 75). He wearson its a head rich (dressVandier and d’Abbadie is sitting 1937on a ,folding p. 65, cat. stool no. covered 2315, pl. with 48; Houlihancow hide, 2001 un-, p. 75). He p. 75). He wears a rich75 dress). He andwears is asitting rich dress on a foldingand is sitting stool coveredon a folding with stoolcow hide,covered un- with cow hide, under

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wears a rich dress and is sitting on a folding stool covered with cow hide, under the shade derof athe tent, shade with of his a feettent, on with a footrest. his feet The on comedya footrest. here The derives comedy from here the derives manner from in which the the shade of a tent, with his feet on a footrest. The comedy here derives from the manner mannerthe figure in which is drinking the figure from is an drinking amphora from by means an amphora of a long by tube.means The of a scene long mighttube. The have in which the figure is drinking from an amphora by means of a long tube. The scene scenebeen might intended have to been ridicule intended the luxury to ridicule and laziness the luxury of the and nobility. laziness of the nobility. might have been intended to ridicule the luxury and laziness of the nobility.

Figure 10. Seated primate drinking from a tube (IFAO inv. no. 3263), limestone flake, Deir el-Medina, Ramesside period Figure 10. Seated primate drinking from a tube (IFAO inv. no. 3263), limestone flake, Deir el-Medina, Ramesside period (LineFigure drawing 10. Seated taken primate from Vandier drinking d’Abbadie from a tube (1937), (IFAO pl. inv. 48, no. cour 3263),tesy limestoneof the Institut flake, França Deir el-Medina,is d’Archéologie Ramesside Orientale, period (Line drawing taken from Vandier d’Abbadie (1937), pl. 48, courtesy of the Institut Français d’Archéologie Orientale, Cairo).(Line drawing taken from Vandier d’Abbadie(1937), pl. 48, courtesy of the Institut Français d’Arch éologie Orientale, Cairo). Cairo). DogsDogs. .Ancient Ancient Egyptians Egyptians onomatopoeically onomatopoeically called called the the dog dog iwiwiwiw, or, or iwiw forfor short short Dogs. Ancient Egyptians onomatopoeically called the dog iwiw, or iw for short (variously(variously spelled spelled 𓃛𓅱𓃡, velvel simsim.)..). Dogs Dogs were were kept kept as petsas pets and and were were given given individual individual names, names,(variouslyof which of aboutwhich spelled eightyabout are,eighty vel known. sim are.). DogsTheyknown. were were They often kept were buried, as petsoften embalmed, and buried, were embalmed, given and mummified individual and mummifiednames,together of with whichtogether their about masterswith eightytheir and masters are were known. portrayed and were They in portrayed were wall oftenpaintings in buried,wall (Evans paintings embalmed 2000 (Evans, p., and 73). 2000,mummifiedDogs p. were 73). appreciatedDogs togethe werer with asappreciated being their trustworthy masters as bein andg andtrustworthy were loyal, portrayed good and guards, loyal, in wall andgood paintings helpful guards, trackers (Evans and helpful2000,and hunters, p.trackers 73). Dogs and and thus werehunters, played appreciated and meaningful thus asplayed being roles meaningful trustworthy in the lives roles ofand thein loyal, the ancient lives good Egyptians.of theguards ancient, Theand Egyptians.helpfulfunerary trackers godThe Anubisfunerary and hunters, was god moreover Anubis and thus was worshiped played moreover meaningful in canineworshiped form roles in ( Germondin canine the lives form and of (Germond the Livet ancient 2001 , andEgyptians.p. 72).Livet 2001, The p. funerary 72). god Anubis was moreover worshiped in canine form (Germond andTwo LivetTwo figured figured2001, p. ostraca, ostraca,72). both both from from Deir Deir el-Medina el-Medina and, and, like like the the previous, previous, held held in in the the collectioncollectionTwo of figured of the the Institut Institutostraca, Français Français both from d’Archéologie d’Arch Deiré elologie-Medina Orientale, Orientale, and, likeCairo, Cairo, the depict previous depict dogs dogs, held with with in anthe an elegantcollectionelegant sash sash of tied tied the around Institutaround their theirFrançais neck neck d’Archéologie(Figure (Figure 11 11) )((VandierVandier Orientale, d’Abbadie d’Abbadie Cairo, 1937,depict 1937 ,p. p. dogs 65, 65, cat. cat.wit nos.h nos. an 2316–17,elegant2316–17, pl.sash pl. 48; 48;tied Scott Scott around 1962, 1962 pp.their, pp. 152–53; 152–53;neck (Figure Malek Malek 111) 993,1993 (Vandier p., p. 114; 114; Houlihand’Abbadie Houlihan 2001, 20011937 p.,, p.p. 99). 99).65, Oncat. On one nos. one ostracon,2316ostracon,–17, drawnpl. drawn 48; Scottonly only in1962, in black, black, pp. the152 the dog–53 dog; Malekclimbs climbs 1993,up up a astaircasep. staircase 114; Houlihan on on its its hind hind2001, legs, legs, p. 99holding holding). On one a a kindostracon,kind of of stick stick drawn in in one only paw. in Toblack,To elucidateelucidate the dog the the climbs scene, scene, up there there a staircase is ais smalla small on temple its temple hind drawn legs,drawn in holding the in back.the a back.kindThe otherTheof stick other limestone in onelimestone paw ostracon,. To ostracon, elucidate drawn drawn inthe black scene, in andblack there dark and is a red, smalldark depicts templered, depicts a similarlydrawn a in similarly standingthe back. standingThedog other with dog alimestone speckled with a speckled coat,ostracon, wearing coat, drawn wearing a loincloth, in black a loincloth, andand holdingdark and red, aholding vasedepict ors a juga vase similarly in oneor jug paw standing in andone a pawdoglink and with or kerchiefa alink speckled or in kerchief the coat, other. inwearing the It is other. likely a loincloth, It climbing is likely and stepsclimbing holding to a steps temple,a vase to or a bearing jugtemple, in one offerings bearing paw and of- like a feringslinkits counterpart or like kerchief its counterpart onin the otherother. on scene. Itthe is otherlikely With scene.climbing Babcock With steps it isBabcock important to a temple, it is toimportant notebearing that offeringsto the note dogs that like are theitsnot dogscounterpart engaged are not in on sacrilegiousengaged the other in sacrilegiousscene. behavior With (Babcock Babcockbehavior 2014 it (Babcock is, p.important 23). 2014, Still, to depictingp. note 23). that Still, piousthe depicting dogs priests are piousnotas dogs engaged priests might as in expressdogssacrilegious might a sentiment express behavior a of sentim ( disrespect,Babcockent of2014, perhapsdisrespect, p. 23 revealing). Still, perhaps depicting the revealing hypocrisy pious the priest of hy- thes pocrisyaspriesthood. dogs of might the priesthood. express a sentiment of disrespect, perhaps revealing the hypocrisy of the priesthood.

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(a) (b)

Figure (a 11.) Dogs visiting a temple (IFAO inv. no. 3666(b and) no. 3508), limestone flakes, Deir el-Medina, Ramesside period (Line drawing taken from Vandier d’Abbadie (1937), pl. 48, courtesy Figure 11. DogsFigure visiting 11. a templeDogofs the visiting (IFAO Institut inv. a Français no.temple 3666 (IFAOd’Archéologie and no. inv. 3508), no. limestoneOrientale, 3666 and flakes, Cairo no. Deir) 3508(a,b el-Medina,))., limestone Ramesside flakes, Deir period (Line el-Medina, Ramesside period (Line drawing taken from Vandier d’Abbadie (1937), pl. 48, courtesy drawing taken from Vandier d’Abbadie(1937), pl. 48, courtesy of the Institut Français d’Arch éologie Orientale, Cairo) (a,b). of the Institut FrançaisFor d’Archéologie comparison, Orientale,consider Cairoan ostracon) (a,b). (now in Berlin) portraying a canine, perhaps a dog,For wolf comparison,, or fox, drawn consider in black an ostracon ink (Figure (now 12 in) ( Berlin)Davies portrayingand de Garis a canine, 1917, pp. perhaps 237–38, a For comparison,dog,pl. 50 wolf,). The consider or fox,animal, drawn an standing ostracon in black on(now ink its (Figure inhind Berlin) legs, 12)( portraying isDavies dressed and a in Gariscanine, a lector’s 1917 perhaps, pp.shoulder 237–38, a sash pl. 50).and dog, wolf, orTheshort fox, animal, drawn skirt, standing butin black with on inkthe its (Figure hindfurry legs, tail12) is still(Davies dressed very and in much ade lector’s Garis in evidence. shoulder1917, pp. It sash237 has–and 38, a growling short skirt, or pl. 50). The butanimal,mournful with standing the demeanor furry on tail its still and hind very carries legs, much ais branch indressed evidence. of in a a thick It lector’s has plant a growling shoulder in one or sashpaw mournful ,and and probably demeanor a short skirt, and butpapyrus carrieswith wreathedthe a branch furry with tailof a still thickbindweed very plant much or in onemorning in paw, evidence. glory, and probably like It has the a a details growlingpapyrus seen wreathed or on the upper with mournful demeanorbindweedleft corner and or of morning carriesthe fragment. a glory, branch likeAs of Nina the a thick details and plantNorman seen in on onede the Garispaw upper, Daviesand left probably corner noted of over thea fragment. a century papyrus wreathedAsago, Nina this with and ostracon bindweed Norman scene de or Garisbears morning Daviesa close glory, notedresemblance like over the a details centuryto a ritual seen ago, performed on this the ostracon upper by a scene priest bears on a left corner ofawall closethe fragment.painting resemblance of As the Nina to Tomb a ritualand of Norman Userhat, performed de dating Garis by a to priestDavies the onreign noted a wallof over the painting 19a centuryth Dyna of the sty Tomb pharaoh of ago, this ostraconUserhat,Seti I scene(Figure dating bears 13 to). thea We close reign may resemblance ofagree the 19thwith Dynastyto the a ritual authors pharaoh performed that Setithe Ibyostracon (Figure a priest 13 is ).on a We parodya may agreeof the wall paintingwithpriestly of thethe authorsTombfunerary of that Userhat,rite. the More ostracon dating difficult is to a parodytheto assess, reign of theofhowever, the priestly 19th is funeraryDyna whethersty rite.pharaoh the Morehumorous difficult scene to Seti I (Figureassess,meant 13). We however,to satirizemay agree is and whether withthus the thecriticize humorous authors priests that scene in the general meant ostracon toor satirizecaricatur is a parody andize thusan of individual the criticize priests priest priestly funeraryinor general rite rite. in particular. orMore caricaturize difficult to an assess, individual however, priest is or whether rite in particular. the humorous scene meant to satirize and thus criticize priests in general or caricaturize an individual priest or rite in particular.

(a) (b)

FigureFigure 12. 12.Canine Canine(a) (fox?) (fox?) engaged engaged in in priestly priestly activity activity (left, (left, whereabouts whereabouts unknown), unknown)(b) , ostracon, ostracon, findspot findspot unknown unknown (said (said to to be be from Thebes), Ramesside period. A priest engaged in a similar ritual (right, TT 51), wall painting, Sheikh Abd el-Qurna from Thebes), Ramesside period. A priest engaged in a similar ritual (right, TT 51), wall painting, Sheikh Abd el-Qurna Figure 12. Canine(Theban (fox?) necropolis), engaged in reign priestly of Setiactivity I (ca. (left 1290, whereabouts–1279) (Drawings unknown) taken, ostraconfrom Davies, findspot and de unknown Garis 1917, (said pl. to 50) be ( a,b). from Thebes)(Theban, Ramesside necropolis), period. reignA priest of Setiengaged I (ca. 1290–1279)in a similar (Drawingsritual (right, taken TT 51), from wall Davies painting, and Garis Sheikh 1917 Abd, pl. el 50)-Qurna (a,b). (Theban necropolis), reign of Seti I (ca. 1290–1279) (Drawings taken from Davies and de Garis 1917, pl. 50) (a,b).

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The aforementioned British Museum papyrus also includes a vignette of canines 15 leadingTheTheThe capr aforementionedaforementioned aforementionedids (Figure 13 British).British British The MuseumMuseum Museumidentity papyrupapyru papyrusof thes s animals alsoalso also includesincludes includes is not aa aentirely vignettevignette vignette certain ofof of caninescanines . Perhaps theleadingleadingleading canines caprids caprids caprids are dogs, (Figure (Figure (Figure wolves, 13). 13).13).151515 Thehyenas TheThe identity identity identity, or foxes;of of of the the the theanimals animals animals caprids is is is not not not might entirely entirely be goatscertain. certain. and/or Perhaps Perhaps Perhaps gazelles. Behindthethethe caninescanines canines an upright are areare dogs, dogs, tabby wolves, wolves,wolves, cat driving hyenas, hyenas,hyenas, or geese oror foxes; foxes;foxes; and the the thecradling caprids capridscaprids might a might mightgosling be goats bebe exactly goatsgoats and/or and/orand/or like gazelles. the ga-ga- above ostraconzelles.zelles.Behind Behind Behind (Figure an upright an an 2),upright upright tabby the firsttabby tabby cat driving canine cat cat driving driving geese with geese andgeese a striped cradling and and cradling cradling pelt a gosling—perhaps a a gosl gosl exactlyinging to exactly exactly likebe identified the like like above the the as a hyenaaboveaboveostracon— ostraconwalksostracon (Figure on (Figure(Figure hind2), the legs 2),2), first the theleaning canine firstfirst canine canineon with a cane, awithwith striped awhia stripestripele pelt—perhaps ad dpole pelt—perhapspelt—perhaps slung to over be toto identifiedits bebe shoulder identifiedidentified as acarries a asbag.ashyena—walks aa hyena—walkshyena—walksBehind the on herdhind onon hindhind legsof caprids legs leaninglegs leaningleaning onwith a on cane,on different aa cane,cane, while whilewhile acoats pole aa slung andpolepole slunghorns overslung its overover(to shoulder the itsits shouldershoulderviewer’s carries left) walkscarriescarriesa bag. another a a Behindbag. bag. BehindBehindcanine the herd the —theoften herd ofherd caprids identifiedof of caprids caprids with wiwi differentasth tha differentdifferentfox— coatsplaying coats coats and and hornsandthe hornshornscommon (to the(to (to viewer’sthe thedouble viewer’s viewer’s left)flute, or left)left)walks walks walks another another another canine—often canine—often canine—often identified identified identified as as aas fox—playinga a fox—playing fox—playing the the the common common common double double double flute, flute, flute, or pipes, while evidently also holding a short stick and carrying a basket on a pole across its ororpipes, pipes,pipes, while whilewhile evidently evidentlyevidently also alsoalso holding holdingholding a short aa shortshort stick andstickstick carrying andand carryingcarrying a basket aa onbasketbasket a pole onon across aa polepole its shoulder (Manniche 1991, p. 23; Hambly 1954, pp. 267–68; Peck 1978, pp. 144–46; Malek acrossacrossshoulder its its shoulder shoulder (Manniche (Manniche (Manniche 1991, p. 23;1991, 1991, Hambly p. p. 23; 23; 1954Hambly Hambly, pp. 1954, 267–68;1954, pp. pp. Peck 267–68; 267–68; 1978 Peck Peck, pp. 1978, 144–46;1978, pp. pp. Malek 144– 144– 1993,46;46;1993 MalekMalekp., p.120; 120; 1993,1993, BrunnerBrunner-Traut p.p. 120;120;-Traut Brunner-TrautBrunner-Traut 1974 1974,, p. 124). p. 1241974,1974, As) in. Asp. thep. 124). 124). in case the As ofAs the case inin catthethe of herding case case the of catof geese, thethe herding catcat the herdingherding comical geese, the comicalgeese,geese,effect the revolveseffectthe comical comical revolves around effect effect thearoundrevolves revolves reversal taround hearound of reversal the the naturalthe reversal reversal of order,the of naturalof inthe the that natural natural predatorsorder, order, order, in herethat in in that that protectpredators preda- preda- and here protecttorstorscare herehere for and their protectprotect care prey. forandand As their carecare this for prey.vignettefor theirtheir As prey. isprey. this part As As ofvignette this athis larger vignettevignette is figured part isis part of papyrus,part a ofof larger aa larger itlarger would figured figuredfigured seem papyrus, pa- safepa- it wouldpyrus,pyrus,to assume seem itit wouldwould safe that theto seemseem assume whole safesafe is tothatto intended assumeassume the whole tothatthat be theis readthe intended wholewhole as a socio-political isis to intendedintended be read to asto satire beabe socio readread criticizing - aspoliticalas aa so-so- the satire criticizingcio-politicalcio-politicalbreakdown the satire ofsatirebreakdown the criticizing natural,criticizing of political, thethe breakdownnatural,breakdown and perhaps political ofof thethe even , natural,andnatural, cosmic perhaps political,political, order. even andand cosmic perhapsperhaps order. eveneven cosmiccosmic order. order.

FigureFigure 13. 13. Canines Canines leading leading caprids caprids (detail (detail of of BM BM reg. reg. no. no. EA10016), EA10016), illustrated illustrated papyrus, papyrus, Deir Deir el-Medina, el-Medina, Ramesside Ramesside pe- pe- FigureFigure 13. Canines 13. Canines leading leading caprids caprids (detail (detail of of BM BM reg.reg. no.no. EA10016), EA10016) illustrated, illustrated papyrus, papyrus Deir, el-Medina,Deir el-Medina Ramesside, Ramesside period pe- riodriod (Image (Image courtesy courtesy of of the the Trust Trusteesees of of the the British British Museum, Museum, London). London). riod (Image(Image courtesy of of the the Trustees Trustees of theof the British British Museum, Museum, London). London). 𓉻𓉻 Donkeys.Donkeys.Donkeys. Called CalledCalled onomatopoeically onomatopoeically onomatopoeically aA aA aA(spelled (spelled(spelled variously variously variously 𓂝 𓂝𓂸𓂸𓄛𓄛 , , , oror or 𓃘 𓃘 vel velvel sim sim.),.), the the the donkeydonkeydonkeyDonkeys. was was was used used usedCalled as as asa a beast aonomatopoeicallybeast beast of of ofburden,burden, burden, and and and aAwas was was(spelled considered considered considered variously lustful—illustrated lustful—illustrated lustful—illustrated , or most mostvel most simfa- fa-.), the donkeymouslymouslyfamously was inin Roman inRomanused Roman as timestimes a times beast byby by Apuleius’ Apuleius’of Apuleius’ burden, Metamorphosis,Metamorphosis, Metamorphosis,and was considered or or the orthe theGolden Golden Golden lustful Ass Ass Ass (ca.(ca.—(ca. illustrated 150–170150–170 150–170 CECE ).CEmost).1616 ). fa- mouslyConsequently,Consequently,16 Consequently, in Roman itit was was ittimes was notnot not by aa symbol symbol aApuleius’ symbol ofof ofhighhigh Metamorphosis, high ststatus statusatus andand and diddid didor not notthe not playGoldenplay play anan an importantAssimportant important (ca. 150 rolerole role–170 inin in CE).16 Consequently,ancientancientancient EgyptianEgyptian Egyptian it was art—appearing art—appearing not a symbol occasionally occasionallyoccasionally of high status inin agriculturalagriculturalagricultural and did scenes. scenes.notscenes. play A AA central centralancentral important vignette vignettevignette inrole in ancientininthe thethe upper Egyptian upperupper register registerregister art of— the ofofappearing the Turinthe TurinTurin papyrus occasionally papyruspapyrus mentioned mentionedmentioned in aboveagricultural aboveabove shows showsshows an scenes. upright anan uprightAupright donkey central donkeydonkey dressed vignette in 17 thedresseddressedin upper the pleated in in register thethe linenpleatedpleated of costume the linenlinen Turin costume ofcostume a dignitarypapyrus ofof aa (Figuresdignitary mentioneddignitary 14 (Figures (Figuresand above 15). 14 14 shows The andand beast 15). 15). an17 17holds upright TheThe beast abeast staff donke y dressedholdsholdsand crook a ina staffstaff the like andpleatedand a high crookcrook andlinen likelike mighty costume aa highhigh judge andand of passing mightyamighty dignitary verdict judgejudge (Figures passing overpassing other 14 verdictverdict and creatures. 15 overover).17 Immediately otherotherThe beast crea-crea- holds before him is a pile of offerings, including a bull’s head and various other animal parts. a stafftures.tures. and ImmediatelyImmediately crook like beforebefore a high him him and is is a a mighty pilepile of of offerings,offerings,judge passing includingincluding verdict aa bull’sbull’s over headhead other and and creatures. variousvarious Im- otherotherOn the animal animal other parts. parts. side ofOn On the the the offering other other side pileside (toofof the the offering viewer’soffering pile pile left) (to (to stand the the twoviewer’sviewer’s animals left) left) on stand stand hind two two legs mediately before him is a pile of offerings, including a bull’s head and various other animalsanimalsthat—due on on tohindhind the legs fragmentarylegs that—due that—due preservation to to the the frag fragmentary ofmentary the papyrus—are preservation preservation difficult of of the the topapyrus—arepapyrus—are identify. Perhaps dif- dif- animal parts. On the other side of the offering pile (to the viewer’s left) stand two animals ficultficulta bovine toto identify. identify. is leading PerhapsPerhaps a canine a a bovinebovine to the is donkey.is leading leading Likely a a caninecanine still toto part thethe of donkey.donkey. the vignette LikelyLikely isstill still an partuprightpart ofof onthethe capridhind vignette vignette legs with is thatis a an tallan— upright upright curvingdue to caprid caprid hornthe fragmentary(farther with with a a tall totall the curving curving preservation left) that horn horn appears (farther (farther of tothe to executeto thepapyrus the left) left) a boundthat that—are appears appears animal. difficult to identify.totoThe execute execute next Perhaps scenea a bound bound (farther a animal. bovineanimal. still The toisThe theleading next next left) scene scene may a canine be(farth (farth understooder erto still still the to to donkey. asthe the another left) left) may mayLike horned be lybe understood stillunderstood caprid part leading of as as the vi- gnetteanotheranothertwo is more hornedan horned boundupright caprid caprid animals caprid leading leading to with the two two execution. a more moretall curvingbound bound If we animals animals readhorn this (fartherto to the motifthe execution. execution. to correctly the left) If If aswe we thethat read read donkey appears this this to executemotifmotifpassing correctlycorrectlya hisbound verdict asas animal. thethe and donkeydonkey the The goat passingpassingnext executing scene hishis it,ve ve(fartherrdict wouldrdict andand thusstill thethe offer to goatgoat the a parody executing executingleft) may of the it,it, be wouldnoblewould understood judges. thusthus as anotherofferofferAs such, a a horned parodyparody the vignette ofcapridof thethe noblenoble wouldleading jujudges. expressdges. two AsAs more a such, stingingsuch, bound thethe commentary vignettevignette animals wouldwould to of the theexpress express execution. wanton a a stinging stinging corruption If we com-com- read of this the noble lords officiating as judges. motifmentarymentary correctly of of the the aswanton wanton the donkey corruption corruption passing of of the the hisnoble noble verdict lords lords officiatingofficiatingand the goat as as judges. judges. executing it, would thus offer a parody of the noble judges. As such, the vignette would express a stinging com- 15 1515 For For Papyrus Papyrus BM BM BM EA10061, EA10061, EA10061,supra supramentary supran. 14; n. n. Anderson14; 14; ofAnderson Anderson the(1976 wanton, (1976, p.(1976, 5) and p.corruption p. Babcock5) 5) and and Babcock (Babcock2014 of, p. the 73).(2014, (2014, noble p. p. 73). 73). lor ds officiating as judges. 16 1616 ForFor the the GoldenGolden Golden Ass Ass Ass, see, ,see see Tilg Tilg Tilg(2014 (2014). (2014).). 17 For Turin Papyrus no. 55001, supra n. 12; for the interpretation of the donkey vignette, see (Beauregard 1894, p. 151; Houlihan 2001, p. 71; Babcock 1717 For For Turin Turin Papyrus Papyrus no. no. 55001, 55001, supra supra n. n. 12; 12; for for the the interpretation interpretation of of the the donkey donkey vignette, vignette, see see (Beauregar (Beauregardd 1894, 1894, p. p. 151; 151; Houlihan Houlihan 2014, p. 78). 2001, 2001, p. p. 71; 71; Babcock Babcock 2014, 2014, p. p. 78). 78). 15 For Papyrus BM EA10061, supra n. 14; Anderson (1976, p. 5) and Babcock (2014, p. 73). 16 For the Golden Ass, see Tilg (2014).

17 For Turin Papyrus no. 55001, supra n. 12; for the interpretation of the donkey vignette, see (Beauregard 1894, p. 151; Houlihan 2001, p. 71; Babcock 2014, p. 78).

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Figure 14. Donkey standing before offerings (left) and a musical ensemble (detail of CME inv. no. c.2031, CGT no. 55001), Figure 14.14. Donkey standing before offerings (left) and a musical ensemble (detail of CME inv. no. c.2031 c.2031,, CGT no. 55001) 55001),, papyrus, Deir el-Medina, 20th Dynasty (Image courtesy of the Egyptian Museum, Turin). papyrus,papyrus, DeirDeir el-Medina,el-Medina, 20th20th DynastyDynasty (Image(Image courtesycourtesy ofof thethe EgyptianEgyptian Museum,Museum, Turin).Turin). Of further interest is that another vignette (to the viewer’s right) portrays another Of further interest is that anotheranother vignettevignette (to thethe viewer’sviewer’s right) portraysportrays anotheranother donkey among a musical quartet (Figure 15, upper right) (Rogers 1948, pp. 154–60; donkey among a a musical musical quartet quartet (Figure (Figure 1515,, upper upper right) right) ( Rogers(Rogers 1948 1948,, pp. pp. 154–60; 154–60; Brunner-Traut 1974, pp. 125, 127; Habib 1980, pp. 1–2; Allam 1990, p. 75). While the BrunnerBrunner-Traut-Traut 1974 1974,, pp. pp. 125,125, 127;127; Habib Habib 1980 1980,, pp. pp. 1–2; 1–2; Allam Allam 1990 1990,, p. p. 75). 75). While While the the donkey plays a large upright harp, a lion sings lead vocals and accompanies himself on a donkey plays a a large large upright upright harp, harp, a a lion lion sings sings lead lead vocals vocals and and accompanies accompanies himself himself on on a lyre, a crocodile plays a lute, and a blue monkey plays the double pipes. The motif is lyre,a lyre, a acrocodile crocodile plays plays a alute, lute, and and a a blue blue monkey monkey plays plays the double pipes. The motif is evidently a parody of the elegant female ensembles entertaining at luxurious feasts. In- evidently aa parodyparody of of the the elegant elegant female female ensembles ensembles entertaining entertaining at luxurious at luxurious feasts. fea Indeed,sts. In- deed, on the (viewer’s) farthest right—in a much-damaged detail—there appears to be a deed,on the on (viewer’s) the (viewer’s) farthest farthest right—in right a— much-damagedin a much-damaged detail—there detail—there appears appear tos be to a be cat a cat blending drinks with three syphoning tubes, possible for a now-lost banqueting sce- catblending blending drinks drinks with with three three syphoning syphoning tubes, tubes, possible possible for afor now-lost a now- banquetinglost banqueting scene. sce- If ne. If considered as a whole, the animal section of the Turin papyrus—which further in- ne.considered If considered as a whole, as a whole, the animal the animal section section of the of Turin the Turin papyrus—which papyrus—which further further includes in- cludes another scene of cat leading geese, a hippopotamus in a fruit tree, and the war of cludesanother another scene ofscene cat leadingof cat leading geese, geese, a hippopotamus a hippopotamus in a fruit in a tree,fruit andtree, theand war the ofwar cats of cats and mice, among other poorly legible motifs—it become evident that the animals not catsand mice,and mice, among among other other poorly poorly legible legible motifs—it motifs become—it become evident evident thatthe that animals the animals not only not only parody human behavior. The vignettes voice criticism at certain aspects of human parodyonly parody human human behavior. behavior. The vignettes The vignettes voice criticism voice criticism at certain at aspects certain of aspects human of behavior, human behavior,such as the such wanton as the luxury wanton of theluxury nobility of the and nobility royal house,and royal the corruptibilityhouse, the corruptibility of dignitaries of behavior, such as the wanton luxury of the nobility and royal house, the corruptibility of dignitariesand the capriciousness and the capriciousness of lords and of judges, lords andand thejudges, failure and of the rulingfailure classof the to ruling uphold class the dignitaries and the capriciousness of lords and judges, and the failure of the ruling class tonatural uphold order. the natural The topsy-turvy order. The world topsy of-turvy these world anthropomorphized of these anthropomorphized animal vignettes animal can to uphold the natural order. The topsy-turvy world of these anthropomorphized animal vignettestherefore becan understood therefore be as understood humorous satireas humorous with a bite satire and with a sting. a bite and a sting. vignettes can therefore be understood as humorous satire with a bite and a sting.

Figure 15. Reconstruction of part of the animal section of the Turin Papyrus 55001 (CME inv. no. c.2031) (Taken from Figure 15. Reconstruction of part of the animal section of the Turin Papyrus 55001 (CME inv. no. c.2031) (Taken from FigureÉmile Prisse 15. Reconstruction d’Avennes, Histoire of part ofde thel’art animal égyptien section (Paris: of theBertrand, Turin Papyrus1878), pl. 55001 78; image (CME inv.courtesy no. c.2031) of the (TakenNew York from PublicÉmile Émile Prisse d’Avennes, Histoire de l’art égyptien (Paris: Bertrand, 1878), pl. 78; image courtesy of the New York Public PrisseLibrary d’Avennes,). Histoire de l’art égyptien (Paris: Bertrand, 1878), pl. 78; image courtesy of the New York Public Library). Library).

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5. Conclusions The preceding paragraphs surveyed only a small sample of ancient Egyptian drawings of animals engaged in human behavior. Artistically, the ostracon sketches are of mediocre draftsmanship, whereas the few surviving papyri with similar motifs range from average to exceptional quality. From the rendering of details, it is evident that the artists observed animals firsthand, even if the individual species or, at times, the actual genera cannot be determined. Many of the themes of the ostraca recur on the larger papyri, but it remains impossible to discern whether the individual vignettes illustrate a larger narrative. If so, that narrative is either now lost or was never committed in writing (Babcock 2014, pp. 109–11). Scholarly assessments of such scenes from ostraca and papyri—when provenanced, from Deir el-Medina and dating to the Ramesside period—have ranged widely: illustra- tions of myth or fables, comical inversions of the natural order, humorous parodies of human behavior, witty caricatures of the elite or biting satire of the ruling classes. We men- tioned scenes from the Return of the Distant Goddess or the so-called War of Mice and Cats, of predators guarding or serving their prey, not to mention portrayals of greedy scribes recording inventories, wanton judges passing their verdict and hypocritical priests per- forming rites, musicians entertaining at feasts, and leisurely banquet and drinking revelries, as well as couples playing board games. It bears reiterating that in the absence of accom- panying texts it remains difficult to determine the intention of these anthropomorphized animal motifs. Evidently the artists of these scenes were familiar with royal and noble funerary iconography. Indeed, it must have been the same artists who were employed in the decoration of the Ramesside tomb and temple walls in the Theban region who drew the figured ostraca and papyri portraying animals in similar human activities. With Jennifer Babcock we may observe that these artisans were part of the educated, literary, cultured elite (Babcock(2013, 2014)). Indeed, the other side of the satirical animal section of the Turin papyrus (CGT no. 55001) portrays outright pornographic scenes of commoners, peasants or workers, performing various acrobatic sexual positions with elegant noblewomen. The artist thus derided the lustful lower class for their erotic fantasies, and with that disdain placed himself higher in class. Nonetheless, wishing to participate in elite culture and expressing a disdain towards the lower class did not place the artisans in the highest echelons of society. They were literally and figuratively caught in the middle between the lower and the ruling classes. They may not have been seen as commoners by their superiors, but they still needed to work to make a living. Even if they could afford the relatively expensive papyri to draw the images in question, we cannot know how or why they acquired the material. Moreover, although they may have been educated, literate, and cultured, they had no power even over their own lives, and certainly did not have the leisure to engage in the luxurious lifestyle of the ruling classes—the very lifestyle some of the imagery ridicules. Satire is said to be the weapon of the weak—a means to communicate resentment towards one’s superiors through veiled humor. Although generally, ancient Egyptians may have viewed their superiors with respect, that does not negate that some people also saw the mortal weaknesses of the elite. The animal scenes in comical situations parodying monumental funerary and religious art reveal a level of freedom of thought and artistic expression unrestrained by decorum, convention, or tradition. In the preceding, I argued that at least some of the drawings that parodied scenes from human life by means of anthropomorphized animals may well have voiced social and/or political critique. It cannot be discerned whether some of the imagery intentionally caricaturized individual lords, priests, or kings. Against the historical background of the decline of the New Kingdom during the 20th Dynasty, satirical criticism may well be understandable. Some of the scenes at least do appear to express resentment towards the corruptibility of the nobility, the hypocrisy of the priesthood, and the failure of the royal house to maintain Arts 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 20

more familiar formal representations on monuments of the majority of Egyptian “high” art, scholars have until very recently considered such scenes on ostraca and papyri of lit- tle artistic merit and academic interest—if they consider them at all.2 What these images could have meant to the ancient Egyptians is impossible to de- termine without written sources to elucidate their thoughts. This paper aims to shed light on the depiction of animals performing human professions on ostraca and papyri during the New Kingdom, focusing on a selection of drawings that show animals paro- dying human professions (such as scribes, servants, musicians, dancers, leaders, and herdsmen). These scenes often portray animals dressed in human clothes, posing with human gestures, and engaging in human pursuits. I will differentiate “humor,” “satire,” and “parody” to provide a better understanding of the comic intent of the artists. I will discuss why these scenes were drawn without any texts. Additionally, I will address the question of whether these drawings were indeed meant to mock elite society. Understanding the exact meaning of these scenes is challenging due to the lack of supporting archaeological or textual evidence. These images are not quite understood because of the lack of knowledge of the cultural habits of the ancient Egyptians; such knowledge would have shed light on what these anthropomorphized animal behaviors mean. Another problem is that the exact findspot (called “provenance” or “provenience” in specialist circles) of the ostraca and papyri is often unknown—a problem more gener- ally facing Egyptian artefacts dispersed to various institutional and private collections in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Had the findspot been known for all the drawings in question, it would have been possible to relate them to one another (Babcock 2014, p. 1). Arts 2021, 10, 40 19 of 20 2. The Artists of Deir el-Medina During the New Kingdom (ca. 1550–1078/77 BCE), Egyptian artists living in a village near the Valley of Kings dreworder—to sketches upholdbased on the existing social and monuments. political, natural, This village, and cosmic order of justice and truth called “The Place of Truth” (S.t (Mama῾at)). at the time, is now commonly known by the Ara- bic name Deir el-Medina (“Monastery of the Town”), and is located on the Western Bank of the Nile across from ThebesFunding: (present-dayThis research Karnak received and no Luxor). external3 funding.Enlarged in the Ramesside Period (19th and 20thConflicts Dynasties), of Interest: the Thevillage author was declares inhabited no conflict by successive of interest. generations of workmen and their families until the beginning of the so-called Third In- termediateReferences Period (Wilkinson 2005, p. 63). Workmen of different talents living in the vil- lageAlexandre, at the time Arsene. normally 1892. L’Art numbered du Rire etbetween de la Caricature forty .and Paris: seventy Ancienne (Redford Maison 2001, Quantin vol. Librairies-Imprimeries 1, p. Reunies. 368).Allam, Among Schafik. those 1990. workmenSome Pages were from Everydaycarpenters, Life instonecutters, Ancient Egypt relief. Giza: sculptors, Foreign Cultural and paint- Information Department. ers,Anderson, who painted Robert. the 1976. royalCatalogue tombs of as Egyptian well as Antiquities their own in thetombs British (Redford Museum 2001, III, Musical vol. 3, Instruments p. 8). . London: British Museum Press. TheyAndr were,é, Jean-Marie, in other ed.words, 1991. skilledJouer dans craftsmen l’Antiquit éand. Marseille: often would Musées work de Marseille. their entire lives on a singleAtiya, Farid.royal 2005.tomb.Ancient The workmen Egypt. Giza: spent Farid eight Atiya days Press. of the Egyptian week camped near theirBabcock, work Jennifer. site in the 2013. Valley Understanding of the Kings the Images (Yurco of 1999, Anthropomorphized p. 247). On their Animals days inoff New and Kingdom on Ostraca and Papyri. Bulletin of the American Research Center in Egypt 203: 52–55. holidays, they returned to the village, where their families resided (Yurco 1999, p. 248). Babcock, Jennifer. 2014. Anthropomorphized Animal Imagery on New Kingdom Ostraca and Papyri: Their Artistic and Social Many ofSignificance. the inhabitants Ph.D. thesis,were lit Newerate, York certainly University, the New scribes. York, In NY, addition USA. to their everyday records,Beauregard, they Ollivier.left writings 1894. Laranging Caricature from Egyptienne: humorous Historique, satirical Politique, notes etand Morale sketches. Paris: to Thorin. pious religiousBetz, Raymond. inscriptions 2015. (Reeves Animals and Pharaohs,Wilkinson The 1996, Animal p. 20). Kingdom in Ancient Egypt. Ancient Egypt Magazine 88: 22–29. Brunner-Traut,Serious themes Emma. were 1963. illustratedAltägyptische in MärchenTheban. Düsseldorftombs that and were Köln: copied Eugen at Diederichs times on Verlag. os- tracaBrunner-Traut, or papyri in Emma. a more 1968. light-heartedAltägyptische and Tiergeschichte less formal und manner. Fabel: Gestalt In Egyptian und Strahlkraft fables,. ani- Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchge- mals couldsellschaft. appear as characters performing human roles, behaviors, or occupations. Os- tracaBrunner-Traut, scenes in Emma.particular 1974. provideDie Alten a Ägypter large Verborgenesnumber of Leben these unter imitations Pharaonen .of Stuttgart: well-known Verlag W. Kohlhammer. themesBrunner-Traut, found on Emma. tomb 1979. wallsEgyptian in which Artists’ animals Sketches: likewise Figured Ostrakareplace from human the Gayer-Anderson figures. The Collection in the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge. Leiden: Nederlands Historisch-Archaeologisch Instituut te Istanbul. light-hearted drawings appear to parody or satirize human behavior. These scenes can Brunner-Traut, Emma. 1984. Satire. In Lexikon der Ägyptologie. Edited by Wolfgang Helck and Eberhard Otto. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, be understoodvol. 5, p. as 489. a reflection of the humorous, comic spirit of the artists. They reveal the Clayton, Peter. 1994. Chronicle of the Pharaohs, The Reign-By Reign Record of the Rulers and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt. London: Thames 2 Scholars such as Nina and Norman deand Garis Hudson. Davies, Patrick Houlihan, Emma Brunner-Traut, and William Peck state that the figured ostraca are examples of Davies,popular Nina, art or and “non-elite” Normand art. de Garis. 1917. Egyptian Drawings on Limestone Flakes. 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