DOCSLIB.ORG

The Special Status of Turfan

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
The Special Status of Turfan SINO-PLATONIC PAPERS Number 186 March, 2009 The Special Status of Turfan by Doug Hitch Victor H. Mair, Editor Sino-Platonic Papers Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations University of Pennsylvania Philadelphia, PA 19104-6305 USA [email protected] www.sino-platonic.org SINO-PLATONIC PAPERS is an occasional series edited by Victor H. Mair. The purpose of the series is to make available to specialists and the interested public the results of research that, because of its unconventional or controversial nature, might otherwise go unpublished. The editor actively encourages younger, not yet well established, scholars and independent authors to submit manuscripts for consideration. Contributions in any of the major scholarly languages of the world, including Romanized Modern Standard Mandarin (MSM) and Japanese, are acceptable. In special circumstances, papers written in one of the Sinitic topolects (fangyan) may be considered for publication. Although the chief focus of Sino-Platonic Papers is on the intercultural relations of China with other peoples, challenging and creative studies on a wide variety of philological subjects will be entertained. This series is not the place for safe, sober, and stodgy presentations. Sino-Platonic Papers prefers lively work that, while taking reasonable risks to advance the field, capitalizes on brilliant new insights into the development of civilization. The only style-sheet we honor is that of consistency. Where possible, we prefer the usages of the Journal of Asian Studies. Sinographs (hanzi, also called tetragraphs [fangkuaizi]) and other unusual symbols should be kept to an absolute minimum. Sino-Platonic Papers emphasizes substance over form. Submissions are regularly sent out to be refereed and extensive editorial suggestions for revision may be offered. Manuscripts should be double-spaced with wide margins and submitted in duplicate. A set of "Instructions for Authors" may be obtained by contacting the editor. Ideally, the final draft should be a neat, clear camera-ready copy with high black- and-white contrast. Sino-Platonic Papers is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution- NonCommercial-NoDerivs 2.5 License. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/2.5/ or send a letter to Creative Commons, 543 Howard Street, 5th Floor, San Francisco, California, 94105, USA. Please note: When the editor goes on an expedition or research trip, all operations (including filling orders) may temporarily cease for up to two or three months at a time. In such circumstances, those who wish to purchase various issues of SPP are requested to wait patiently until he returns. If issues are urgently needed while the editor is away, they may be requested through Interlibrary Loan. N.B.: Beginning with issue no. 171, Sino-Platonic Papers has been published electronically on the Web. Issues from no. 1 to no. 170, however, will continue to be sold as paper copies until our stock runs out, after which they too will be made available on the Web at www.sino-platonic.org. _______________________________________________ Doug Hitch, “The Special Status of Turfan,” Sino-Platonic Papers, 186 (March, 2009) Table of Contents PHILOLOGICAL BOUNTY...................................................................................................1 RELIGIOUS AND ARTISTIC DIVERSITY ...............................................................................2 OTHER TARIM SITES ........................................................................................................3 ORIGINAL MEDIEVAL TURFANIAN LANGUAGE? ................................................................3 Kucha and Kuchean.....................................................................................................3 Khotan and Khotanese.................................................................................................4 Tumshuq and Tumshuqese ..........................................................................................4 Kroraina/Loulan..........................................................................................................5 Kashgar and Yarkand ..................................................................................................5 Turfan, Qarashahr and Tocharian A.............................................................................7 KAREZ .............................................................................................................................8 THE HYPOTHESIS .............................................................................................................9 ADMINISTRATIVE EVIDENCE ..........................................................................................11 Tarim Legal Traditions..............................................................................................11 Kushan Tarim Control...............................................................................................12 Loanword Evidence for Kushan Tarim Control .........................................................16 Bactrian Administrative Terms in the Tarim Languages ........................................17 Prakrit Administrative Terms in the Tarim Languages...........................................19 Contract Structure Evidence for Kushan Tarim Control.............................................20 Prakrit Contracts....................................................................................................20 Khotanese Contracts..............................................................................................23 Tumshuqese Contracts...........................................................................................24 Uyghur Contracts from Yarkand............................................................................28 Uyghur Contracts from Turfan...............................................................................30 Bactrian Contracts ................................................................................................. 32 The Contract Evidence, Summary..........................................................................36 HISTORICAL EVIDENCE ..................................................................................................37 Names for the Turfan Region in the Chinese Annals..................................................37 SHIMAZAKI on the Nomadic Jushi..............................................................................37 Ancient and Modern Populations...............................................................................39 Han to Tang Turfan Population Growth.....................................................................40 Stein Summary..........................................................................................................41 Stein on Late Islamization .........................................................................................44 ENVIRONMENTAL EVIDENCE ..........................................................................................44 Climate Change.........................................................................................................44 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION .........................................................................................48 REFERENCES ..................................................................................................................52 i The Special Status of Turfan1 Doug Hitch Whitehorse, Yukon, Canada PHILOLOGICAL BOUNTY More than twenty languages are represented in the medieval documents found in Turfan, mostly in the early years of the twentieth century. Perhaps no other archeological area has offered up such linguistic bounty. Identified languages include Old Turkic, Chinese, Sanskrit, Sogdian, Middle Persian, New Persian, Parthian, Tibetan, Mongolian, Prakrit, Tumshuqese, Tocharian A and B, Bactrian, Khotanese, Hebrew, Syriac, Arabic, Tangut, Greek and Khitan. In addition there are at least twenty scripts attested with most languages attested in more than one. For instance, Old Turkic is found in the Brāhmī, Manichean, Sogdian, Uyghur, Nestorian (Syriac), Tibetan, Runiform, Arabic and ‘Phags- pa scripts.2 For many of these languages, the documents are the oldest known samples on perishable materials. For some of these languages, the Turfan documents supply much of the information we have on them. The materials are highly valuable to several philological fields. 1 Based on a talk “More than Twenty Languages in the Medieval Turfan Silk Road Oasis. What Made It So Special?” given 20 August 2008, at the Munk Centre, University of Toronto, sponsored by Central Asian Studies and Linguistics. In the course of subsequent research, assistance was kindly lent through email by Dieter Maue, John E. Hill, Marcel Erdal, Stefan Baums, Richard Salomon, Rajeshwari Ghose, Grant Zazula, LIN Meicun, and Chris Beckwith, none of whom is responsible for my failings. The available Unicode composite characters have been used when writing special characters, with the effect that some diacritics may not conform to traditional practice, but in every case unambiguous and readily identifiable symbols are used. 2 Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities, Turfan Studies, p. 9. DougDoug Hitch, “TheHitch, Special Status“The of Turfan,” Special Status of Turfan,” SinoSino-Platonic-Platonic Papers Papers, , 186186 (March, (M 2009)arch, 2008) RELIGIOUS AND ARTISTIC DIVERSITY But Turfan is special in other ways as well.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • The Silk Roads: an ICOMOS Thematic Study
    The Silk Roads: an ICOMOS Thematic Study by Tim Williams on behalf of ICOMOS 2014 The Silk Roads An ICOMOS Thematic Study by Tim Williams on behalf of ICOMOS 2014 International Council of Monuments and Sites 11 rue du Séminaire de Conflans 94220 Charenton-le-Pont FRANCE ISBN 978-2-918086-12-3 © ICOMOS All rights reserved Contents STATES PARTIES COVERED BY THIS STUDY ......................................................................... X ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ..................................................................................................... XI 1 CONTEXT FOR THIS THEMATIC STUDY ........................................................................ 1 1.1 The purpose of the study ......................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Background to this study ......................................................................................................... 2 1.2.1 Global Strategy ................................................................................................................................ 2 1.2.2 Cultural routes ................................................................................................................................. 2 1.2.3 Serial transnational World Heritage nominations of the Silk Roads .................................................. 3 1.2.4 Ittingen expert meeting 2010 ........................................................................................................... 3 2 THE SILK ROADS: BACKGROUND, DEFINITIONS
    [Show full text]
  • "Pre-Severan Diplomata and the Problem of 'Special Grants."' In
    DuSaniC, Slobodan. "Pre-Severan Diplomata and the Problem of 'Special Grants."' In Heer und Integrationspolitik: Die Romischen Militardiplome als historische Quelle, edited by Werner Eck and Hartmut Wolff, 190-240. Koln: Bohlau, 1986. HEER UND INTEGRATIONSPOLITIK Die romischen Militardiplome als historische Quelle herausgegeben von WERNER ECK und HARTMUT WOLFF 1986 BOHLAU VERLAG KOLNWIEN The Problem of 'Special Grants' 191 ly (the exclusion of candidates from the provincial forces) and statisti- cally, and certainly appears more difficult to assess from the stand- point of the radical conception5. The following argumentation is Pre-Severan Diplomata and the Problem centred around the salient points of the radical theory susceptible of of 'Special Grants' modification or improvement when one considers how they have been treated in recent scholarship. Many remaining details will be Von dealt with subsequently, in other places. Slobodan DuSaniC (1) The fundamental difficulty with the (so-called) traditional thesis6,which takes the 'normal' diploma as an automatic reward for every man having spent, in major non-legionary troops, the pre- This paper has been written' in the conviction that the (so-called) scribed term of service (XXV plurave stipendia for the auxiliaries, radical theory, which "postulates that virtually all the constitutions/ XXVI [XXVIIAplurave stipendia for the sailors), arises from the indi- diplomata name only those units/soldiers possessing extraordinary cations that the material known so far (CIL XVI + RMD I + RMD 11) meritu2(mainly participants in expeditiones belli but also in certain markedly deviates from the numbers to be expected in view of the peacetime efforts3 matching, in importance, such expeditions), pro- effectives of certain units, classes of soldiers and provincial armies vides the most economical basis for interpreting the extremely com- plex features of the diplomata militaria as a documentary genre.
    [Show full text]
  • A Brief Introduction of History and Religious Beliefs of Ancient City Gaochang in Western Regions
    World Journal of Islamic History and Civilization, 4 (4): 125-129, 2014 ISSN 2225-0883 © IDOSI Publications, 2014 DOI: 10.5829/idosi.wjihc.2014.4.4.442 A Brief Introduction of History and Religious Beliefs of Ancient City Gaochang in Western Regions 12Zhu Guoxiang and Sun Xiaobin 1School of Ethnology and Sociology, Guizhou Minzu University, Guiyang, Guizhou, China, 550025 2International Cultural Exchange Center, Chinese State Bureau of Cultural Relics, Beijing, China 100081 Abstract: The ancient Gaochang’s four different periods of history was told and then in every historical stage of religious belief situation also made a general list. The Buddhism was the dominant religion, while other religions were believed by the residents in Gaochang at the same time. This belief situation was advocated by the Gaochang’s ruling class and its special geographical location, which made Gaochang the place with different religious culture. Key words: Gaochang History Religions Belief China INTRODCTION Xinjiang officially incorporated into the domain of the Chinese territory. In the 48 B.C, because of the fertile soil Gaochang, built in the 1st Century BC the Han in Jiaohe and its the important position, the government Dynasty, was one of the world's religious cultural sent officials and built barracks in Jiaohe and at the treasure. Gaochang was an important site along the Silk same time set troops in Jiaohe, Gaochang. As for the Road. Gaochang played a key role as a transportation explanation of its name, there is an saying in The Book of hub in western China and it was also one of the ancient Wei Dynasty-GaochangHistor, “Because the terrain was Xinjiang's political, cultural and educational centers.
    [Show full text]
  • Roman Conquest, Occupation and Settlement of Wales AD 47–410
    no nonsense Roman Conquest, Occupation and Settlement of Wales AD 47–410 – interpretation ltd interpretation Contract number 1446 May 2011 no nonsense–interpretation ltd 27 Lyth Hill Road Bayston Hill Shrewsbury SY3 0EW www.nononsense-interpretation.co.uk Cadw would like to thank Richard Brewer, Research Keeper of Roman Archaeology, Amgueddfa Cymru – National Museum Wales, for his insight, help and support throughout the writing of this plan. Roman Conquest, Occupation and Settlement of Wales AD 47-410 Cadw 2011 no nonsense-interpretation ltd 2 Contents 1. Roman conquest, occupation and settlement of Wales AD 47410 .............................................. 5 1.1 Relationship to other plans under the HTP............................................................................. 5 1.2 Linking our Roman assets ....................................................................................................... 6 1.3 Sites not in Wales .................................................................................................................... 9 1.4 Criteria for the selection of sites in this plan .......................................................................... 9 2. Why read this plan? ...................................................................................................................... 10 2.1 Aim what we want to achieve ........................................................................................... 10 2.2 Objectives.............................................................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • Forced Labour in East Turkestan: State-Sanctioned Hashar System
    FORCED LABOUR IN EAST TURKESTAN: State -Sanctioned Hashar System World Uyghur Congress | November 2016 WUC Headquarters: P.O. Box 310312 80103 Munich, Germany Tel: +49 89 5432 1999 Fax: +49 89 5434 9789 Email: [email protected] Web Address: www.uyghurcongress.org Copyright © 2016 World Uyghur Congress All rights reserved. The World Uyghur Congress (WUC) is a n international organization that represents the collective interests of the Uyghur people in both East Turkestan and abroad. The principle objective of the WUC is to promote democracy, human rights and freedom for the Uyghur people and use peaceful, nonviolent and democratic means to determine their future. Acting as the sole legitimate organization of the Uyghur people in both East Turkestan and abroad, WUC endeavors to set out a course for the peaceful settlement of the East Turkestan Question through dialogue and negotiation. The WUC supports a nonviolent and peaceful opposition movement against Chinese occupation of East Turkestan and an unconditional adherence to internationally recognized human rights standards as laid down in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. It adheres to the principles of democratic pluralism and rejects totalitarianism, religious intolerance and terrorism as an instrument of policy. For more information, please visit our website: www.uyghurcongress.org Cover Photo: Uyghurs performing forced labour under the hashar system in Aksu Prefecture, East Turkestan (Radio Free Asia Uyghur Service). FORCED LABOUR IN EAST TURKESTAN: State-Sanctioned Hashar System EXECUTIVE SUMMARY The importance of the protection of human rights has been trending downward under China’s current leader, Xi Jinping, since he took power in 2013.
    [Show full text]
  • Without Land, There Is No Life: Chinese State Suppression of Uyghur Environmental Activism
    Without land, there is no life: Chinese state suppression of Uyghur environmental activism Table of Contents Summary ..............................................................................................................................2 Cultural Significance of the Environment and Environmentalism ......................................5 Nuclear Testing: Suppression of Uyghur Activism ...........................................................15 Pollution and Ecological Destruction in East Turkestan ...................................................30 Lack of Participation in Decision Making: Development and Displacement ....................45 Legal Instruments...............................................................................................................61 Recommendations ..............................................................................................................66 Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................69 Endnotes .............................................................................................................................70 Cover image: Dead toghrak (populus nigra) tree in Niya. Photo courtesy of Flickr 1 Summary The intimate connection between the Uyghur people and the land of East Turkestan is celebrated in songs and poetry written and performed in the Uyghur language. Proverbs in Uyghur convey how the Uyghur culture is tied to reverence of the land and that an individual’s identity is inseparable
    [Show full text]
  • List 3. Headings That Need to Be Changed from the Machine- Converted Form
    LIST 3. HEADINGS THAT NEED TO BE CHANGED FROM THE MACHINE- CONVERTED FORM The data dictionary for the machine conversion of subject headings was prepared in summer 2000 based on the systematic romanization of Wade-Giles terms in existing subject headings identified as eligible for conversion before detailed examination of the headings could take place. When investigation of each heading was subsequently undertaken, it was discovered that some headings needed to be revised to forms that differed from the forms that had been given in the data dictionary. This occurred most frequently when older headings no longer conformed to current policy, or in the case of geographic headings, when conflicts were discovered using current geographic reference sources, for example, the listing of more than one river or mountain by the same name in China. Approximately 14% of the subject headings in the pinyin conversion project were revised differently than their machine- converted forms. To aid in bibliographic file maintenance, the following list of those headings is provided. In subject authority records for the revised headings, Used For references (4XX) coded Anne@ in the $w control subfield for earlier form of heading have been supplied for the data dictionary forms as well as the original forms of the headings. For example, when you see: Chien yao ware/ converted to Jian yao ware/ needs to be manually changed to Jian ware It means: The subject heading Chien yao ware was converted to Jian yao ware by the conversion program; however, that heading now
    [Show full text]
  • Central Asia in Xuanzang's Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western
    Recording the West: Central Asia in Xuanzang’s Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions Master’s Thesis Presented in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master Arts in the Graduate School of the Ohio State University By Laura Pearce Graduate Program in East Asian Studies Ohio State University 2018 Committee: Morgan Liu (Advisor), Ying Zhang, and Mark Bender Copyrighted by Laura Elizabeth Pearce 2018 Abstract In 626 C.E., the Buddhist monk Xuanzang left the Tang Empire for India in a quest to deepen his religious understanding. In order to reach India, and in order to return, Xuanzang journeyed through areas in what is now called Central Asia. After he came home to China in 645 C.E., his work included writing an account of the countries he had visited: The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions (Da Tang Xi You Ji 大唐西域記). The book is not a narrative travelogue, but rather presented as a collection of facts about the various countries he visited. Nevertheless, the Record is full of moral judgments, both stated and implied. Xuanzang’s judgment was frequently connected both to his Buddhist beliefs and a conviction that China represented the pinnacle of culture and good governance. Xuanzang’s portrayal of Central Asia at a crucial time when the Tang Empire was expanding westward is both inclusive and marginalizing, shaped by the overall framing of Central Asia in the Record and by the selection of local legends from individual nations. The tension in the Record between Buddhist concerns and secular political ones, and between an inclusive worldview and one centered on certain locations, creates an approach to Central Asia unlike that of many similar sources.
    [Show full text]
  • Middlemen and Marcher States in Central Asia and East/West Empire Synchrony Christopher Chase-Dunn, Thomas D
    Middlemen and marcher states in Central Asia and East/West Empire Synchrony Christopher Chase-Dunn, Thomas D. Hall, Richard Niemeyer, Alexis Alvarez, Hiroko Inoue, Kirk Lawrence, Anders Carlson, Benjamin Fierro, Matthew Kanashiro, Hala Sheikh-Mohamed and Laura Young Institute for Research on World-Systems University of California-Riverside Draft v.11 -1-06, 8365 words Abstract: East, West, Central and South Asia originally formed somewhat separate cultural zones and networks of interaction among settlements and polities, but during the late Bronze and early Iron Ages these largely separate regional systems came into increasing interaction with one another. Central Asian nomadic steppe pastoralist polities and agricultural oasis settlements mediated the East/West and North/South interactions. Earlier research has discovered that the growth/decline phases of empires in East and West Asia became synchronous around 140 BCE and that this synchrony lasted until about 1800 CE. This paper develops the comparative world-systems perspective on Central Asia and examines the growth and decline of settlements, empires and steppe confederations in Central Asia to test the hypothesis that the East/West empire synchrony may have been caused by linkages that occurred with and across Central Asia. To be presented at the Research Conference on Middlemen Co-sponsored by the All-UC Economic History and All-UC World History Groups, November 3-5, 2006, UCSD IROWS Working Paper #30. http://irows.ucr.edu/papers/irows30/irows30.htm This paper is part of a larger research project on “Measuring and modeling cycles of state formation, decline and upward sweeps since the Bronze Age” NSF-SES 057720 http://irows.ucr.edu/research/citemp/citemp.html Earlier research has demonstrated a curious East/West synchrony from 140 BCE to 1800 CE.
    [Show full text]
  • The Hephthalite Numismatics
    THE HEPHTHALITE NUMISMATICS Aydogdy Kurbanov 1. Introduction Arabic – Haital, Hetal, Heithal, Haiethal, Central Asia and neighbouring countries have a Heyâthelites. In Arabic sources the Hephtha- very old and rich history. A poorly-studied and in- lites, though they are mentioned as Haitals, tricate period of this region is the early medieval are sometimes also refered to as Turks. period (4th - 6th centuries AD). During this time, In the 4th - 6th centuries AD the territory of Cen- “The Great movement of peoples”, the migration tral Asia included at least four major political en- of nomadic peoples (Huns) from Asia to Europe, tities, among them Kushans, Chionites, Kidarites, took place. In South and Central Asia, great em- and Hephthalites. Discussions about the origins pires existed, including Sasanian Iran, Gupta and of these peoples still continue. Ideas vary from some small states. Across Central Asia, mysteri- the Hephthalites considered as part of the Hun ous new peoples appeared: the Hephthalites, the confederation to different other origins. It is also Kidarites and the Chionites, among others. Their uncertain whether the Hephthalites, the Kidarites origins are still debated. Some scholars suppose and the Chionites had a common or different ori- that they were part of a Hun confederation, while gins – that is, are they three branches of the same others suppose they had different origins. ethnic group or are they culturally, linguistically, Generally, the early research on the Hephthalites and genetically distinct from one another? was based only on written sources. They were The Hephthalites are well represented in their mentioned for the fi rst time in AD 361 at the siege coins.
    [Show full text]
  • Pre-Proto-Iranians of Afghanistan As Initiators of Sakta Tantrism: on the Scythian/Saka Affiliation of the Dasas, Nuristanis and Magadhans
    Iranica Antiqua, vol. XXXVII, 2002 PRE-PROTO-IRANIANS OF AFGHANISTAN AS INITIATORS OF SAKTA TANTRISM: ON THE SCYTHIAN/SAKA AFFILIATION OF THE DASAS, NURISTANIS AND MAGADHANS BY Asko PARPOLA (Helsinki) 1. Introduction 1.1 Preliminary notice Professor C. C. Lamberg-Karlovsky is a scholar striving at integrated understanding of wide-ranging historical processes, extending from Mesopotamia and Elam to Central Asia and the Indus Valley (cf. Lamberg- Karlovsky 1985; 1996) and even further, to the Altai. The present study has similar ambitions and deals with much the same area, although the approach is from the opposite direction, north to south. I am grateful to Dan Potts for the opportunity to present the paper in Karl's Festschrift. It extends and complements another recent essay of mine, ‘From the dialects of Old Indo-Aryan to Proto-Indo-Aryan and Proto-Iranian', to appear in a volume in the memory of Sir Harold Bailey (Parpola in press a). To com- pensate for that wider framework which otherwise would be missing here, the main conclusions are summarized (with some further elaboration) below in section 1.2. Some fundamental ideas elaborated here were presented for the first time in 1988 in a paper entitled ‘The coming of the Aryans to Iran and India and the cultural and ethnic identity of the Dasas’ (Parpola 1988). Briefly stated, I suggested that the fortresses of the inimical Dasas raided by ¤gvedic Aryans in the Indo-Iranian borderlands have an archaeological counterpart in the Bronze Age ‘temple-fort’ of Dashly-3 in northern Afghanistan, and that those fortresses were the venue of the autumnal festival of the protoform of Durga, the feline-escorted Hindu goddess of war and victory, who appears to be of ancient Near Eastern origin.
    [Show full text]
  • Open-Surface Water Bodies Dynamics Analysis in the Tarim River Basin (North-Western China), Based on Google Earth Engine Cloud Platform
    water Article Open-Surface Water Bodies Dynamics Analysis in the Tarim River Basin (North-Western China), Based on Google Earth Engine Cloud Platform Jiahao Chen 1,2 , Tingting Kang 1,2, Shuai Yang 1,2, Jingyi Bu 1,2 , Kexin Cao 1,2 and Yanchun Gao 1,* 1 Key Laboratory of Water Cycle and Related Land Surface Processes, Institute of Geographical Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China; [email protected] (J.C.); [email protected] (T.K.); [email protected] (S.Y.); [email protected] (J.B.); [email protected] (K.C.) 2 College of Resources and Environment, University of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +86-010-6488-8991 Received: 6 July 2020; Accepted: 6 October 2020; Published: 11 October 2020 Abstract: The Tarim River Basin (TRB), located in an arid region, is facing the challenge of increasing water pressure and uncertain impacts of climate change. Many water body identification methods have achieved good results in different application scenarios, but only a few for arid areas. An arid region water detection rule (ARWDR) was proposed by combining vegetation index and water index. Taking computing advantages of the Google Earth Engine (GEE) cloud platform, 56,284 Landsat 5/7/8 optical images in the TRB were used to detect open-surface water bodies and generated a 30-m annual water frequency map from 1992 to 2019. The interannual changes and trends of the water body area were analyzed and the impacts of climatic and anthropogenic drivers on open-surface water body area dynamics were examined.
    [Show full text]