GLOBAL ASIA Book Review this spirit, I here review the infl uential works of Zhao Tingyang, a distinguished academic at the The Tianxia System: Institute of Philosophy at the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences in Beijing. World Order In Although Zhao had already established himself as a philosopher before 2005, the publication of his book Tianxia Tixi that year made him a star in A Chinese Utopia China’s intellectual circles, helping to extend his Reviewed By Feng Zhang infl uence beyond the confi nes of philosophy into the realm of international relations. Four years later, he published a second volume further de- Tianxia Tixi: Shijie veloping his tianxia (literally, “all-under-heav- Zhidu Zhexue Daolun en”) theory while offering a more comprehen- [The Tianxia System: sive outline of his own political philosophy. His An Introduction to philosophical theory of international relations the Philosophy of has had a huge impact on China’s community of a World Institution] international relations scholars, stirring up ex- By Zhao Tingyang citement as well as curiosity. This is due, in part, Nanjing: Jiangsu Jiaoyu Chubanshe, to the fact that Chinese scholars in this fi eld have 2005, 160 pages not been able to produce a theory as sophisticated as his, even though this has been on their agenda Huai Shijie Yanjiu: for some time. Zuowei Diyi Zhexue Not being a philosopher myself, I shall concen- de Zhengzhi Zhexue trate on those parts of Zhao’s writings that direct- [Investigations of the ly pertain to international relations, which are Bad World: Political most of his 2005 book and most of Chapter 4 in Philosophy as the his 2009 book. Readers can also consult two of First Philosophy] his English-language articles for a summary of his theory.2 By Zhao Tingyang Let me fi rst note the motivations behind Zhao’s Beijing: People’s University Press, 2009, 366 pages project. While intellectual curiosity and ambition certainly have been the initial drivers of his tianx- ia theory, an important motivation is also to “re- think china” so as to rethink the world and de- AS CHINA RAPIDLY MOVES to center stage in velop Chinese views and theories of world poli- world politics, the question of this emerging su- tics. At root is a strong desire to provide an in- perpower’s international purpose and foreign digenous Chinese perspective on international policy is becoming more important than ever. relations and to prepare China intellectually for What is China’s international mission, and how a greater, more constructive and distinctive role might it realize its agenda? Does it even have a in world aff airs. As Zhao puts it, “The historical blueprint for action? The Chinese government’s signifi cance of ‘rethinking china’ lies in recover- offi cial line is often very vague on these questions. ing China’s own ability to think, reconstructing However, while China’s international strategy is its world views, values and methodologies, and currently undergoing major transformations,1 at thinking about china’s future, Chinese concepts the unoffi cial level China’s intellectual elite have about the future and China’s role and responsi- been advancing a diverse set of arguments about bilities in the world.” 3 china’s future international role. Because the in- Believing that China can become a new kind tellectual power of these emerging views will, to of great power — one that is responsible for the varying degrees, infl uence policy choices in the whole world, but in a diff erent way from histori- future, it is essential for observers of Chinese for- cal empires — Zhao aims to create new concepts eign policy to pay serious attention to the lively about the world and world institutions by promot- intellectual debates taking place inside China. In ing the idea of tianxia as the pivotal unit in ana- 108 GLOBAL ASIA Book Review GLOBAL ASIA Vol.4, No. 4 lyzing world politics. He finds many inadequacies wider and more powerful explanatory framework in existing Western theories of international re- than those found in Western theories.4 lations, not least their exclusive emphasis on the Second, an important principle of the tianxia nation-state as the unit of analysis. In his view, system is “the exclusion of nothing and no one,” the world today is still a “non-world,” and the real or, put differently, “the inclusion of all peoples problem we face is not so-called “failed states,” and all lands.” That is, under the tianxia system but a “failed world.” He faults Western theories nobody can be excluded or pushed aside, since no for contributing to this “failed world” with their one is essentially incompatible with others; noth- emphasis on the nation-state, and asserts that ing is considered “foreign” or “pagan.” Moreover, China’s tianxia theory, which borrows its key in- tianxia is fair and impartial to all peoples: it is gredients from ancient Chinese thought, can rem- meant to be of all and for all, and never of and for edy this critical deficiency.H e argues that tianxia anybody in particular. Thus, the right to rule or theory offers an alternative, far better model of a the legitimacy of governance in the tianxia sys- future world order that takes into account the in- tem is, in theory, open to all peoples. The central terests of the entire world, whatever its constitu- idea of tianxia, furthermore, is to reconstitute the ent elements. world along the lines of the family, thereby trans- What, then, is Zhao’s theory of the tianxia sys- forming the world into a home for all peoples.5 tem? Although he does not always clearly or log- It is this principle of “non-exclusion” that makes ically lay out its elements, one can nevertheless tianxia such an expansive system. reconstruct the conceptual framework by noting Third, Zhao insists on the importance of a four of its main components. world institution as the highest political entity or First, tianxia, a dense concept referring to “the authority capable of caring for the entire world. world,” has three meanings: 1) the earth or all This, in effect, amounts to saying a world govern- lands under the sky; 2) a common choice made ment is necessary in the tianxia system. According Believing that China can become a new kind of great power, Zhao aims to create new concepts about the world by promoting the idea of tianxia as the pivotal unit in analyzing world politics. by all peoples in the world, or a universal agree- to his theory, internal order depends on external ment in the “hearts” of all people; and 3) a po- order; or to put it differently, a lower-level order litical system for the world with a global institu- such as the one between nation-states always de- tion to ensure universal order. With the concept pends on a higher-level world order of which na- of tianxia, therefore, the world is understood as tion-states are only constituent parts.6 He there- consisting of the physical world (land), the psy- fore argues that “internationality,” which is the chological world (the general sentiment of peo- concept upon which most Western theories of in- ples) and the institutional world (a world institu- ternational relations are based, is unsuitable for tion). Zhao claims that this conceptualization re- thinking about world order. Instead, it must be gards “the world” as the highest political unit, set- replaced by the concept of what he calls “world- ting it apart from Western conceptualizations that ness,” whose scope is broader than and subsumes stop at the nation-state as the highest unit of anal- “national interests.” ysis. This Chinese-style analysis uses the structure Fourth, the tianxia system envisions a world sys- of “family –state–tianxia,” which Zhao argues is a tem characterized by harmony and cooperation 109 GLOBAL ASIA Book Review without hegemony. The coherence of the system so that the benefits of joining the system will al- is maintained through the internal harmony of di- ways be greater than the benefits of leaving it; 2) versity.7 However, the pathways to harmony and create a structure of harmony where individual a world institution receive very little treatment in interests are so interlocking and mutually con- Zhao’s first book.T o fill this gap, the 2009 volume stituted that anyone’s gain will always result in develops the two ideas of “the strategy of com- a gain for others, and anyone’s loss will always mon imitation” and “Confucian improvement,” lead to a loss for others; and 3) create common couched in the language of game theory. The values by being inclusive of all cultures while de- strategy of common imitation is regarded as the nying the dominance of any one of them, so as to key to the formation of a stable institution, since transform enemies into friends and realize world it is argued that a common imitation of the best peace.10 In short, the significance of this system strategy available among all the players in a game lies in its putative ability to maintain worldwide will lead to a stable equilibrium.8 “Confucian im- peace, interests and order. Zhao further argues provement” aims to achieve harmony as a mutu- that this system would be superior to the three ally beneficial condition by creating a situation Western approaches that most resemble China’s tianxia: the ideal of the Roman Empire, which re- lied on military conquest; Christian universalism, Zhao’s tianxia system which tried to solve political problems through religion; and Immanuel Kant’s “perpetual peace” is an interesting and thesis, which smacked of unilateral cultural impe- rialism.11 Thus, tianxia is considered to be the best perhaps exceedingly blueprint for world politics in the future.