Part II: Historical developments in Sogdiana, western and northern China between the 3rd and 10th century AD 09 History of Sogdiana 09 Sogdiana as an Achaemenid satrapy 09 Sogdiana after the conquest by Alexander the Great 09 Sogdiana under Kushan rule 10 Sassanid Persians and Hephthalites in Sogdiana 10 Sogdiana as part of the Turkish khaganate 10 Sogdiana under Umayyad and Abbasid rule 10 History of the Western Regions 11 The 36 States of the Western Regions and their relations with Han-China 11 The Kingdom of Khotan (Yutian) 13 The Kingdom of Shanshan (Loulan) 15 Sogdians in Loulan 15 The Cheshi Kingdom 17 Sogdians in the Turfan region 13 The Tubo and their relations with the Tang Empire 19 History of northern China 19 The end of the Han dynasty and the process of political fragmentation 19 The Northern Wei dynasty 20 The Northern Zhou and Northern Qi dynasties 20 Unification under the Sui dynasty 21 The Tang Empire 21 Sogdians in China 22 Sino-Sogdian relations 22 Sogdians as merchants in China 23 Perception of Sogdians as foreigners in China 24 The sabao office 24 Sogdians as translators 25 Sogdians as entertainers 25 Sogdian language and script 25 Zoroastrianism - The religion of the Sogdians 26 Origin and iconographical representation of Sogdian deities 26 Zoroastrianism in China 27 Zoroastrian relics 27 Zoroastrian burial practices 27 Ossuaries 28 Part III: Archaeological artefacts from China related to Sogdians 29 Tomb complexes 29 Gouxi cemetery (Kang family cemetery, M22 and M28) 29 Tomb construction 29 Burial furniture and customs 29 Burial objects 30 Badamu cemetery (Kang family cemetery - M209 and M252) 30 Tomb construction 30 Burial furniture and burial customs 30 Burial objects 30 Tomb with mural paintings from Loulan 31 Mural paintings 31 Conclusion 33 The Shi family cemetery (Guyuan, Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region) 33 The tomb of Shi Shewu 34 Tomb construction 34 Murals 34 Excavated relics 35 Epitaph base and cover 35 The tomb of Shi Daoluo and Lady Kang 36 Tomb construction 33 Excavated relics 37 The tomb owner and his wife 33 The tomb of Shi Suoyan and An Niang 38 Tomb Construction 33 Mural Paintings 33 Excavated relics 33 Carvings on the tomb door and lintel 39 Two epitaph bases and covers 39 The tomb of Shi Hedan and Lady Zhang 39 Excavated relics 40 The carvings on the stone door 40 Epitaph base and cover 4 7 The tomb of Shi Tiebang 41 Epitaph base and cover 42 The tomb of Shi Daode 42 Excavated relics 42 Epitaph base and cover 43 The tomb of Liang Yuanzhen 43 Murals 43 Epitaph base and cover 44 Tomb87M1 45 Tomb 82M2 45 Discussion 45 The He family cemetery (Yanchi, Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region) 46 Tomb construction 47 Burial objects and funerary customs 47 The Northern Zhou-Sui stone funerary couch from Tianshui, Gansu 47 The excavation of the tomb 47 The stone funerary couch 48 Further burial objects 52 Discussion 53 Conclusion 54 The Northern Zhou dynasty tomb of An Jia 54 Excavation process and tomb construction 55 Excavated relics 56 Bronze belt 56 Epitaph base and cover 56 Stone lunette with pictorial relief 56 Screened stone funerary couch 57 Discussion 63 The Northern Zhou dynasty tomb of Shi Jun 65 Tomb construction 65 Excavated relics 66 Bilingual stone inscription 66 House-shaped stone sarcophagus qj Discussion 74 Reading-direction of the stone slabs 74 The Northern Zhou dynasty tomb of Kang Ye 77 Discovery and excavation of the Kang Ye tomb 77 Tomb construction 77 Burial inscription 78 Screened stone funerary couch 78 Discussion 81 The Northern Zhou dynasty tomb of Li Dan 83 Tomb construction 83 Stone coffin 84 Epitaph stone and cover 86 Conclusion 87 The Sui dynasty tomb of Yu Hong 87 Tomb construction 88 Excavated relics 88 Stone figurines gg Stone lamp gg Kaiyuan Tongbao coins gg Two epitaph stones gg Marble sarcophagus gg Discussion 95 Analysis of the skeletal remains 95 The Northern Qi stone slabs from Qingzhou (formerYidu County) 96 Nine stone slabs 96 Discussion gg The Tang dynasty tomb of An Pu 99 Tomb construction 99 Burial furniture and customs 99 Excavated objects 1 qo Epitaph inscription -jOO Ossuary finds in Xinjiang 101 Mazabitam site at Kucha 101 Tuyugou site at Turfan 101 Jimsar 102 Ossuary from the Palace Museum, Beijing 102 Objects without archaeological context held in China 102 The stone funerary couch base from the Sui dynasty tomb of An Bei 102 Epitaph inscription 106 Objects held outside China 107 Northern Qi stone funerary couch from the Miho Museum, Japan 107 Pictorial programme 107 Two gateposts 113 Discussion 114 Different ethnic groups represented on the Miho couch 114 Northern Qi stone funerary couch from Zhangdefu, Anyang 114 The pictorial programme on the stone reliefs 115 Two miniature gateposts (Fig. 95) 118 The funerary couch base (Fig. 96.1) 119 Two cornice stones (Fig. 96.2-4) 119 Discussion 119 Three stone funerary couch bases without archaeological contexts 121 Two funerary couch bases from the Shelby White and Leon Levy Collection, New York City 122 Funerary couch I 122 Funerary couch II 123 Conclusion 124 A Northern Qi funerary couch base in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London 124

Part IV: Discussion 127 Chronological and spatial order of the find material related to Sogdians in China 127 Funerary furniture and burial customs in tombs related to Sogdians in China 128 Ossuary 128 Stone funerary couch 128 Sarcophagus in the shape of a traditional Chinese house 132 Funerary platform with/without a wooden coffin 134 Coffin 135 Summary 135 Themes, scenes, and motifs depicted on stone reliefs related to Sogdians in China 137 Pictorial composition 138 The hunt 141 The banquet 149 Music and dance 157

Part V: Conclusion 167 Archaeological find material related to Sogdians in China 167 Burial customs of Sogdians in China 167 The life of Sogdians in China 169

Appendix 171 Literature 171 Chinese Chronology from Han to Tang 191 Figure captions 211 Figure references 215 Figures 219