1.2 Food Processing Wastes and By-Products for Industrial Applications

Food Processing By-Products and their Utilization

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Food Processing By-Products and their Utilization

Edited by k k Anil Kumar Anal Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand

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Names: Anal, Anil Kumar, editor. Title: Food processing by-products and their utilization / edited by Dr. Anil Kumar Anal. Description: Hoboken, NJ : John Wiley & Sons, 2017.| Includes bibliographical references and index. | Identifiers: LCCN 2017017235 (print) | LCCN 2017037253 (ebook) |ISBN 9781118432938 (pdf) | ISBN 9781118432891 (epub) | ISBN 9781118432884 (cloth) Subjects: LCSH: Food processing by-products industry. | Food industry and trade–By-products. Classification: LCC HD9495.A2 (ebook) | LCC HD9495.A2 .A53 2017 (print) |DDC 664/.08–dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017017235

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Contents

About the IFST Advances in Food Science Book Series xvii List of Contributors xix Preface xxiii Biography of Editor xxv

1 Food Processing By-Products and their Utilization: Introduction 1 Anil Kumar Anal 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Food Processing Wastes and By-Products for Industrial Applications 2 k 1.3 By-Products from Cereal Processing Industries 2 k 1.4 Fruits and Vegetables By-Products 3 1.5 By-Products from the Meat and Poultry Processing Industries 5 1.6 Seafood Processing By-Products 6 1.7 By-Products from the Dairy Processing Industries 7 1.8 Conclusion 7 References 7

2 Fruit Processing By-Products: A Rich Source for Bioactive Compounds and Value Added Products 11 Medina-Meza Ilce Gabriela, and Ganjyal Girish 2.1 Introduction 11 2.2 Phenolic Compounds as Functional foods 12 2.2.1 Phenolic Acids 12 2.2.2 Flavonoids 13 2.2.3 Tannins 14 2.2.4 Stilbenes and Lignans 15 2.3 Fruit By-Products Sources 15 2.3.1 Agro-Industrial By-Products 15 2.4 Dietary Fibers-Rich By-Products 18 2.4.1 Hemicelluloses 19 2.4.2 Pectins 19 2.5 Value-Added Products from Fruit By-Products 19 2.5.1 Meat Products 19 2.5.2 Dairy Products 20 2.5.3 Baking Products 20 2.5.4 Ready-To-Eat Products 20 2.6 Future Perspectives 21 References 21

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3 Utilization of Waste from Tropical Fruits 27 H.K. Sharma and Mandeep Kaur 3.1 Introduction 27 3.1.1 Waste Utilization and Challenges 28 3.2 Pineapple 29 3.2.1 Bioethanol 30 3.2.2 Biogas 31 3.2.3 Bromelain 31 3.2.4 Cellulase 32 3.2.5 Citric Acid 33 3.2.6 Extruded Product 33 3.2.7 Jam 34 3.2.8 Lactic Acid 34 3.2.9 Animal Feed 34 3.3 Guava 35 3.3.1 Pectin 36 3.3.2 Juice Fortiﬁed with Dietary Fibre 37 3.3.3 Alcoholic Fermentation 37 3.3.4 Use in Bakery Industry 38 3.3.5 Single Cell Protein 38 3.3.6 Lycopene 38 3.3.7 Utilization as Feed 39 3.4 Papaya 40 3.4.1 Papaya Seeds as Antioxidants 41 k 3.4.2 Extraction of Papain 42 k 3.4.3 Extraction of Oil from Seeds 43 3.4.4 Alcohol and Vinegar 43 3.4.5 Utilization of Seed Flour for Food Enrichment 43 3.4.6 Carboxymethyl Cellulose (CMC) 44 3.4.7 Single Cell Protein 44 3.5 Summary and Future Trends 45 References 45

4 Valorization of Vegetable Wastes 53 Taslima Ayesha Aktar Nasrin and Md. Abdul Matin 4.1 Introduction 53 4.2 Losses of Vegetables from Production to Consumption 54 4.3 Extent of Vegetable Losses 54 4.4 Reasons and Overall Prevention of Vegetable Wastes 55 4.4.1 Production Exceeds Demand 56 4.4.2 Premature Harvesting 56 4.4.3 Strict Quality Standards 56 4.4.4 Poor Storage Facilities 57 4.4.5 Unsafe Vegetables 57 4.4.6 Throwing Rather than Using or Re-using 57 4.4.7 Lack of Processing Facilities 57 4.4.8 Wide Range of Products/Brands 58 4.4.9 Inadequate Market Systems 58 4.4.10 Abundance and Consumer Attitudes 58 4.5 Loss Quantiﬁcation of Some Important Vegetables after Harvest 59 4.5.1 Cabbage 59 4.5.2 Cauliﬂower 59

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4.5.3 Broccoli 59 4.5.4 Sweet Corn 59 4.5.5 Carrots 60 4.5.6 Beetroot 60 4.5.7 Lettuce 60 4.5.8 Capsicums 60 4.5.9 Beans 60 4.6 Utilization of Vegetable Wastes 61 4.6.1 Utilization of Wastes by Priority Basis 61 4.6.2 Vegetable Demand should be Increased 62 4.6.3 Vegetables for Better Health 62 4.6.4 Bio Gas and Electricity Generation from Vegetable Wastes 63 4.6.5 Bioactive Compounds Extraction from Vegetable Wastes 64 4.6.6 Increment of Bioactive Compounds in Vegetables 66 4.6.7 Bioactive Compounds Affected by Stimulators 67 4.6.8 Extraction Techniques of Bioactive Compounds 70 4.6.9 Dietary Fibres from Vegetable Waste 73 4.6.10 Resistant Starch from Vegetable Waste 75 4.6.11 Vegetable Waste as Vermicomposting Agent 76 4.6.12 Biofuel and Biochar from Vegetable Waste 76 4.6.13 Fish Food from Vegetable Waste 77 4.6.14 Aquaponic using Vegetable Waste 78 4.6.15 Waste as Animal Feed 78 4.6.16 Activated Carbon from Vegetable Waste 80 4.6.17 Biodegradable Plastic 80 k 4.6.18 Vegetable Wastes as Substrates in Citric Acid Production 80 k 4.7 Conclusion 81 References 81

5 Application of Food By-Products in Medical and Pharmaceutical Industries 89 Muhammad Bilal Sadiq, Manisha Singh, and Anil Kumar Anal 5.1 Introduction 89 5.2 Agroindustry By-Products and Potential Recovery of Bioactive Compounds 90 5.2.1 Fruits 90 5.2.2 Vegetables 94 5.3 By-Products from Animal Origin 96 5.3.1 By-Products from Meat Processing 96 5.3.2 Fish and Seafood Processing 99 5.4 Conclusion 103 References 103

6 Dietary Fibers, Dietary Peptides and Dietary Essential Fatty Acids from Food Processing By-Products 111 Seema Medhe, Manisha Anand, and Anil Kumar Anal 6.1 Introduction 111 6.2 Dietary Fiber from Food Processing By-Products 112 6.2.1 Structural Features of Dietary Fiber 112 6.2.2 Technological Functionality of Dietary Fiber 113 6.2.3 Health Beneﬁts of Dietary Fibers 114 6.2.4 Dietary Fiber from Fruits and Vegetables 115 6.2.5 Dietary Fiber from Legumes 116

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6.2.6 Dietary Fiber from Cereals 117 6.2.7 Coffee, Tea and Cocoa 118 6.2.8 Spices 119 6.2.9 Utilization of Dietary Fiber in Different Food Industries 119 6.3 Dietary Proteins and Peptides from Food Processing By-Products 120 6.3.1 Oil Seed Processing By-Products Valorization to Produce Proteins 120 6.3.2 Proteins from Dairy Waste 123 6.3.3 Proteins from Sugar Industry Waste 124 6.3.4 Proteins from Marine Waste 124 6.3.5 Antimicrobial Peptides from Marine By-Products 125 6.3.6 Peptides from Meat and Meat Processing Waste 125 6.4 Dietary Essential Fatty Acids 126 6.4.1 Health Beneﬁts of Omega Fatty Acids 127 6.4.2 Essential Fatty Acids from Marine Waste 127 6.4.3 Methods of Extraction of Omega Fatty Acid 127 References 129

7 Prebiotics and Dietary Fibers from Food Processing By-Products 137 Santad Wichienchot and Wan Rosli Bin Wan Ishak 7.1 Introduction 137 7.2 Oligosaccharides from Food Processing By-Products 140 7.2.1 Pectic Oligosaccharide (POS) 140 7.2.2 Xylo-Oligosaccharide (XOS) 143 7.2.3 Chito-Oligosaccharide (COS) 146 7.2.4 Inulin and Fructo-Oligosaccharide (FOS) 148 k 7.2.5 Soybean Oligosaccharide (SOS) 151 k 7.3 Polysaccharides from Food Processing and Agricultural By-Products 155 7.3.1 β-Glucans 155 7.3.2 Non-Starch Dietary Fibers 158 7.3.3 Resistant Starch 162 7.4 Conclusion 164 References 165

8 Utilization of By-Products from Food Processing as Biofertilizers and Biopesticides 175 Avishek Datta, Hayat Ullah, and Zannatul Ferdous 8.1 Introduction 175 8.2 Concept of Food Processing By-Products 176 8.2.1 Existing Methods of By-Product/Wastes Management Practiced by Food Industries 177 8.3 Plant-Based Food By-Products and their Importance as Biofertilizers 178 8.3.1 Sugarcane By-Products 178 8.3.2 Utilization of Oilseed Processing By-Products as Biofertilizer 179 8.3.3 Food Processing Industrial Sludge as Sources of Biofertilizers 182 8.3.4 Rice Straw and Rice Bran 182 8.3.5 Coffee Processing By-Products 183 8.3.6 Tea Processing Wastes 183 8.3.7 Turmeric Solid Waste 184 8.3.8 Cassava Processing By-Product as Biofertilizers 184 8.4 Importance of Plant-Based Food Processing By-Products as Biopesticides 185 8.4.1 Maize Gluten Meal 185

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8.4.2 Cuphea Oil 185 8.4.3 Jatropha Oil 186 8.4.4 Olive Compounds 186 8.4.5 Plant Extracts Classiﬁed as Minimal Risk Pesticides 187 8.4.6 Rotenone as Biopesticide 187 8.5 Concluding Remarks 187 References 188

9 Banana Peels and their Prospects for Industrial Utilization 195 Prerna Khawas, Arup Jyoti Das, and Sankar Chandra Deka 9.1 Introduction 195 9.2 Chemical Properties and Bioactive Compounds Present in Banana Peel 196 9.2.1 Nutrients 196 9.2.2 Phytochemicals and Antioxidants 197 9.2.3 Flavonoids and Polyphenols 197 9.2.4 Micronutrient 198 9.2.5 Bioactive Components 199 9.3 Utilization of Banana Peel 199 9.3.1 Yellow Noodles 199 9.3.2 Dietary Fibre Concentrate 199 9.3.3 α-amylase 199 9.3.4 Xylose 200 9.3.5 Lipase 200 9.3.6 Wine Vinegar 200 9.3.7 Wine 201 k 9.3.8 Feed 201 k 9.3.9 Sustainability 201 9.3.10 Bioethanol 202 9.3.11 Alkali 202 9.3.12 Biogas 203 9.4 Conclusion 203 References 203

10 Utilization of Carrot Pomace 207 H.K. Sharma and Navneet Kumar 10.1 Introduction 207 10.1.1 Carrot 208 10.1.2 Processing of Carrot 208 10.1.3 Carrot By-Products 212 10.1.4 Carrot Pomace 212 10.2 Value-Added Products from Carrot Pomace Powder 216 10.2.1 Biscuits 216 10.2.2 Cookies 216 10.2.3 Wheat Rolls 217 10.2.4 Wheat Bread 217 10.2.5 Fish Sausage 218 10.2.6 Extrudates 218 10.2.7 Fiber 222 10.2.8 Bio-ethanol 222 10.2.9 Functional Components 222 10.2.10 Citric Acid Production 223

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10.2.11 Animal Feed 223 10.2.12 Composting and Biogas 224 10.3 Nutritional, Functional and Medicinal Value of Carrot and Carrot By-Products 224 References 225

11 Processing and Utilization of Soy Food By-Products 231 M.K. Tripathi and Rahul Shrivastava 11.1 Introduction 231 11.1.1 Soybean: Global Scenario and its Future 232 11.1.2 Post-Production Management of Soyabean 235 11.1.3 Soybeans Product History 237 11.1.4 Nutrient Composition Soyabean 239 11.2 Soy Products and Human Diet 242 11.2.1 Nutritionally Balanced Diets 242 11.2.2 Lipid Metabolism 245 11.2.3 Glucose Tolerance 245 11.2.4 Caloric Reduction 245 11.2.5 Zinc Bioavailability 246 11.2.6 Iron Bioavailability 246 11.3 Functionality of Soyabean in Various Food Products 247 11.3.1 Fermented Products 247 11.3.2 Dairy Type Products 248 11.3.3 Cereal-Based Products 248 11.3.4 Meat and Seafood Products 249 11.3.5 Beverages 249 k 11.3.6 Daily Intake 249 k 11.3.7 Soybean in Meals 250 11.4 Processing and Soyabean Composition 250 11.4.1 Proteins 250 11.4.2 Soybean Processing and Trypsin Inhibitors 250 11.4.3 Soybean Processing and Phytic Acid Composition 252 11.4.4 Soybean Processing and Saponins Composition 252 11.4.5 Soybean Processing and Isoﬂavones 253 11.5 Raw Soy and Soybean Inhibitors in Digestive Enzymes of the Pancreas 254 11.6 Soybean Inhibitors and Inactivation of Digestive Enzymes 255 11.7 Beneﬁcial Effects of Soy-Containing Diets 255 11.7.1 Cholesterol-Lowering 255 11.7.2 Soybean Bowman Birk Inhibitor as an Anticarcinogen 255 11.7.3 Soybean Lectins 256 11.8 Traditional Soy-Foods 257 11.8.1 Tofu 257 11.8.2 Soy Milk 257 11.8.3 Green Vegetable Soybeans 257 11.8.4 Tempeh 257 11.8.5 Miso 258 11.8.6 Soy Sauce 258 11.8.7 Natto 258 11.8.8 Okara 258 11.8.9 Soy Sprouts 258 11.8.10 Soybean Oil 258 11.8.11 Second-Generation Soy-Foods 259 11.8.12 Soy Nuts 259 11.8.13 Meat Alternatives 259

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11.8.14 Cheese Alternatives 259 11.8.15 Soymilk Yogurt 259 11.8.16 Non-Dairy Frozen Desserts 259 11.9 Source of Various Enzymes having Industrial Signiﬁcance 260 11.9.1 Cellulases 260 11.9.2 α-andβ-Amylases 260 11.9.3 Proteases 260 11.9.4 Phytases 260 11.9.5 Transglutaminases 261 11.9.6 Ureases 261 11.9.7 Peroxidases 261 11.9.8 α-Galactosidases 261 11.10 Major Soybean By-Products 262 11.10.1 Okara and its Uses 262 11.10.2 Livestock Fodder 262 11.10.3 Organic Compost 262 11.10.4 Pet Food 262 11.10.5 Soysage 262 11.10.6 Baked Goods 263 11.10.7 Okara Tempeh 263 11.10.8 Okara Party Mix 263 11.10.9 Soysage Paté 263 11.10.10 Okara and Vegetable Saute 263 11.10.11 Okara Burgers 263 11.10.12 Okara Onchom 263 k 11.10.13 Other Food Uses 264 k 11.11 Tofu Whey and its Uses 264 11.11.1 Natural Organic Soap 265 11.11.2 Livestock Fodder 265 11.11.3 Organic Fertilizer 265 11.11.4 Fuel Alcohol 265 11.11.5 Soymilk Curds 265 11.11.6 Soybean Hulls or Seed Coats 266 11.12 Applications of important soybean products 266 11.12.1 Okara as Source of Dietary Fiber in Functional Food Development 266 11.12.2 Okara as Source of Protein in Functional Food Development 266 11.12.3 Production of Natural Cellulose Fibers from Soybean Straw 267 11.12.4 Recovery of Phytosterols from Waste Residue of Soybean Oil Deodorizer Distillate 267 11.12.5 Production of α-Galactosidase from Soybean Vinasse 268 11.12.6 Production of Bio-Ethanol from Soybean Molasses 268 11.12.7 Production of Citric Acid from Okara 269 11.12.8 Antioxidant Extraction from Soybean By-Products 269 References 270

12 Value-Added By-Products from Rice Processing Industries 277 Kittima Triratanasirichai, Manisha Singh, and Anil Kumar Anal 12.1 Introduction 277 12.2 Rice Bran 279 12.2.1 Protein and Peptide 279 12.2.2 Protein Extraction Method 280 12.2.3 Gamma-Oryzanol (γ-Oryzanol) and Wax 284 12.3 Rice Hull and Rice Bran Fiber 286

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12.4 Conclusions 287 References 287

13 Bioprocessing of Beverage Industry Waste for Value Addition 295 Surangna Jain and Anil Kumar Anal 13.1 Introduction 295 13.2 Coffee 295 13.2.1 Coffee Processing 295 13.2.2 By-Products and Wastes from Coffee Processing 296 13.2.3 Utilization of Coffee By-Products and Wastes 296 13.3 Tea 298 13.3.1 Processing and Production of Tea 298 13.3.2 Tea By-Products and Wastes and their Utilization 298 13.4 Fruit Juice and Soft Drinks 299 13.5 Alcoholic Beverages 299 13.5.1 Beer Production 299 13.5.2 By-Products and Wastes from the Brewing Industry and their Utilization 300 13.5.3 Wine Production 302 13.5.4 Brandy 304 13.6 Conclusion 304 References 305

14 Bioactive Compounds and their Health Effects from Honey Processing k Industries 309 k Zjahra Vianita Nugraheni and Taslim Ersam 14.1 Introduction 309 14.2 Biological Applications of Honey 313 14.2.1 Antibacterial Effects 313 14.2.2 Antioxidant Effects 314 14.2.3 Antiviral Effects 316 14.2.4 Anti-inﬂammatory Effects 316 14.3 Conclusion 317 References 318

15 Advances in Milk Fractionation for Value Addition 323 Juan M. Gonzalez, Deepak Bhopatkar, and Dattatreya Banavara 15.1 Dairy Ingredient Development 323 15.2 Milk Proteins 324 15.3 Milk Proteins Classiﬁcation 325 15.3.1 Caseins 326 15.3.2 Whey Proteins 326 15.3.3 Milk Fat Globule Membrane Proteins 327 15.3.4 Milk Protein Fractionation Technologies 327 15.3.5 Milk Protein Ingredients 328 15.3.6 Milk Protein Hydrolysates 331 15.4 Milk Fats 334 15.4.1 Milk Fat Classiﬁcation 334 15.4.2 Milk Fat Ingredients 334

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15.5 Milk Carbohydrates 342 15.5.1 Lactose 342 15.5.2 Enzymatic and Chemical Modiﬁcation 344 15.6 Milk Oligosaccharides 347 15.6.1 Oligosaccharide Processing 349 15.7 Future Outlook 349 References 349

16 Bioprocessing of Chicken Meat and Egg Processing Industries’ Waste to Value-Added Proteins and Peptides 367 Surangna Jain, Damodar Dhakal, and Anil Kumar Anal 16.1 Introduction 367 16.2 By-Products and Wastes Generated During Chicken Meat and Egg Processing 369 16.2.1 Feather 370 16.2.2 Skin 371 16.2.3 Bones 371 16.2.4 Trachea 371 16.2.5 Blood 371 16.2.6 Feet 371 16.2.7 Eggshell and Eggshell Membrane 372 16.3 Proteins and Peptides derived from Chicken Processing By-Products and Waste 372 16.3.1 Collagen 372 16.3.2 Gelatin 374 16.3.3 Keratin 376 16.3.4 Plasma Proteins 378 k 16.3.5 Bioactive Peptides 380 k 16.4 Valorization of Egg Waste 387 16.5 Conclusion 388 References 388

17 Bioprocessing of Beef and Pork Meat Processing Industries, ‘Waste to Value-Add‘ 395 Damodar Dhakal, Sajal Man Shrestha, and Anil Kumar Anal 17.1 Introduction 395 17.2 Different By-Products and Waste coming from Beef and Pork Meat Processing Industries 396 17.2.1 Skin 397 17.2.2 Bones 398 17.2.3 Hides and Hooves 398 17.2.4 Horn 399 17.2.5 Blood 400 17.2.6 Lard 400 17.2.7 Viscera 401 17.3 Valorization of Beef and Pork Meat Processing Waste 401 17.3.1 Collagen 401 17.3.2 Gelatin 402 17.3.3 Blood Products 403 17.3.4 Bioactive Peptides 404 17.3.5 Biodiesel 405 17.3.6 Keratin 407

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17.4 Conclusion 411 References 411

18 Aquaculture and Marine Products Contribution for Healthcare Application 417 Maushmi S. Kumar 18.1 Introduction 417 18.2 Various Classes of Freshwater and Marine Products and their Healthcare Application 418 18.2.1 Proteins and Peptides 418 18.2.2 Marine Enzymes 420 18.2.3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids 421 18.2.4 Seafood Processing By-Products 422 18.3 Recent Patents in Healthcare Applications 426 18.3.1 Chitin and Chitosan 426 18.3.2 Phycocolloids 428 18.3.3 Carotenoids 428 18.4 Conclusion 430 References 431

19 Seafood By-Products in Applications of Biomedicine and Cosmeticuals 437 Ngo Dang Nghia 19.1 Introduction 437 19.1.1 Global Fishery Production 438 19.1.2 Important Species 438 k 19.1.3 Seafood By-Products 439 k 19.2 Seafood By-Products and Biomedicine 442 19.2.1 Fish Protein Hydrolysate 443 19.2.2 Carotenoprotein 445 19.2.3 Bioactive Peptides 447 19.2.4 Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) 448 19.2.5 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids 450 19.2.6 Chitin/Chitosan 452 19.2.7 Collagen, Gelatin 454 19.3 Marine Cosmeticuals 457 19.3.1 Cosmetics and Cosmeceuticals 457 19.3.2 Skin Care 458 19.3.3 Bioactive Compounds from Seafood By-Products for Skin Care 459 19.4 Conclusions 461 References 461

20 Food Industry By-Products as Protein Replacement in Aquaculture Diets of Tilapia and Catﬁsh 471 Gabriel Arome Ataguba, Manoj Tukaram Kamble, and Krishna R. Salin 20.1 Introduction 471 20.1.1 Overview of Aquaculture 471 20.1.2 Use of Fishmeal 472 20.1.3 Siluridae 473 20.1.4 Cichlidae 473 20.1.5 Food Industry By-Products 474 20.2 Alternatives to Fishmeal in Catﬁsh Diets 475 20.2.1 Ingredients of Plant Origin 475 20.2.2 Ingredients of Animal Origin 480

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20.2.3 Other By-Products and Immuno-Modulation 482 20.3 Alternatives to Fishmeal in Tilapia Diets 482 20.3.1 Plant By-Product Protein Source 482 20.3.2 Animal By-Product Protein Source 486 20.3.3 Other By-Product Protein Source 490 References 491

21 Value-Added By-Products from Sugar Processing Industries 509 Ali Akbar and Imran Ali 21.1 Introduction 509 21.2 Pulp and Paper Production 512 21.2.1 Pulp Production 512 21.2.2 Paper Production from Bagasse Pulp 513 21.3 Agglomerated Products Production from Bagasse 513 21.3.1 Particle Board Production 514 21.3.2 Fiber Board Production 514 21.4 Alcohols 515 21.4.1 Production of Alcohol 515 21.4.2 Substrate Preparation 515 21.4.3 Preparation and Inoculation of Yeast 516 21.4.4 The Process of Fermentation 516 21.4.5 Alcohol Puriﬁcation 516 21.4.6 Kinds of Alcohols Obtained from Sugar Industries 517 21.5 Animal Feed 519 k 21.5.1 Animal Feed from Beet Sugar Industries 519 k 21.5.2 Animals Feed from Cane Sugar Industries 520 21.6 Acids 521 21.7 Pectins 522 21.8 Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals 522 21.9 Anti-Desiccants 523 21.10 Biodegradable Plastics and Biopolymers 523 21.11 Food Products, Flavorings and Aromas 524 21.12 Char and Biofertilizers 525 21.13 Waste Water Treatment and Environmental Bioremediation 526 21.14 Energy and Biogas from Sugar Industries 527 21.15 Sprays and Colors 527 21.16 Solvents 528 21.17 Bio-Filters 528 21.18 Microbial Substrates 528 21.19 Summary and Future Prospects 528 References 529

22 Regulatory and Legislative Issues for Food Waste Utilization 535 Lavaraj Devkota, Didier Montet, and Anil Kumar Anal 22.1 Introduction 535 22.2 Possible Mitigation Measures for Food Processing Wastes 536 22.2.1 Composting and Land Spreading of Food Processing Waste 536 22.2.2 Feeding Food Processing Waste to Livestock 537 22.2.3 Utilization of Food Processing Waste as Feed/Food Supplement through Value Addition or Modiﬁcation in Processing Method 537 22.2.4 Food Processing Source Reduction and Waste Management 538 22.3 Impact of Waste Disposal on Environment and Human Health 539

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22.4 Need of Legislative and Regulatory Guidelines 539 22.5 Concept of Policies, Legislations, Code of Conduct and Regulations for Food Waste Utilization 540 22.6 Prevailing Legislation and Regulatory Guidelines for Food Waste Utilization 541 22.6.1 European Union 541 22.6.2 The USA 543 22.6.3 Asian Region 544 22.7 Possible Amendments and Scope for the Development of New Regulations on Food Waste Utilization 544 22.8 Use of Recent Advancements in Food Waste Utilization 545 22.9 Conclusion 546 References 546

Index 549

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About the IFST Advances in Food Science Book Series

The Institute of Food Science and Technology (IFST) is the leading qualifying body for food professionals in Europe and the only professional organisation in the UK concerned with all aspects of food science and technology. Its qualifications are interna- tionally recognised as a sign of proficiency and integrity in the industry. Competence, integrity, and serving the public benefit lie at the heart of the IFST philosophy. IFST values the many elements that contribute to the efficient and responsible supply, man- ufacture and distribution of safe, wholesome, nutritious and affordable foods, with due k regard for the environment, animal welfare and the rights of consumers. k IFST Advances in Food Science is a series of books dedicated to the most important and popular topics in food science and technology, highlighting major developments across all sectors of the global food industry. Each volume is a detailed and in-depth edited work, featuring contributions by recognized international experts, and which focuses on new developments in the field. Taken together, the series forms a comprehensive library of the latest food science research and practice, and provides valuable insights into the food processing techniques that are essential to the understanding and development of this rapidly evolving industry. The IFST Advances series is edited by Dr Brijesh Tiwari, who is Senior Research Officer at Teagasc Food Research Centre in Ireland.

Forthcoming titles in the IFST series Herbs and Spices: Processing Technology and Health Benefits,editedby Mohammad B. Hossain, Nigel P. Brunton and Dilip K Rai

k k

List of Contributors

Ali Akbar, Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Balochistan Quetta, Pakistan

Imran Ali, Plant Biomass Utilization Research Unit, Department of Botany, Chula- longkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand and Institute of Biochemistry, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Balochistan Quetta, Pakistan

Anil Kumar Anal, Food Engineering and Bioprocess Technology, Department of Food Agriculture and Bioresources, Asian Institute of Technology, Klong Luang, Pathumthani, Thailand k k Manisha Anand, Food Engineering and Bioprocess Technology, Department of Food Agriculture and Bioresources, Asian Institute of Technology, Klong Luang, Pathumthani, Thailand

Gabriel Arome Ataguba, Aquaculture and Aquatic Resources Management (AARM), Department of Food Agriculture and Bioresources, Asian Institute of Technology, Klong Luang, Pathumthani, Thailand and University of Agriculture, Makurdi, Nigeria

Dattatreya Banavara, Global Innovation, Firmenich Inc, Plainsboro, NJ, USA

Deepak Bhopatkar, Global Research and Development, Mead Johnson Nutrition, Evansville, IN, US

Arup Jyoti Das, Department of Food Engineering & Technology, Tezpur University, Napaam, Sonitpur, Assam, India

Avishek Datta, Agricultural Systems and Engineering, Department of Food Agricul- ture and Bioresources, Asian Institute of Technology, Pathumthani, Thailand

Sankar Chandra Deka, Department of Food Engineering & Technology, Tezpur Uni- versity, Napaam, Sonitpur, Assam, India

Lavaraj Devkota, Department of Chemical Engineering, Monash University, Clayton, Australia

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xx LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

Damodar Dhakal, Food Engineering and Bioprocess Technology, Department of Food Agriculture and Bioresources, Asian Institute of Technology, Klong Luang, Pathumthani, Thailand

Taslim Ersam, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Mathematics and Science, Institut Teknologi Sepuluh Nopember, Surabaya, Indonesia

Zannatul Ferdous, Agricultural Systems and Engineering, Department of Food Agri- culture and Bioresources, Asian Institute of Technology, Pathumthani, Thailand

Ganjyal Girish, School of Food Science, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, USA

Juan M. Gonzalez, Global Research and Development, PepsiCo. Barrington, IL, USA

Wan Rosli Bin Wan Ishak, School of Health Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia Health Campus, Kubang Kerian, Kota Bharu, Kelantan, Malaysia

Surangna Jain, Food Engineering and Bioprocess Technology, Department of Food Agriculture and Bioresources, Asian Institute of Technology, Klong Luang, Pathumthani, Thailand

Manoj Tukaram Kamble, Aquaculture and Aquatic Resources Management k k (AARM), Department of Food Agriculture and Bioresources, Asian Institute of Technology, Klong Luang, Pathumthani, Thailand

Mandeep Kaur, Amity Institute of Food Technology, Amity University, Noida, India

Prerna Khawas, Department of Food Engineering & Technology, Tezpur University, Napaam, Sonitpur, Assam, India

Maushmi S. Kumar, Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Shobhaben Pratapbhai Patel School of Pharmacy and Technology Management, SVKM’S NMIMS, Vile Parle West, Mumbai, India

Navneet Kumar, Department of Processing and Food Engineering, College of Agricultural Engineering & Technology, Anand Agricultural University, Godhra (Gujarat), India

Md. Abdul Matin, Farm Machinery and Postharvest Process Engineering Division, Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute, Gazipur, Bangladesh

Seema Medhe, Food Engineering and Bioprocess Technology, Department of Food Agriculture and Bioresources, Asian Institute of Technology, Klong Luang, Pathumthani, Thailand

Medina-Meza Ilce Gabriela, Department of Biosystems and Agricultural Engineer- ing. Michigan State University, USA

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LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS xxi

Didier Montet, Food Safety Team Leader, UMR Qualisud, CIRAD, Montpellier, France

Taslima Ayesha Aktar Nasrin, Postharvest TechnologySection, Horticulture Research Centre, Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute, Gazipur, Bangladesh

Ngo Dang Nghia, Institute of Biotechnology and Environment, Nha Trang University, Vietnam

Zjahra Vianita Nugraheni, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Mathematics and Sci- ence, Institut Teknologi Sepuluh Nopember, Surabaya, Indonesia

Muhammad Bilal Sadiq, Food Engineering and Bioprocess Technology, Department of Food Agriculture and Bioresources, Asian Institute of Technology, Klong Luang, Pathumthani, Thailand

Krishna R. Salin, Aquaculture and Aquatic Resources Management (AARM), Department of Food Agriculture and Bioresources, Asian Institute of Technology, Klong Luang, Pathumthani, Thailand

H.K. Sharma, Food Engineering and Technology Department, Sant Longowal Insti- tute of Engineering and Technology, Sangrur, Punjab, India k Sajal Man Shrestha, Food Engineering and Bioprocess Technology, Department of k Food Agriculture and Bioresources, Asian Institute of Technology, Klong Luang, Pathumthani, Thailand

Rahul Shrivastava, Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology, Bhopal MP,India

Manisha Singh, Food Engineering and Bioprocess Technology, Department of Food Agriculture and Bioresources, Asian Institute of Technology, Klong Luang, Pathumthani, Thailand

M.K. Tripathi, Agro Produce Processing Division, ICAR-CIAE, Nabi Bagh, Bhopal MP, India

Kittima Triratanasirichai, Food Engineering and Bioprocess Technology, Department of Food Agriculture and Bioresources, Asian Institute of Technology, Klong Luang, Pathumthani, Thailand

Hayat Ullah, Agricultural Systems and Engineering, Department of Food Agriculture and Bioresources, Asian Institute of Technology, Pathumthani, Thailand

Santad Wichienchot, Interdisciplinary Graduate School of Nutraceutical and Func- tional Food, Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai, Songkhla, Thailand

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Preface

This is the first book dedicated to food processing by-products and their utilization in a broad spectrum. It covers all food groups including cereals, pulses, fruits, vegetables, meat, dairy, marine, sugarcane, winery and plantation by-products. It aims to address the functional components, nutritional values and processing challenges relevant to the food by-products. This book provides the first reference text to bring together essential information on the processing technology and incorporation of by-products into various food and feed applications. Finally, it also delivers an insight into the current state-of-the-art and emerging technologies to extract valuable bioactive chemicals from food processing by-products. Over the past few years, not only food by-products, but also a number of other agricultural wastes, have attracted considerable attention k as potential sources of bioactive chemicals, which can be used for various purposes in k the pharmaceutical, cosmetic and food industries. Considering the challenges in this area of the food industry, efforts are to be made to optimise food-processing technology to minimize the amounts of by-product waste. The food industry is generating increasing amounts of by-products all along the chain of food production and transformation. However, such by-products could be generated before the production of the finished product. Environmental regulations and high waste discharge costs have forced food processors to find ways to better treat and utilize processing wastes. Environmental legislation agencies have significantly con- tributed to the introduction of sustainable waste management practices throughout the world. Efficient utilization of food processing by-products is important for the profitability of the food industry. By-products and wastes of food processing, which represent a major disposal problem for the industry concerned, are very promising sources of value-added substances, with particular emphasis being given to the retrieval of bioactive compounds and technologically important secondary metabolites. This makes them extremely suitable as raw materials for the production of secondary metabolites of industrial significance. The nutritional composition of such food waste is rich in sugars, vitamins, minerals and various health beneficial bioactive chemicals (polyphenols, carotenoids, polyacetylenes, glucosinolates, sesquiterpene lactones, alkaloids, coumarins, terpenoids, proteins, peptides, dietary fibers, fatty acids, etc.). The current trend in the world today is to utilize and convert waste into useful products and to recycle waste products as a means of achieving sustainable development. Over the next few years, the area of food processing waste management will expand rapidly.

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xxiv PREFACE

In the last few years, there have been numerous publications focusing on the utilization of food processing by-products in both food and non-food applications. Furthermore, numerous texts and reference books are available on waste utilization and mostly their emphasis is on waste treatment. However, none of those sources deal with the utilization of by-products from the range of foods in a comprehensive way. This book is structured into 22 chapters covering an overview of food processing by products, nutritional, chemical, biochemical and physicochemical properties of food waste. It also includes food by-products, value addition and nutraceutical applications. This book serves as a comprehensive reference book for students, educators, researchers, food processors and industry personnel, as well as policy developers, providing an up-to-date insight. The range of techniques for by-product utilization covered provides engineers and scientists working in the food industry with valuable resources for their work. As this proposed text is the first dedicated reference of its kind, it is expected that it will have broad and significant market appeal.

Anil Kumar Anal, PhD Editor

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Biography of Editor

Anil Kumar Anal, DVM PhD Head, Department of Food Agriculture and Bioresources Associate Professor, Food Engineering and Bioprocess Technology, Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand Phone: +66-2-5246110 (Ofﬁce); +66-829632277 (Mobile) Email: [email protected]

Dr Anil Kumar Anal is Head of Department of Food Agriculture and Bioresources and Associate Profes- sor in Food Engineering and Bioprocess Technology k k at the Asian Institute of Technology (AIT), Thailand. His background expertise is in the Food and Nutrition Security, Food Safety, food processing and preserva- tion, valorization, as well as bioprocessing of herbs, natural resources including Traditional and Fermented Foods, microorganisms, and Agro-industrial waste to fork and value addition, including its application in various food, feed, neutraceuticals, cosmetics and pharmaceutics. His research interests also include the formulation and delivery of cells and bioactives for human and veterinary applications, controlled release technologies, particulate systems, application of nanotechnology in food, agriculture and pharmaceutics, functional foods and food safety. Dr Anil has authored 5 patents (US, World Patents, EU, Canadian and Indian), more than 100 referred international journal articles, 20 book chapters, 3 edited books and several articles in international conference proceedings. He has been invited as Keynote Speaker and Expert in various Food, Biotechnology, Agro-Industrial Processing and Veterinary as well as Life Sciences based conferences and work- shops organized by national, regional and international agencies. Dr Anil has been serving as Advisory member, Associate Editor, and member of Editorial Boards of various regional and international peer-reviewed journal publications. He has experience in conducting numerous innovative research and product developments funded by various donor agencies, including the European Union, FAO, Ministry of Environment, Japan, and various food and biotech industries.

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1 Food Processing By-Products and their Utilization: Introduction

Anil Kumar Anal Asian Institute of Technology, Klong Luang, Pathumthani, Thailand

1.1 Introduction Food industries are growing rapidly to huge numbers due to globalization and popu- lation increase and are providing a wider range of food products to satisfy the needs of the consumers. The major food industries of the world include dairy, fruits and k vegetables, meat and poultry, seafood and cereal. However, these industries generate k huge amounts of by-products and wastes, which consist of high amounts of organic matter leading to problems regarding disposal, environmental pollution and sustainability (Russ and Pittroff, 2004). In addition, there is the loss of biomass and valuable nutrients that can be used for developing value-added products. Food industries are currently focusing on solving the problems of waste management and recycling by valorization, i.e. utilization of the by-products and discarded materials and developing new value-added products from them for commercial applications. Waste valorization is an interesting new concept that offers a range of alternatives for management of waste other than disposal or land-filling. Valorization allows exploration of the possibility of reusing nutrients in the production of main products, and thus highlights the potential gains that can be achieved. Traditional methods of waste utilization include their use as animal feed, fertilizer or disposal (Jayathilakan et al., 2012). However, their use has been limited due to legal restrictions, ecological problems and cost issues. Therefore, efficient, cheap and ecologically sound methods for utilization ofwastes are being focused upon, which can minimize the quantities of wastes exposed to the environment and the subsequent health hazards. Wastes from the food industries generally comprise of dietary fibers, proteins and peptides, lipids, fatty acids and phenolic compounds, depending on the nature of the product produced. For example, the wastes from meat and poultry industries comprise of proteins and lipids, while waste from fruit and vegetable processing industries and cereal industries comprise of phenolic compounds and dietary fibers. The recovery of

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2 CH1 FOOD PROCESSING BY-PRODUCTS AND THEIR UTILIZATION: INTRODUCTION

Table 1.1 Different food processing industries and their wastes (Ezejiofor et al., 2014)

Food processing industry Waste materials generated

Cereal processing Husks, hull, rice bran Fruits and vegetable processing Skin, peels, pulp, seeds, stem, ﬁber Poultry processing Skin, bones, blood, feathers, liver, intestines Marine products processing Viscera, heads, backbones, blood and shells Dairy products processing Whey, lactose

these bioactive compounds is important for their commercialization, so that they can be utilized as nutraceuticals and pharmaceutical products.

1.2 Food Processing Wastes and By-Products for Industrial Applications Food-processing wastes and by-products are generated during processing of the various food products by the industries, which have not already been used for other purposes and have not been recycled. Crude raw materials such as cereals, fruits, vegetables and animals are processed to final products with the production of large amounts of materials in the form of wastes (Ezejiofor et al.,2014).Thesewastes k emerging from the food processing industries differ from one another, depending k on the type of product being produced and the production technique used. Even the amount and concentrations of wastes differ and do not remain constant. For example, wastes from the fruit and vegetable processing industries comprise of high concentrations of polyphenols and dietary fibers, whereas wastes from meat processing industries comprise of high protein and fat content. The food processing wastes also possess characteristics, such as large amounts of organic materials in the form of lipids, proteins and carbohydrates and high chemical oxygen demand (COD) and biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) (Ezejiofor et al.,2014).Hence,theyare harmful and affect the environment and human health. Appropriate technologies that focus on their reuse for creation of valuable products, whose costs exceed the costs of reprocessing, should be considered. The different types of wastes produced by the different food processing industries are listed in Table 1.1.

1.3 By-Products from Cereal Processing Industries Cereals are the edible seeds derived from plants, which are a good source of carbohydrates. They contribute to 60% of the total world food production (Krishna and Chandrasekaran, 2013), with the main seeds being maize and wheat. Wastes from cereal processing are produced during the harvesting period, post-harvesting and the production period. Presently, these by-products are used as animal feed. However, they need to be utilized more efficiently as they comprise of proteins, dietary fibers and small amounts of unsaturated fatty acids. Rice bran is an important cereal industry by-product, which is generated during the production of white rice. It is generated during the milling process, where it is

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1.4 FRUITS AND VEGETABLES BY-PRODUCTS 3

separated from the rice to produce white rice. The rice bran production is 60–66 million tonnes annually (Ryan, 2011) and it is mostly used as animal feed or in the production of edible cooking oil. Rice bran is a rich source of nutrients, proteins and peptides, with a wide range of nutritional and functional applications. Defatted rice bran is another by-product, which is produced after oil extraction from the rice bran, also a good source of proteins and dietary fibers (Anal, 2013a). It are currently being utilized in food supplements and in the production of bakery items.

1.4 Fruits and Vegetables By-Products The world production of fruits and vegetables has increased rapidly. As crop production increases, there is a concomitant increase in the quantity of by-products generated (FAO, 2009). The fruit and vegetable processing by-products are regarded as waste and disposed of in the environment, which causes ecosystem problems as they are prone to microbial degradation. However, fruit and vegetable by-products and wastes are very good sources of bioactive compounds, such as dietary fibers and phenolic compounds with antibacterial, cardio-protective and antitumor activities (Khao and Chen, 2013). Efforts are being made to develop methods to reuse these wastes and by- products by obtaining bioactive compounds for health benefits, profit-making and allowing their environmental-friendly disposal. The total worldwide production of citrus fruits was reported as 7.78 million tonnes in 2009 (FAO, 2009). These include oranges, lemons, grapefruits and limes They are k commonly used forms are as fresh pulps or juice, but following their processing, the k by-products such as peels, pulp and seeds remain that make up 50% of the fresh fruit weight (Khao and Chen, 2013). From these wastes, fibers, flavanoids, pectins and limonene can be produced. The major flavanoids found in the citrus peels and seeds include hesperidin, narirutin, naringin and eriocitrin (Mouly et al., 1994). These flavanoids have found to have antioxidant activities (Manthey et al., 2001). Limonin, nimolin and nomilinic acid are major limonoids found mainly in the peels, and demonstrate antibacterial, antiviral and antimicrobial activities (Djilas et al., 2009). Banana is the largest growing tropical fruit following citrus fruits, contributing to 16% of total fruit production worldwide (Mohapatra et al., 2010). Waste from banana products includes the peels that represent about 40% of the total weight of the fresh bananas (Tchobanoglous et al., 1993). These peels are utilized in animal feed and the preparation of banana chips and banana powder. However, still huge amounts of the peels are being under-utilized and disposed of, resulting in environmental pollution. These banana wastes contain dietary fibers, proteins and different bioactive compounds such as phenolic compounds with reported antioxidant activities (Anal et al., 2014). Hence they need to be recycled so that they can be used for producing various valuable products. Mango (Mangifera indica L., Anacardiaceae) is a common seasonal fruit, which is mainly processed to produce products such as juices, pickles, purees and canned products (Aslam et al., 2014). Recent researches have indicated that mango wastes, which mostly include the peels (7–24%) and the kernels (9–40%), are good sources of bioactive compounds. The mango peels comprise of functional compounds such as polyphenols, carotenoids, vitamins C and E, dietary fibers and natural antioxidants (Ajila et al., 2007), whereas the kernels are sources of essential amino acids like lysine, valine and leucine (Abdalla et al., 2007), phenolic compounds, edible oils and high

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4 CH1 FOOD PROCESSING BY-PRODUCTS AND THEIR UTILIZATION: INTRODUCTION

amounts of unsaturated fatty acids. These wastes show huge potential to be used as valuable ingredients for the purpose of making functional foods. Mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana L) is a popular fruit of several Asian countries. However, the increasing consumption of this fruit has led to the generation of ample abandoned mangosteen pericarps. It has been reported that 10 kg of harvested mangosteens lead to the generation of about 6 kg of pericarps (Mohammad et al.,2014). These pericarps are woody in texture, comprising of bitter substances such as xan- thones, tannins and anthocyanins (Lim et al., 2013) that have medicinal properties and are being used as dietary supplements. The therapeutic benefits of these components include hypolipidemia, anti-inflammatory, anti-microbial and anti-carcinogenic properties (Zafra-Stone et al., 2007; Mishra et al., 2016). Another by-product from the processing of mangosteens is their seeds, which contain 21.18% oil (Ajayi et al., 2006) with essential and non-essential fatty acids. They have been reported to be safe for the heart and liver; hence they can be used as edible oils. The apple processing wastes are termed apple pomace, which makes up 25–35% of the total apple wastes (Dijlas et al., 2009). The apple pomace includes the peels, seeds, stems, core and the soft tissues. They are good sources of polyphenols, which are mainly present in the peels such as catechin, quercetin, hydroxycinnamates, chlorogenic acid and epicatechins (Mamma et al., 2009) and pectins, proteins and vitamins. However, they are mainly utilized in the production of pectins, which can be co-precipitated out from the apple pomace. These pectins demonstrate good gelling properties, even better than citrus pectins. Tomato is an important vegetable, with a world total production of 141 million k tonnes in 2009 (FAO, 2009). The major products produced using tomatoes are soups, k ketchup, juice and paste. Along with their high consumption, there is the generation of huge amounts of by-products and wastes accounting for 40% of the total fresh weight of the tomatoes. These include the seeds (33%), peels (27%) and the pulp (40%) (Encinar et al., 2008; Kaur et al., 2008). These wastes are good sources of proteins (35%) and fats (25%) (Anal et al., 2013a). In addition, they contain high amounts of unsaturated fatty acids due to which the tomato seed oil is used as edible oil. Lycopene, an important carotenoid, is also present in large amounts in tomato wastes. Carrot processing, for the production of carrot juice, generates wastes in the form of peels and pomace (Chantaro et al., 2008). These wastes make up 12% of the fresh carrot weight and comprises of several valuable compounds such as carotenes, uronic acids and sugars, which are generally discarded or used in feeds and fertilizers. These compounds have important beneficial properties and hence can be utilized for value addition. The carrot waste also contains huge amounts of fibers, including cellulose, hemicelluloses, lignin and pectin (Nawirska and Kewasniewska, 2005). Studies are being done to recover these fibers from the carrot waste residues, as they have been reported to have cholesterol-lowering effects that can protect against coronary heart diseases. Also, various attempts are being made to incorporate the valuable compounds from carrot wastes into the production of functional foods and beverages. The total world onion production in 2009 was reported to be 72 million tonnes (FAO, 2009). During the processing of onions, the major wastes that are generated are the peels and roots. They are a serious threat to environmental pollution, as they are not suitable for fodder because of their aroma or as fertilizers due to the fast development of phytogenetic agents, and also they contribute to toxicity in animals during digestion

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1.5 BY-PRODUCTS FROM THE MEAT AND POULTRY PROCESSING INDUSTRIES 5

(Bello et al., 2013). Hence, new applications need to be found for these wastes, which contain high amounts of polyphenols and dietary fibers. Cabbage is also a vegetable that has a high production yield; however, since it is consumed either in the raw form or the fresh form, wastes generated are very little. The main wastes are their outer leaves which are disposed off. These leaves can be used mainly for the production of biofuels by the anaerobic digestion process (Liu et al., 2006).

1.5 By-Products from the Meat and Poultry Processing Industries Meat and poultry processing generates a number of organic by-products like bones, blood, feathers, head etc. (Lasekan et al., 2013). The majority of these by-products are produced during the slaughtering process. The slaughterhouse waste comprises of the portion that cannot be utilized or sold as meat. This includes bones, skin, blood and internal organs (Lasekan, et al., 2013). Currently, these wastes are under-utilized, discarded and disposed of in landfills. However, they must be dealt with efficiently, as the growth of these industries mainly depends on the management of their by-products (Jayathilakan et al., 2012). The disposal of these wastes can also be difficult, due to their high water content, susceptibility to oxidation and changes caused by enzymatic activity that results in serious environmental pollution and hazards. Hence, it is essen- k tial to find applications for these wastes, which are becoming a serious environmental k issue. Blood is the first and most inevitable by-product of the meat and the poultry industries, which is a major problem due to its high pollutant load. However, blood comprises of a number of compounds that have potential value and is a good source of proteins which makes it an important edible by-product (Jayathilakan et al., 2012). Blood from a healthy animal is generally sterile. It will be approved for use in food products, if it has been obtained from bleeding a healthy animal. Due to an increasing trend in worldwide protein deficiency, usage of animal blood as a source of protein should be investigated and further extraction of bioactive peptides can be carried out to allow for large-scale utilization of the blood. A great amount of poultry feathers of about 1.8 million tones are generated every year in the form of wastes (Wang and Cao, 2012). These feathers are an important waste product and are used mainly as animal feed; however, research is being made into their new applications. Feathers are composed of 90% proteins with the main one being keratin (Wang and Cao, 2012). The remainder comprises of 1% lipids and 8% water. Keratins are the major structural proteins found in feathers and are characterized by high amounts of cysteine and hydroxyl amino acids such as serine. Bones are not usually consumed and have no value for the meat and poultry processing industries; hence they are discarded. Approximately 16–45 million tons of bones are discarded worldwide (Dong et al., 2014). They can also be utilized in feed products, as they comprise of proteins, calcium, essential minerals and lipids, which are useful for bodily function. Therefore, studies about comprehensive utilization of bones are required for developing an effective way to utilize the huge amount of bones as potential protein sources.

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6 CH1 FOOD PROCESSING BY-PRODUCTS AND THEIR UTILIZATION: INTRODUCTION

Skin is also an important and valuable by-product obtained from animals. Just like bones, the skin also contains huge amounts of proteins such as collagen. Gelatin is also one important protein that can be obtained after the hydrolysis of collagen under controlled conditions (Jayathilakan et al., 2012). Both of these proteins have been reported to have various functional and biological properties. Another product of the poultry industry, which is largely produced and consumed, is poultry eggs. Their high nutritional value and relative low cost has led to their increased production worldwide. According to the FAO, global egg production in 2012 was reported as 65 million tonnes (FAO, 2012), which includes all types of eggs, including hatching eggs. However, the egg processing industries generate huge amounts of wastes, of about 1.5 million tonnes annually, in the form of shell wastes (Wei et al., 2009), which are discarded and disposed of in landfills. This contributes to environmental pollution and hazards and loss of potential revenues. By-products of the egg-processing industries comprise of the eggshells and the eggshell membrane (ESM) that represents 11% of the total egg weight (Stadelman, 2000). The ESM mainly are a very good source of bioactive compounds such as proteins and polysaccharides, together with high amounts of polypeptides (Zhao and Chi, 2009; Jain and Anal, 2016). Collagen makes up 10% of the total proteins, whereas the rest (70–75%) comprises of the glycoproteins. Due to their high protein content, they can be used for production of proteins, and peptides from them can be used in a wide range of food and nutraceutical applications. k 1.6 Seafood Processing By-Products k Marine organisms are an important food source for many countries and contain value-added compounds such as lipids, amino acids, proteins and polysaccharides, which are crucial for human health. Industrial processing of these marine organisms leads to the generation of huge amounts of waste that are either discarded or used as fertilizers and fish meals. By-products from seafood processing include viscera, heads, backbones, skin, tail, blood and shells, which comprise of important bioactive compounds that can be used in pharmaceutical and nutraceutical applications (Anal et al., 2013b). Some of the valuable components that can be obtained from seafood processing are the bioactive peptides, proteins such as collagen, polyunsaturated fatty acids and chitin (Suresh and Prabhu, 2013). Collagen is a major protein obtained from seafood processing by-products, which are mainly obtained from the skin, bone, tendons etc. (Regenstein and Zhou, 2007). They have a wide range of applications, such as gel formation, water binding, formation of stable emulsions and formation of films (Gomez-Guillen et al., 2011). They are also a good source of bioactive peptides. Gelatin, another protein, can also be derived from collagen, which have many applications in food industries. They can be used as food additives for improving the texture and stability of food products such as meat, bakery goods etc. (Mariod and Fadul, 2013). They are also used in the pharmaceutical industries for making capsules and tablet coatings. Proteins from seafood by-products can be used to recover protein hydrolysates and peptides, by using various methods such as chemical hydrolysis, enzymatic hydrolysis, microbial fermentation, microwave and ultrasonic irradiation (Anal et al., 2013b). These protein hydrolysates and peptides possess strong biological activities such as antioxidant, antimicrobial and antihypertensive.

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REFERENCES 7

Marine fishes are mainly very good sources of polyunsaturated fatty acids suchas omega-3 fatty acids. The by-products of fish processing, such as viscera, stomach, liver etc. can be used to recover polyunsaturated fatty acids with nutraceutical and pharmaceutical applications (Analava et al., 2014). Fatty acids such as eicosapentenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexenoic acid (DHA) can be obtained by molecular distillation. These omega-3 fatty acids have remarkable health benefits, such as protective effects against cardiovascular diseases, nerve and brain disorders and anti-inflammatory effects in diseases like Crohn’s disease and kidney diseases. Processing of crustaceans, such as shrimp and crab, generate solid by-products from which chitin can be obtained. Chitin is a linear amino polysaccharide and the most abundant biopolymer (Tharanathan and Kittur, 2003). They can be extracted from the crustacean by-products by enzymatic methods and fermentation by lactic acid bacte- ria. They also have a wide range of biological applications such as in edible packing, as bio-preservatives, food additives and nutritional and functional ingredients.

1.7 By-Products from the Dairy Processing Industries The dairy industries are also major food processing industries that generate large amounts of by-products and waste during the manufacturing of various dairy food products and milk processing. These wastes contain high amounts of proteins, lipids, k vitamins etc. and their utilization for the purpose of value addition can greatly enhance k the profit of the dairy industries. Whey is a major by-product generated duringthe manufacturing of cheese, cottage cheese etc. which can be subdivided into rennet whey and acid whey. The whey comprises of high amounts of lactose and proteins. The whey proteins are composed of a number of proteins with a very high biological value, more than that of casein and soy proteins (Mandal et al., 2013). Lactose, on the other hand, can be used for the production of organic acids such as citric acid, gluconic acid and lactic acid by the process of microbial fermentation.

1.8 Conclusion The food processing industries will continue to grow throughout the world, along with the demands of the consumers. This will also result in the generation of huge quantities of by-products and wastes that are currently being under-utilized. However, due to the growing concerns regarding environmental conservation, intensive research needs to be carried out such that the food wastes can be utilized for the purpose of value addition and human consumption. This will lead to maximum benefits to the industries, environment and the consumers.

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Jayathilakan, K., Sultana, K., Radhakrishna, K. and Bawa, A.S. (2012) Utilization of by-products and waste materials from meat, poultry and fish processing industries: A review. Journal of Food Science and Technology, 49(3): 278–293. Kaur, D., Wani, A.A., Oberoi, D.P.S. and Sogi,D.S. (2008) Effect of extraction conditions on lycopene extractions from tomato processing waste skin using response surface method- ology. Food Chemistry, 108: 711–718. Khao, T.H. and Chen, B.H. (2013) Fruits and vegetables. In: Valorization of Food Process- ing By-Products, Chapter 18 (ed. M. Chandrasekaran). Taylor and Francis Group, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 517–557. Krishna, J.G. and Chandrasekaran, M. (2013) Cereals. In: Valorization of Food Processing By-Products, Chapter 12 (ed. M. Chandrasekaran). Taylor and Francis Group, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 303–330. Lasekan, A., Bakar, F.A.and Hashim, D. (2013) Potential of chicken by-products as sources of useful biological resources. Waste Management, 33: 552–565. Lim, Y.S., Lee, S.S.H. and Tan, B.C. (2013) Antioxidant capacity and antibacterial activity of different parts of mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana Linn) extracts. Fruits, 68(6): 484–489. Liu, D., Liu, D., Zeng, R.J. and Angelidaki, I. (2006) Hydrogen and methane production from household solid waste in the two-stage fermentation process. Water Resources, 40: 2230–2236. Mamma, D., Topakas, E., Vafiadi, C. and Christakopoulos, P. (2009) Biotechnological potential of fruit processing industry residues. In: Biotechnology for Agro-Industrial Residue Utilization, Chapter 14 (eds P.S. Nigam and A. Pandey). Springer Press, Hiedel- k k berg, pp. 273–291. Mandal, S., Puniya, M., Sangu, K.P.S., Dagar, S.S., Singh, R. and Puniya, A.K. (2013) Dairy By-Products: Wastes or resources. In: Valorization of Food Processing By-Products, Chapter 21 (ed. M. Chandrasekaran). Taylor and Francis Group, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 617–648. Manthey, J.A., Grohmann, K. and Guthrie, N. (2001) Biological properties of citrus flavanoids pertaining to cancer and inflammation. Current Medicinal Chemistry, 8(2): 135–153. Mariod, A.A. and Fadul, H. (2013) Review: Gelatin, source, extraction and industrial applications. ACTA Scientiarum Polonorum Technologia Alimentaria, 12(2): 135–147. Mishra, S., Kumar, M.S., Stanley H.R.C. and Anal, A.K. (2016) Modulation of digestive enzymes and lipoprotein metabolism by alpha mangosteen extracted from mangosteen (Garcinia Mangostana) fruit peels. Journal of Microbiology, Biotechnology and Food Sciences, 6(1): 717–721. Mohammad, M.A., Shitu, A., Tadda, M.A. and Ngabura, M. (2014) Utilization of various agricultural waste materials in the treatment of industrial wastewater containing heavy metals: A review. International Research Journal of Environmental Sciences, 3(3): 62–71. Mohapatra, D., Mishra, S. and Sutar, N. (2010) Banana and its by-product utilization: An overview. Journal of Scientific and Industrial Research, 69: 323–329. Mouly, P.P., Arzouyan, C.R., Gaydou, E.M. and Estienne, J.M. (1994) Differentiation of citrus juices by factorial discriminant analysis using liquid chromatography of flavones glycosides. Journal of Agricultural Food Chemistry, 42: 70–79. Nawirska, A. and Kwasniewska, M. (2005) Dietary fiber fractions from fruit and vegetable processing waste. Food Chemistry, 91: 221–225.

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Regenstein, J.M. and Zhou, P. (2007) Collagen and gelatin from marine by-products. In: Maximising the Value of Marine By-Products, 1st edition (ed. F Shahidi). Woodhead Publishing Ltd, Cambridge, pp. 279–303. Russ, W. and Pitroff, R. (2004) Utilizing waste products from the food production and processing industries. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 44(1): 57–62. Ryan, P.E. (2011) Bioactive food components and health properties of rice bran. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 238(5): 593–600. Stadelman, W.J. (2000) Eggs and egg products. In: Encylopaedia of Food Science and Tech- nology (ed. F.J. Francis). John Wiley & Sons, New York, pp. 593–599. Suresh, P.V. and Prabhu, N. (2013). Valorization of Food Processing By-Products (ed. M. Chandrasekaran). Taylor and Francis Group, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 687–736. Tchobanoglous, G., Theisen, H.M. and Vigil, S.A. (1993) Integrated Solid Waste Manage- ment: Engineering principals and management issues. McGraw Hill, New York, pp. 3–22. Tharanathan, R.N. and Kittur, F.S. (2003) Chitin – The undisputed biomolecules of great potential. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 43(1): 61–87. Wang, Y.X. and Cao, X.J. (2012) Extracting keratin from chicken feathers by using a hydrophobic ionic liquid. Process Biochemistry: 47: 896–899. Wei, Z., Xu, C. and Li, B. (2009) Application of waste eggshell as low-cost solid catalyst for biodiesel production. Bioresource Technology, 100(11): 2883–2885. Zafra-Stone, S., Yasmin, T., Bagchi, M., Chatterjee, A., Vinson, J.A. and Bagchi, D. (2007) Berry anthocyanins as novel antioxidants in human health and disease prevention. Molecular Nutrition Food Research, 51: 675–583. k Zhao, Y.H. and Chi, Y.J. (2009) Characterization of collagen from eggshell membrane. k Biotechnology, 8: 254–258.

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2 Fruit Processing By-Products: A Rich Source for Bioactive Compounds and Value Added Products

Medina-Meza Ilce Gabriela1 and Ganjyal Girish2 1Biosystems and Agricultural Engineering, Michigan State University, USA 2School of Food Science, Washington State University, USA

2.1 Introduction k k The expansion of fruit-processing worldwide has generated huge quantities of fruit wastes (Ayala-Zavala et al., 2011). Fruits are processed into various fruit-based products, such as juices, jams, jellies, concentrates, alcoholic beverages, vinegar etc. Fruit pomace, consisting of peel, seeds, core, stems and exhausted soft tissue, is the left-over solid biomass obtained as a by-product during the processing of fruits. In the tropics, fruits such as mango, pineapple, passion fruit and papaya contribute to higher fruit pomace generation and in the sub-tropics, mainly apples, grapes, oranges and berries generate higher processing by-products as pomace. The chemical composition of fruit pomace varies according to the type of fruit. Fruit pomace possesses a high phyto- chemical content that can be recovered for secondary food and non-food applications (Djilas et al., 2009). Currently, this is used as a cattle feed and the potential use of various fruit pomace as functional foods has been evaluated in various studies (Nawirska and Kwasniewska, 2005; Sun-Waterhouse, 2011). On the other hand, the negative concerns of the consumer versus synthetic products, has led to the possibility of using such by-products as an alternative source of natural antioxidants, especially considering the higher demand of additives to prevent lipid oxidation and oxidative rancidity in meat products, as well as to retard development of off-flavors, and to improve color stability. This chapter focuses on the presence of bioactive functional ingredients in fruit-processing by-products, mainly fruit pomaces, and presents an overview of their value-added qualities. In the first sections of this chapter, a brief and comprehensive view of the different bioactive compounds in fruit pomaces is presented. Then, several categories of agro-industry by-products are discussed, with a particular emphasis

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on their potential as sources of bioactive molecules. Finally, comments on future directions in the field are provided.

2.2 Phenolic Compounds as Functional foods Phenolic compounds, or polyphenols, constitute one of the largest and widely- distributed groups of phytochemicals. More than 8000 phenolic structures are known and among them around 4000 flavonoids have been identified (Tsao, 2010). Polyphenols are secondary metabolites that are derivatives of the pentose phosphate, shikimate and phenylpropanoid pathways in plants (Boudet, 2007; Tsao, 2010). They comprise a wide variety of molecules that have a polyphenol structure (i.e. several hydroxyl groups on aromatic rings), but also molecules with one phenol ring such as phenolic acids and phenolic alcohols. Phenolics have considerable physiological and morphological importance for plants; they play an important role in plant pigmentation, reproductions, UV-light protection, antioxidative and anti-feedant effects, as well as providing protection against pathogens and predators (Treutter, 2006). Currently, there is an enormous interest in this class of compounds, due to their capacity to improve public health through their intake, where preventative health care can be promoted through a diet rich in fruit and vegetables. Studies have shown that phenolic compounds exhibit an extensive range of physiological properties; they may prevent degenerative diseases, and cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases, as k well as some types of cancers (Tsao, 2010). Their potent antioxidants properties and k their effects in prevention of oxidative stress-associated diseases are also known (Scal- bert et al., 2005). Fruits, vegetables, whole grains, tea, chocolate and wine are rich sources of polyphenols and natural antioxidants. The most relevant groups of phenolic compounds for human health are phenolic acids, flavonoids, tannins, stilbenes and lignans. Generally, one or more sugar residues are linked to hydroxyl groups. These sugars can be present as monosaccharides, disaccharides or oligosaccharides (Bravo, 1998), and may also occur as functional derivatives such as esters and methyl esters (Harborne and Baxter, 1999).

2.2.1 Phenolic Acids Phenolic acids comprise about a one-third part of dietary phenols, which can be present in the plant kingdom as free and bounds forms (Robbins, 2003). Phenolic acids consist of two subgroups, i.e. the hydroxycinnamic acids and the hydroxybenzoic acids. Hydroxycinnamic acids include aromatic compounds with a three-carbon side

chain (C6–C3), with caffeic, ferullic, p-coumaric and sinapic acids being the most representatives. On the other hand, hydroxybenzoic acids are p-hydroxybenzoic acids, protocatechuic acids, and vanillic, syringic and gallic acids, the latter being

the most representative of this group, which have in common the C6–C1 structure (Bravo, 1998). While fruits and vegetables contain many free phenolic acids, in seeds and grains they are often presents in their bound form, especially in bran or hull (Shi et al., 2003). Bound phenolic acids can be released by alkaline or acid hydrolysis, or even by enzymatic catalysis.