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The Cultural Diplomacy of Education in Okinawa, 1945-1972

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The Cultural Diplomacy of Education in Okinawa, 1945-1972 SCHOOLING FOR DEMOCRACY?: THE CULTURAL DIPLOMACY OF EDUCATION IN OKINAWA, 1945-1972 By So Mizoguchi A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of History- Doctor of Philosophy 2018 ABSTRACT SCHOOLING FOR DEMOCRACY?: THE CULTURAL DIPLOMACY OF EDUCATION IN OKINAWA, 1945-1972 By So Mizoguchi This dissertation analyzes U.S. policy on higher education during the American occupation of Okinawa. As the rise of the Cold War shaped the character of the Ryukyu Islands, postwar educational rehabilitation was positioned as the basis of an ideological battle between the United States and the Soviet Union. Among educational rehabilitation projects, the University of the Ryukyus Project was a centerpiece of Cold War educational policy. The U.S. military expected that the university would consistently educate new pro-American elite groups. With the scope of education policy expanding, however, the military was forced to handle many issues which required advanced academic skill. To accelerate the reconstruction process, the Army sought assistance from outside experts. MSU was selected as the mentor of the University of the Ryukyus because its excellent curricula satisfied the Army’s requirement of practical programs. While many scholarly works argue that postwar Okinawa succeeded in developing a democratic educational system, Okinawans were in fact disillusioned with American educational system because undemocratic practices and wide-spread racial and economic discrimination raised uncomfortable feelings in Okinawan society. Ironically, Okinawan teachers and the students of the university became the vanguard of the restoration movement in Okinawa. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I am greatly indebted to numerous institutions and people for their help and support over the course of writing this dissertation. The bulk of the research for this project was financially supported by Michigan State University, Rikkyo University, The Konosuke Matsushita Memorial Foundation, and Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, which allowed me to conduct my research in many places in the United States and Japan. The staff at U.S. National Archives, the Rockefeller Archival Center, University Archives & Historical Collections of Michigan State University, the National Diet Library in Tokyo, Diplomatic Archives of Japan, the Okinawa Prefectural Library, the Okinawa Prefectural Archives, Hosei University Institute for Okinawan Studies, University of the Ryukyus Library, and Rikkyo University Library provided valuable assistance. My foremost intellectual obligation is to the great scholars I had the good fortune to work with as a graduate student. Takuya Sasaki introduced me to ways of thinking and pushed me to grow as a scholar. Even after I graduated from Rikkyo University, he politely inquired about my progress on dissertation and generously offered support and advice. Mary Ann Heiss helped me to broaden my scope to encompass the discipline of history. She listened to my ideas and then improved on them. Sayuri Guthrie Shimizu gave me a model of excellence in scholarship and teaching. Her multilingualism, imaginative thinking, and encyclopedic knowledge of U.S.-Japan relations are awe-inspiring. The history department at Michigan State University provided a supportive environment to complete this dissertation. The members of my dissertation committee---Michael Stamm (chair), Charles Keith, Sidney Lu, and Aminda Smith--- were paramount in sharpening my historical iii understandings of social movements, the politics of identity, and colonialism. All of them are exemplars of scholarly rigors and personal integrity. Michael Stamm, particularly, kindly read every chapters of the earlier version of the manuscript and gave me invaluable suggestions and insights which are reflected in my arguments in this dissertation. I am grateful to Pero G. Dagbovie, Malcolm Magee, Edward Murphy, Dean Rehberger, and Ethan Segal for their many kindnesses. I also owe special thanks to the extraordinary history department staff: Deb Greer, Jeanna Norris, and graduate secretary Elyse Hansen. I was fortunate to share my graduate life with many talented and generous friends. I am grateful to David Bennett, Sara Bijani, Eddie Bonilla, Beth Dutridge-Corp, Emily Elliott, Ryan Huey, Kathryn Lankford, Carolyn Pratt, Richard Mares, John Somerville, Liz Timbs, and Adrienne Tyrey. Jacob Jurss and Brian Van Wyck read a part of this drafts and gave me insightful suggestions. My life in East Lansing would not have been more enjoyable without John Milstead and Amanda Milstead’s generous hospitality. Shaonan Liu and Liao Zhang’s friendships are wonderful gifts. It is hard to know how to thanks Helen Kaibara, and Jess McLeod, who always supported my grad school life abroad. My experiences in Okinawa was greatly enriched by the kindness of Masaaki Gabe, Yoko Fujita, Ayano Ginoza, and all of the scholars and staff at International Institute for Okinawan Studies of University of the Ryukyus. Their intellectual generosity and friendship helped me to enhance the quality of my research. During my graduate studies I had the good fortune to meet dozens of scholars at conferences and events whose perspective and encouragement enriched my education. I would like especially thanks to Keith L. Camacho, Brian Masaru Hayashi, Takeshi Iida, Kohei iv Kawakami, Seung-Young Kim, Itsuki Kurashina, Asuka Matsumoto, Saho Matsumoto, Takayuki Nishiyama, Jun Sakurada, Alessandra Sarquis, Yuka Tsuchiya, Yoshitsugu Kosuke, and Hidekazu Wakatsuki. Their friendly critiques and comments have made this dissertation much better. My colleagues, friends, and teachers of the college of law and politics at Rikkyo University have enriched my life and work with their advice and support. I owe thanks to Kunio Miyokawa, Ryo Nakai (now, at the University of Kitakyushu), Mizuki Nagami, Junichiro Shiratori, Amuro Wakasa, and Go Cheol Woong. Other mentors in the college of law and politics helped along the way. Among those who pushed me to grow as a researcher are Yusuke Ando, Hisashi Harada, Yoshiya Ichinose, Akio Igarashi, Sohn Jeyong, Osamu Kawasaki, Toru Kurata, Koichiro Matsuda, Masataka Matsuura, Koji Nakakita (now at Hitotsubashi University), Ariyoshi Ogawa, Chiharu Takenaka, Lee Jong Wong (now at Waseda University), and Tomoya Yoshioka. There are also other friends and mentors who have helped, directly and indirectly, strengthen and improved my arguments. I owe special thanks to Aki Asai, Jason Csehi, Fumitaka Cho, Nathan Fly, Julie Green, Keisuke Ida, Patti Kameya, Hideaki Kami, Hongshan Li, Michel and Kimiko Lynch, Marlene J. Mayo, Ralph Menning, Jerry and Nancy Naughton, Satoshi Niijima, Yusuke Nishizumi, Elizabeth Omar, Karin Rosemblatt, Elizabeth Smith-Pryor, Richard Steigmann-Gall, Jon T. Sumida, Kazutoshi Tamari, Yoo In Tae, Shojiro Yakushimaru, Chen Yue, Wu Yujiang, Megumi Watanabe, Clarence E. Wunderlin, Jr and Sarah Zabic. Lastly, my family has always been supportive me during this time. Without my mother and my brother’s help, I would not have finished this dissertation. I only regret not to be able to show the dissertation to my father, Hajime. v TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION…….……………………………………………………………………....1 Introduction…………………………………………...….....……………….……...........1 Literature Review/Historiography……………………………………............................6 Overview of Chapters……………………………………………………….…………12 CHAPTER 1: DIVIDED OCCUPATIONS AND RECONSTRUCTIONS: RECONSIDERING POSTWAR HISTORY OF OKINAWA IN THE LATE 1940s..........14 Introduction…………....………………………………………………………….........14 Invented History of the Victors and Reality of the Vanquished in Okinawa.....…........19 The Rise of the Cold War and Reconstruction with Military Bases...............................32 Conclusion…………….…………………………………….……………….…..….….44 CHAPTER 2: ATTEMPTS TO ESTABLISH THE COLD WAR ISLANDS..…………..47 Introduction………………………………………………………………..……….….47 Cultural Diplomacy in Okinawa and the Cold War…………………….……..………..51 Educational Rehabilitation and Limits of Military Occupation………………..……...62 The University of the Ryukyus and the Origin of Cold War Education………..….….72 Conclusion……….………………………………………………………………...…...80 CHAPTER 3: MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY AND COLD WAR EDUCATION IN AMERICAN-OCCUPIED OKINAWA…….……………………………………….….82 Introduction……………………………………………………………………….…...82 American Universities and the Cold War………….………………………….…….…86 The Great Challenges of MSU………….…………………………………….……......91 Cold War Education vs. Teacher and Student Protests...……………………….……103 Conclusion………………………………………………………………….………...111 CHAPTER 4: THE COLLAPSE OF COLD WAR DISCOURSE ON INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION…………………………………………………………………….….…....114 Introduction…………………………………………………………………….….....114 A Short-Lived Euphoria………………………………………………………….......117 “The Okinawa Problem” and the Winding Road to Reversion………….........…...….122 Re-Japanized Okinawa and the End of the University of the Ryukyus Project...........127 Conclusion………....……………………………………………………………...….137 CHAPTER 5: AMERICAN IMAGES OF DEMOCRACY IN OKINAWA......................141 Introduction……………………………………………………………………...……141 Seducing Okinawans…………………………………………………………..……..147 Imagined Democracy in Okinawa…….……………………………………..………..154 Ideal American Society in Okinawan Magazines…….……………………..…...…...162 The Myth of Anti-Americanism……………………………………….…..…...…….166 Responses of Teachers’ Associations Against American Occupatio….........………..171 vi The Occupation Through the Eyes of Okinawan Students………..………...……….176
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