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The Sogdian Caravan as Depicted in the Relieves of the Stone Sarcophagus from Shi’s Tomb of the

Rong

Key words: Sogdian sabao sarcophagus caravan

Following the excavations of tombs of Yu Hong 虞弘 and one of them is carrying a cargo pack on his shoulder. and An Jia 安伽, the tomb of Shi 史, the sabao 萨保 of A man is leading a horse laden with cargo, another man Liangzhou 凉州 under the Northern Zhou, provides a is resting on the ground as he tends to two laden . rich source of visual materials for the study of Sogdian Further behind are two donkeys laden with packs. The immigrants in . By referencing other written and upper scene must be a depiction of the sabao, the Sogdian visual materials, the present study is a brief analysis of caravan leader, paying homage to the the Sogdian caravan as seen in Shi’s stone sarcophagus. ( or Turks) chief, while the scene below depicts the caravan at rest. I. The Sogdian Caravan Depicted in Shi’s Similar scenes can be found on screens from other Stone Sarcophagus stone sarcophagi. For example, the stone slab numbered On the third scene of the west side of Shi’s stone sar- D from the stone panels in the Miho Museum collection cophagus (W3, Fig. 1) is a depiction of a Sogdian chief (Fig. 3) depicts foreigners leading camels laden with hunting in the forest above and a caravan procession large packs, accompanied by one foreigner to the right below. Leading the caravan are two equestrian male and another behind. Below are three mounted figures, one with a quiver hanging from his belt. Be- (Hephthalites or Turks) with loosely hanging hair. Re- hind them are two camels laden with merchandise, and covered from Yidu 益都, 山东, is a set of at the rear is an equestrian male figure wearing a boat- screens from another stone panels in which a “ shaped hat, peering through a looking glass held in his caravan” scene is also depicted (Fig. 4). A servant with right hand. To the right of the two camels are two horses deep-set eyes and prominent nose is leading a camel and and a donkey with a cargo pack driven forward by a a fine horse, his master’s mount, to the right. The camel man cracking his whip. is carrying bundles of woven fabric and a dangling wa- Next to this scene around the corner is the first scene ter flask. At the top of the fifth scene on the left screen on the north side of the stone sarcophagus (N1, Fig. 2). of An Jia’s stone platform are two figures seated on the A man is sitting with his legs folded under his body in- floor inside a round tiger-skin tent; the left one wearing side a tent. He wears a jeweled crown, full-length tunic a cap is the Sogdian sabao, the right one with loosely with collar and narrow sleeves, knife dangling from a hanging hair is the Turkic chief. Outside the tent are belt at his waist, and he is holding an elongated cup in four attendants. Below are three foreigners dressed in his right hand. In front of the tent is an oval rug on full-length fitted tunics; one is carrying a backpack, the which kneels an elderly man wearing a felt hat, full- other an ewer, and behind them are two donkeys haul- length tunic with collar and narrow sleeves, knife hang- ing packs and a single-hump camel with a towering load ing from his belt; holding an elongated cup in his right kneeling in resting position. This composition of stack- hand, he is drinking with the man inside the tent. Flank- ing one scene above another is very similar to that on ing the tent are three attendants. Below is a scene of a the first scene on the north panel of Shi’s stone caravan at rest. At the center are two conversing men, sarcophagus. The upper scene shows the Sogdian sabao

Volume 6 181 Fig. 1 The caravan procession on Shi’s stone sarcophagus Fig. 2 The caravan procession on Shi’s stone sarcophagus paying a visit to the nomadic chief, the lower scene shows figure represents a typical constituent of a caravan. Other the accompanying caravan at rest. surviving evidence helps us to estimate the average size If the representations of caravans in tombs of Sogdian of a Sogdian caravan. For example, Chapter 50 of His- leaders are compared with those found in their Sogdian tory of Zhou 周书 says: In 553, the governor of homeland, their significance would become immediately Liangzhou of the attacked the apparent. Professor F. Grenet, who has been conduct- 吐谷浑 envoy returning from the and took ing archaeological excavations on Sogdian soil in re- hostage over two hundred and forty foreign merchants, cent years, says: “In the whole of Sogdian there is six hundred camels, tens of thousands of in myriad not a single caravan, not a single ship.” Accordingly colors. This suggests the impressive size of the caravan. the pictorial representation from Shi’s stone sarcopha- Buddhist texts contain many stories of five hundred gus offers us an excellent perspective from which to un- merchants led by sabao (merchant leader) traveling derstand the Sogdian caravan. abroad for trade. These events originally reflect the con- ditions of Indian merchants traveling abroad, but in the II. Several Issues Concerning the Sogdian murals of rock-cut caves of Kizil and 敦煌, Caravan they are transformed into depictions of Sogdian caravans. 1. The size of the caravan It is reasonable to assume that, given the large amount Only a few figures are shown in the caravan depic- of gold, silver, treasures and riches carried by the Sogdian tions from Shi’s stone sarcophagus and from other ex- caravan, only relatively large groups would have dared amples elsewhere. This is perhaps due to the limitation to traverse the desolate terrain. With more people, there of the given pictorial space. In these very dense compo- is a relatively better chance of warding off bandits or sitions the number of people may be limited, but every even the attack of enemy troops, as indicated by the

182 Chinese Archaeology Fig. 3 The caravan procession on the stone screen collected in the Fig. 4 Rubbing of the caravan procession on the stone screen from Art Gallery of Miho Yidu

Western Wei army’s attack of the Sogdian caravan from guards for Sogdian caravans; in pictorial representation, Tuyuhun mentioned above. The foreign merchants’ they are usually shown riding horses on the periphery of encounters with bandits are also frequently depicted in the caravan. the Dunhuang murals. The practice of assembling multiple ethnicities into 2. Ethnic composition of the caravan caravans continued through the . Accord- As depictions of caravans are found mostly in the ing to the document recovered in Turfan, entitled “The tombs of Sogdian leaders who have already settled in entry petition of Kang Weiyiluoshi and others in the first China, we call them Sogdian caravans. But this does year of the Chuigong era (AD 685) of the Tang,” two not mean that every member of the caravan is of Sogdian caravans with Sogdians and Tokharians respectively pe- ethnicity. In fact, during the Middle Ages, the ethnic titioned for entry at the Tang Office in the Xi composition of the Sogdian caravans that traversed the for the purpose of “promoting trade to the east.” The Xi Road is very complex. Images from Shi’s sarcopha- Prefecture regrouped them into two caravans, one of gus show people wearing different costumes; while their which had a Sogdian caravan leader from , ethnicity cannot be firmly determined, they seem to have with other participants from Tokharistan, Samarkand, come from more than one ethnic group. The Miho im- Kushanika, Kaputana, Bukhara; there were probably also ages indicate that, besides Sogdian foreigners, there are Türks. also Hephthalites and Türks with loosely hanging hair. 3. Constituency of the caravan The nomadic confederacies were in fact the protectors The sabao, the leader of the Sogdian caravan, was of the Sogdians who traveled from west to east for trade, usually a Sogdian. This is clearly confirmed by the and it is possible that some of the nomads served as names of sabao stated in tomb epitaphs. Visual evi-

Volume 6 183 dence from An Jia also shows that the portrait of a sabao vehicles used by the Sogdian caravan. The caravan donning a cap is present in almost every scene. In simi- beasts recorded in the“The entry petition of Kang lar scenes from Shi’s stone sarcophagus, the elderly fig- Weiyiluoshi and others”consist of one horse, two ure with long beard wearing a felt hat must be the sabao camels, twenty-six donkeys. The chapter “Tuyuhun of the Sogdian caravan; sitting outside the felt tent, he is Zhuan”(Record of the Tuyuhun) of the Zhou Shu 周书 conversing with the person inside the tent. As for the (History of Zhou) states that the Tuyuhun envoys and caravan procession on the west side, the bearded male caravans had six hundred camels and mules. figure donning a boat-shaped hat, holding a viewing tube Did the Sogdian caravan use oxen as beasts of burden? and riding a horse in the middle of the caravan must be An Jia’s depictions include the carved relief of an ox a type of lower ranking leader serving under the sabao, pulling a large-wheeled wooden cart, suggesting that caravan leader. oxen were used to pull vehicles for the Sogdian Other members of the caravan were mainly young merchants. In the Kizil murals from Caves 38 and 114, adult males. According to the“ Xirong Zhuan”(Record Central Asian merchants are shown using oxen as beasts of Western Barbarians) in the Jiu Tang Shu (Former of burden, not as draught animals for pulling carts. A History of the Tang) 旧唐书·西戎传, fascicle 198, as Turfan document dated 733 records that a Sogdian mer- soon as a Sogdian male reaches the age of twenty, he chant Shi Jisi 史计思 and others traveled from Beiting would begin to travel to neighboring countries and to 北庭 (modern Jimsar) to Xizhou 西州 (Xi Prefecture, China for trade, going wherever there is profit to be made. modern Turfan) for trade, and the beasts they brought As quoted above, in the document “The entry petition along included two hundred sheep, seven oxen, two of Kang Weiyiluoshi and others in the first year of the donkeys, one horse, further confirming that oxen were Chuigong era (AD 685) of the Tang,” most of the mer- among the vehicles used in the caravan. chants mentioned were mature adults over thirty years While the animals for transportation were mainly used of age. The oldest among them was fifty-five year old as beasts of burden, horses usually served as mounts for Kang Hecha 康纥槎 who was traveling together with his humans. Camels usually carried larger loads or tents two sons. We also find that the representations of Sogdian and equipment, while donkeys, mules and oxen carried caravans from Shi, An Jia, Miho, etc. They suggest that smaller loads, although oxen usually pulled carts. most of the caravan traders were young adult males. Among these beasts, undoubtedly the stately camel had Did women travel along with the caravan? The cara- the most exotic appeal. For this reason, during the North- van representations mentioned above show no images ern Dynasties, depictions of foreigners leading camels of women, indicating that women probably did not travel became the favorite subject in Northern Dynasties ce- along initially. Once the Sogdian caravan established a ramic or tricolor-glaze figurines, and large quantities of new immigrant community however, they probably these wares have been found in tombs from this period. joined them later. 5. The mode of travel of the caravan Furthermore, there were also retainers and slaves in The stone sarcophagus images from Shi, An Jia and the Sogdian caravan. Retainers were laborers with low others also shed light on the Sogdian caravan’s mode of social status, and their main tasks would involve run- travel. ning errands and serving as guards, etc. Those with the During the Medieval Age, bandits frequented sections lowest status would be the slaves. In the eyes of the of the . In order to ward off bandits and the Sogdian merchants, they must have been the equivalent attacks of enemy troops, most Sogdian caravans were of slaves in the eyes of the Tang Dynasty populace; like protected by armed guards. The images from Shi’s stone animals, they were basically commodities. sarcophagus indicate that the leading figure with quiver 4. Beasts–vehicles of the caravan hanging from his belt is looking far ahead, unlike others In the caravan representations from Shi’s stone who have to tend to the animals. This figure must be an sarcophagus, we can see that the caravan mainly used armed guard. Those who filled the role of guards were camels, horses, and donkeys as vehicles. Caravan im- nomads with loosely hanging hair. On the other hand, ages from An Jia, Yidu, Miho, etc. indicate that these according to the Turfan documents, Sogdians filled the three types of animals served as beasts of burden or as role of guards. mounts for humans; this accords with the depictions in Even with the protection of armed guards, Sogdian the Dunhuang murals, indicating that they were the main merchants were still vulnerable to dangers on the road,

184 Chinese Archaeology as illustrated in the well-known depiction of bandits at- to Turkic chiefs and various local officials as tribute gifts. tacking foreign merchants in Dunhuang Mogaoku 莫高 At the same time, this would also be a method for ac- 窟 Cave 45. The merchants must surrender their cargo quiring merchandise; after treatment, these hunted goods to the bandits in order to plead for their lives. The best could be turned into prized commodities in the market. way to cope with such emergency situations would be This would explain why we often find more than one the detection of trouble in advance. For the first time in depiction of hunting in the tombs of Sogdian leaders. Shi’s depictions, we see a figure like a Sogdian caravan Between the early fourth and the mid-eighth centuries, leader scanning the far distance with his viewing tube Sogdian caravans were the most active commercial en- held in his hand. Undoubtedly this is the best method to tities in the Eurasian continent. When Sogdian mer- avoid trouble. chants took to the road, they had to ascertain the protec- On the north side of Shi’s stone sarcophagus is a scene tion of the northern nomadic chiefs on the one hand, of a caravan at rest, suggesting that the Sogdian caravan and on the other, they needed to procure the approval of often had to rest or camp overnight in the open the Chinese central government and local officials in wilderness. They were selective about the location for order to conduct trade and receive entry permits, as re- resting or camping. A set procedure for camping was flected in the Turfan documents concerning the entry also used by the caravan. For example, in the chapter petition of Sogdian merchants. Furthermore, Sogdian on Xuan Zang 玄奘传 (Biography of ) of the merchants also needed the protection of their gods. As Seng Zhuan 续高僧传 (Continuing Biographies the images of their Zoroastrian gods would be placed in of Eminent Monks), states that while Xuan Zang was bags, we do not find Zoroastrian deities in the depic- traveling with merchants from Shule 疏勒 (present tions of caravan processions. ) to Juqu 沮渠 (present Yarkand),“ his five hun- Reference Works dred companions elected Xuan Zang to be the chief mer- chant (that is the chief sabao) who would set up the - 1. Tang Changru 唐长孺 ed. (1996). Tulufan Chutu tral tent and post guards in the four directions,” indicat- Wenshu 吐鲁番出土文书 (Documents unearthed from ing that during camp, the four directions had to be Turfan) vols. 3 and 4. : Wenwu Chubanshe 文物 guarded, and that several tents were set up with the mer- 出版社. chant leader occupying the central one, probably because 2. Shandong Yidu Xian Bowuguan 山东省益都县 he would be in a better position to give orders in ward- 博物馆 (1985).“ Yidu Beiqi shishimu xianke huaxiang ing off enemies. 益都北齐石室墓线刻画像”(Line Paintings of the The lower scene on the west side of Shi’s stone sar- Northern Qi Period Stone Chambered Tombs at Yidu). cophagus shows the caravan procession with a hunting Wenwu 文物 1985.10. scene above. The association of a caravan procession 3. Sheng Kaogu Yanjiusuo 山西省考古研究 and a hunting scene is not a coincidence. If the Sogdian 所, shi Jinyuan Wenwu Luyouju 太原市晋源 caravan is a large one, it could not have proceeded at a 文物旅游局 (2001). “Taiyuan Suidai Yu Hong mu fast pace, and the duration between reaching one oasis qingli jianbao 太原隋代虞弘墓清理简报” (A Prelimi- and another would have been relatively long. Besides nary Report on the Sui Period Yu Hong’s Tomb in bringing along some dried food they probably had to Taiyuan). Wenwu 2001.1. search for other sources of food for nourishment on the 4. Sheng Kaogu Yanjiusuo 陕西省考古研 road, and hunting was undoubtedly the best method. Of 究所 (2003). Xi’an Beizhou An Jia Mu 西安北周安伽 course, for the Sogdian caravan, hunting means more 墓 (The Northern Zhou Period An Jia’s Tomb in Xi’an). than just hunting for food; they could also be hunting Beijing: Wenwu Chubanshe. for various animals or game meat that could be offered

Note: The original paper, published in Wenwu 2005.3: 47–56, with six illustrations, is written by Rong Xinjiang 荣 新江. This summary is prepared by the original author and English-translated by Judy Chungwa Ho.

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