PHOTOBOMB ▼ The accelerators at the Dual-Axis Radiographic Hydrodynamic Test (DARHT) facility produce intense, high-energy electron beams that generate radiographs (x-rays) of nuclear-type explosions. These images help validate computer simulations of nuclear weapon performance. Photo: Michael Pierce IN THIS ISSUE

2 Letters: Innovation National security depends on pioneering scientists and engineers who respond to challenges with new, o en-surprising, ideas.

4 Abstracts: Notes and news from around the Lab Director  om Mason takes the helm at Los Alamos, the Laboratory 2 4 wins eight “Oscars of Invention”, and more. FEATURES 10 Faces of innovation: Meet 10 seven scientists and engineers whose 24 groundbreaking ideas, experiments, and data have big implications for national security.

24 Beyond Trinity: 75 years of weapons advances In addition to creating the world’s  rst nuclear device, Los Alamos has made nuclear weapons more e ective, safe, and speci c to military needs.

34 Additive manufacturing: The power of powder At the Laboratory’s Sigma Complex, metal components are created with powder, layer by layer, to 34 withstand extreme environments. 44 Analysis: The science of policy  ree members of the National Nuclear Security Administration (NNSA) share their thoughts on innovation and how having a science background is important for shaping policy.

44 46 Being Essential: The need for speed Je rey Luehring is all about parts —weapons parts for his job in materials management and boat parts for the jet boat he drag races.

48 Accolades:  e distinguished 46 achievements of Los Alamos employees. 49 Looking Back: A scuba diver explores the wreckage of the USS Arkansas, which ABOUT THE COVER: was sunk during the 1946 Baker test of Technical Area 3—the administrative 49 Operation Crossroads. hub of Los Alamos National Laboratory—is where innovation happens in support of the Lab’s national security mission. LETTERS

MASTHEAD

EDITOR Whitney Spivey ART DIRECTOR Brenda Fleming STORY EDITOR Eileen Patterson WRITERS Katharine Coggeshall, INNOVATION Kris Fronzak, Cristina Olds, NATIONAL SECURITY depends on Octavio Ramos, Justin Warner PHOTOGRAPHER Michael Pierce pioneering scientists and engineers DESIGNERS Sarah Tasseff, who respond to challenges with new, Evan Wells often-surprising, ideas. COPY EDITOR Amy Elder EDITORIAL ADVISORS Jeremy Best, David Clark, challenges and successes of Jonathan Ventura pioneering new technologies— such as Scorpius, a linear National Security Science highlights induction accelerator that will work in the weapons and other take x-rays (radiographs) of national security programs at the late stages of implosion Los Alamos National Laboratory. experiments at the Nevada Current and archived issues of the National Security Site (NNSS). magazine are available at Innovation, of course, also lanl.gov/nss. NSS is unclassi ed builds on previous discoveries. and supported by the Lab’s O ce “Beyond Trinity: 75 Years of of Nuclear and Military A airs. To BY BOB WEBSTER Weapons Advances” (p. 24) subscribe, email DEPUTY DIRECTOR, WEAPONS reminds us that Los Alamos [email protected], or designed the  rst call 505-667-4106. “THERE IS NO PLACE nuclear test (Trinity) FOR DOGMA IN LA-UR-19-21474 and then traces SCIENCE,” Robert Los Alamos National Laboratory, an the progressive Oppenheimer, the  rst a rmative action/equal opportunity breakthroughs that Laboratory director, employer, is operated by Triad National made nuclear weapons Security, LLC, for the National told Life magazine in not only more e ective Nuclear Security Administration for 1949. “ e scientist is the U.S. Department of Energy under but also safer and free, and must be free, contract 89233218CNA000001. better maintained. to ask any question, to Today, Los Alamos doubt any assertion, to NSS STAFF SPOTLIGHT stewards the stockpiled variants seek for any evidence, to correct ▼ of the B61, W76, W78, and W88 any errors.” nuclear weapons and is updating Seventy years later, the W76, W88, and B61 to Oppenheimer’s words still ensure that these weapons ring true, and Los Alamos remain safe, secure, and reliable. remains a hotbed of creative As part of this modernization, thinking and innovation. From Los Alamos is considering new Frederick Reines’ Nobel Prize materials and manufacturing in physics to the Laboratory’s techniques. On p. 34, “Additive collective 153 R&D 100 Awards, Editor Whitney Spivey Manufacturing:  e Power of stands in front of the Los Alamos is world renowned Sedan Crater at the Powder” examines how complex NNSS. The 320-foot- for pushing the boundaries of metal components are created deep crater was formed science and engineering. when a nuclear test with powder, layer by layer—a device was detonated underground on July 6,  is issue of National Security kind of 3D printing. 1962, and displaced 12 Science magazine highlights million tons of earth. Ten years ago, 3D printing just a handful of the innovative Today, underground of weapons parts would have testing is prohibited, people and technologies that have but scientists are been science  ction. Ten years put—and keep—Los Alamos on finding new ways to from now, who knows what better understand the map. how nuclear weapons technology we’ll be using? ( e perform. Turn to On p. 21, physicist Katie Mussack three NNSA o cials interviewed p. 12 to learn more about Scorpius, an de nes innovation as “slow, on p. 44 have some ideas about innovative project at that.) One thing is certain, NNSS that will help steady progress that builds to one researchers "see," thing that people notice.” She however: Los Alamos will using radiographs, what happens to plutonium in and her colleagues, pro led in remain central to the safety and the late stages of a “ e Faces of Innovation,” share security of the United States. ★ nuclear implosion.

› 2 ‹ SPRING 2019 COMMUNITY ▼

BY THE EMPLOYEE GIVING CAMPAIGN NUMBERS: 2018 COMMUNITY $2.9 MILLION RAISED FOR NONPROFITS GIVING Maintaining a good relationship with Northern New Mexico is essential to the success of the Laboratory’s national security mission. 1,017 BACKPACKS FILLED WITH In his  rst all-employee meeting, Laboratory SCHOOL SUPPLIES Director  om Mason explained how the DONATED DURING THE BACK TO SCHOOL DRIVE 272 Lab’s national security mission is served by EMPLOYEES excellent operations and community relations. VOLUNTEERED “We’ve got to be excellent in nuclear FOR A TOTAL OF security; that’s why we’re here,” he said. “ at means we have to design, produce, and $440,000 3,543 HOURS certify current and future nuclear weapons RAISED DURING THE OF STEM EDUCATION LOS ALAMOS EMPLOYEES’ TIME IN THE COMMUNITY and reduce global nuclear threats.  at’s our SCHOLARSHIP FUND LAESF primary reason for existence—not the only ANNUAL CAMPAIGN 240 FROZEN TURKEYS thing we do, but we’d better be best in class donated on Bring Your Turkey to Work day at that. We also have to deliver the scienti c discoveries and technical breakthroughs that support those missions.” 988 “It’s not enough to be great at those things,” GIFTS DISTRIBUTED DURING THE he continued. “In fact you can’t be great at HOLIDAY GIFT those things unless you’re not also excellent in DRIVE mission operations: able to sustain operations that are reliable and responsive to mission needs. If a facility is shut down, by de nition, it’s not going to be delivering on those nuclear security missions.” “And  nally, we have to be excellent in our relationships with the community because 142 if we lose their con dence and trust, we NEW MEXICO STUDENTS AWARDED LAESF SCHOLARSHIPS TOTALING $712,950 will actually lose the ability to operate, and we’ll lose the support we need to get our job done. So we’ve got to sustain and enhance ■ Pictured below: Scott Crooker from the Laboratory’s National High Magnetic Field Laboratory Los Alamos’ partnerships with the community demonstrates magnetic principles to students from Santa Fe Indian School during a STEM all across Northern New Mexico.” ★ mentoring event.

SPRING 2019 › 3 ‹ ABSTRACTS

INFOGRAPHIC ▼ THE INTERSECTION Where science and culture converge in Northern New Mexico—and beyond.

QUOTED ▼

The success we’ve achieved on the W76-1 is a testament to our ability across the Nuclear Security Enterprise to deliver on commitments to the Department of Defense, Congress, and the American people.” —NNSA Administrator Lisa Gordon-Hagerty on the completion of the W76-1 Life Extension Program (LEP), which was completed under budget and ahead of schedule in January 2018.  e W76-1 is a refurbished W76 warhead, which is a Los Alamos–designed, submarine-launched ballistic missile system  rst introduced into the stockpile for the U.S. Navy in 1978.  is LEP has strengthened the safety and security of the United States by extending the warhead’s service life. ★

■ Photo: U.S. Navy

› 4 ‹ SPRING 2019 COMPUTING ▼ MOVING UP The Lab’s Trinity supercomputer is now ranked sixth in the world.  e Department of Energy has  ve supercomputers ranked in the top 10 of best-performing supercomputers in the world.  e Laboratory’s Trinity machine MILITARY comes in at No. 6 on that list, up one spot from last year. ▼ “Trinity, a Cray XC40 system operated by Los Alamos National Laboratory and Sandia National Laboratories, improved its performance to 20.2 peta ops, THANK YOU enough to move it up one position to the No. 6 spot,” according to TOP500, Two Air Force bases host visitors which compiles the list. from Los Alamos. Trinity arrived at Los Alamos in 2015, covers approximately 5,200 square feet Los Alamos National Laboratory thanks of  oor space, and was the  rst platform large and fast enough to accommodate Malmstrom Air Force Base and Minot  nely resolved 3D calculations for full-scale, end-to-end weapons calculations. Air Force Base for hosting Laboratory Complex 3D simulations of nuclear detonations are required for supporting the personnel in November 2018.  e visits NNSA’s Stockpile Stewardship program, which ensures that the nation’s nuclear were “an incredible learning experience for stockpile is safe, reliable, and secure. the weapons designers and engineers,” says As part of this program, a request for proposal (RFP) for Crossroads, an even- Jon Ventura of the Lab’s O ce of Nuclear and more-powerful supercomputer than Trinity, was released in February. Crossroads Military A airs. “Seeing the bases in person is expected to be installed at Los Alamos by the fall of 2021. Turn to p.18 to learn will make a signi cant di erence in how they more about the Laboratory’s High Performance Computing Division and its plans approach life extensions and other e orts for the future. ★ as we seek, together, to sustain the safety, ■ Pictured below: The world's most powerful supercomputers according to TOP500. security, and e ectiveness of the nation’s nuclear deterrent.” ★

■ Pictured above: Lab employees visit Malmstrom Air Force Base in Montana.

SPRING 2019 › 5 ‹ ABSTRACTS

VETERANS ▼

LOS ALAMOS RECOGNIZED FOR VETERAN EMPLOYMENT The Laboratory receives a Gold Award from the LOS ALAMOS SCIENTISTS Department of Labor. TEACH AT WEST POINT  e U.S. Department of Labor awarded Retiring Colonel Edward Naessens nurtured the Los Alamos National Laboratory the relationship between the two institutions. 2018 HIRE Vets Medallion Program Demonstration Gold Award in recognition In November 2012, U.S. Army Colonel Edward Naessens sent of the Lab’s commitment to recruiting, hiring, a letter to then-Laboratory Director Charlie McMillan. “ e and retaining veterans.  e Lab was one of United States Military Academy at West Point requests that only 239 Gold Award recipients this year. the Los Alamos National Laboratory detail a technically  e HIRE Vets Medallion Program is quali ed sta member to teach in the Department of Physics the only federal-level award for veterans’ and Nuclear Engineering (PaNE),” Naessens wrote. “ e employment. Recipients were evaluated position would require teaching approximately half-time, with on several criteria, ranging from hiring the remainder of the time spent in scholarship, supervision of cadet and retaining veterans to providing and faculty research projects, faculty development, and participation in veteran-speci c resources, leadership cadet development activities.” programming, dedicated human Naessens, the PaNE department head, was hoping to strengthen the resources, and compensation and tuition relationship between the Army and Los Alamos that began more than 75 years assistance programs. ago during the Manhattan Project, which was directed by Army Lieutenant “Veterans and transitioned military General Leslie Groves. personnel have always made very important “Colonel Naessens sets the standard for the modern thinking soldier,” says contributions to our Laboratory,” says physicist Leo Bitteker, the  rst Los Alamos scientist to teach at West Point. Laboratory Diversity O cer C.J. Bacino. “We Although the Army does not currently have a direct role in the nuclear triad, are incredibly grateful for their service and Army o cers serve in key decision-making bodies that relate to nuclear weapons; honored to receive this recognition.  e Naessens had the foresight to realize the importance of building connections specialized skills these amazing individuals between the cadets—aka future o cers—and scientists. bring to our workforce in support of Since Bitteker, Laboratory employees Chad Olinger and Shirish Chitanvis our mission are indispensable. We will have also taught at West Point. And although the tradition will continue, future consistently remain dedicated to their appointments will never be quite the same. In May, Naessens will retire a er recruitment and retention.” ★ 28 years of serving his country. “Colonel Naessens clearly loved his job as leader of the PaNE Department, where he directed the e ort to use physics education to build the character of the next generation of o cers,” Bitteker remembers. “His passion for PaNE was surpassed only by his passion for soldiering, and we are a safer nation because of his drive and leadership.” ★

■ Pictured above: The veteran recruiting team at ■ Pictured above: Colonel Naessens gives Lab Director Charlie McMillan a physics lesson Los Alamos provides one-on-one support for at West Point in April 2015. Colonel Naessens studied physics at West Point and graduated individuals seeking employment or looking to in 1981. He then attended Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, where he earned a master’s in transfer positions within the Lab. physics and a doctorate in nuclear engineering and science.

› 6 ‹ SPRING 2019 LEADERSHIP R&D ▼ ▼ NEW PROGRAM LOS ALAMOS WINS EIGHT FOSTERS “OSCARS OF INVENTION”

MISSIONMINDED Laboratory innovations that support national security win FUTURE LEADERS R&D 100 Awards. Eight Lab technologies won R&D 100 Awards at R&D Magazine’s annual Participants consider how ceremony in Orlando, Florida, on November 16, 2018. “ ese innovations science informs policy. continue the Laboratory’s tradition of scienti c excellence in support of In an e ort to cultivate the next our national security mission, industrial competitiveness, and the broader generation of innovative thought scienti c community,” says John Sarrao, deputy Laboratory director for science, leaders at Los Alamos, the technology, and engineering. “In addition, the awards demonstrate the strength Laboratory’s Weapons Physics of partnerships with industry, academia, and other national laboratories to solve and Global Security programs challenging scienti c issues.” launched the MEDAL (Mid-/Early- career Deter-detect-prevent Advanced  e Los Alamos winners are as follows: Leadership) program in 2018. Charliecloud:  is lightweight container so ware for supercomputers lets  e inaugural class of 12 Lab users package their own user-de ned so ware stack in isolation from the host employees attended a series of lectures operating system. related to nuclear weapons, nonproliferation, counterproliferation, counterterrorism, Grand Unifi ed File Index (GUFI):  is fast so ware can search metadata at the and intelligence.  e talks prepared them scale used by supercomputer and enterprise centers. for a three-day trip to Washington, D.C., Lighthouse Directional Radiation Detectors:  ese detectors determine where they attended tours, meetings, the location, amount, and movement of a radioactive source in the presence of and networking events with members of multiple sources. the National Security Council, the O ce of Science and Technology Policy, the Long-range Wireless Sensor Network:  is turnkey, low-power sensor NNSA, the U.S. Department of Energy’s network enables data collection and transmission in rugged and remote O ce of Intelligence, NNSA Defense outdoor environments. Programs, the Department of Defense, and Rad-hard Single-board Computer for Space:  is lightweight radiation- other organizations. hardened computer can be used on satellites and for other space applications. During these interactions, participants were encouraged to consider the intersection Silicon Strip Cosmic Muon Detectors for Homeland Security:  ese of technology and policy as related to the detectors with slim pro les can be deployed to detect shielded nuclear materials. Lab’s national security mission: maintaining Universal Bacterial Sensor:  is sensor mimics biological recognition of a safe, secure, and e ective nuclear bacterial pathogens to enable the detection of bacterial infections even before the deterrent and preventing, countering, and onset of symptoms. responding to the global threats of nuclear proliferation and terrorism. Video-Based Dynamic Measurement & Analysis (ViDeoMAgic):  i s “Physicists and engineers can easily technology extracts high-spatial-resolution structural vibration and dynamics recognize limitations imposed by nature,” information from videos of vibrating structures to analyze the health of civil, explains physicist Travis Burris, who mechanical, and aerospace structures. participated in the program. “It’s more di cult for us to recognize the purpose  e R&D 100 Awards, selected by a group of R&D Magazine’s judges, honor of limitations imposed by people (policy). the top 100 proven technological advances of the year. Since 1978, Los Alamos  is program puts policy into perspective has won 153 R&D 100 Awards.  e Laboratory’s discoveries, developments, and illuminates the bene ts that result from advancements, and inventions make the world a better and safer place, bolster policy.  ere’s comfort in knowing that a lot national security, and enhance national competitiveness. ★ of smart people are keeping us safe in many di erent ways.”

Karen Miller, one of the MEDAL ENTRY organizers, agrees. “ e MEDAL program has given me a much better understanding of Los Alamos as an institution and our place in the larger ecosystem,” she says. “In my role as a scientist, I spend most of my time thinking about problems that are narrowly focused. MEDAL gave me the opportunity to expand Los Alamos my aperture and gain new insights about how National Laboratory Won 8 R&D 100 Awards my work  ts into the bigger picture.” ★ (out of 9 entries)

SPRING 2019 › 7 ‹ ABSTRACTS

THOM MASON TAKES THE HELM AT LOS ALAMOS

The Laboratory’s 12th director discusses national security, the annual assessment letter, and why he chose physics over English in college.

erhaps it’s no surprise is focused on his new job at  rst and foremost a science and In response to that, the Lab that  om Mason, Los Alamos. “ ere is something energy lab, although it does a lot has responsibility for things who was director at healthy about really looking at of important national security like life extension programs, Oak Ridge National things and trying to understand work. Los Alamos is clearly, front modi cations, and alterations. PLaboratory for 10 years, is now what’s working and what’s not and center, a national security In that world where we are the director at Los Alamos. “I working,” he says of his new role lab, although it has a lot of starting to see more change, how grew up in a science family,” he with Triad National Security, outstanding science and energy do we certify weapons? What explains. “My dad worked at a which began managing the technology work.  at focus on are the tools we need to be able Canadian national lab, so it was Lab on November 1, 2018. national security and the nuclear do that? We have progressively sort of the family business, and it “ is is an opportunity to take deterrent brings challenges.  is higher performing computers never really occurred to me to do a fresh look at things, make is a high-consequence place. It’s with codes that are optimized anything else.” some changes that need to be high consequence in terms of the to run on them, so we can He pauses, reconsidering. “I made, and emerge as a stronger impact of the work that’s done, simulate things with a  delity did think about doing an English organization as a result.” and it’s also high consequence that we couldn’t do previously— degree,” he says. “And I decided Here, Mason explains just in terms of what could possibly or at least we will be able to that if I did physics, I could how he intends to do that. go wrong. It’s important that the in coming years as we get to still read books. But if I took work be done well, and that’s exascale computing and beyond. English, I probably couldn’t have How is Los Alamos certainly a challenge I relish and We have new experimental physics as a hobby.” different from Oak Ridge? everyone on the leadership team techniques that are giving us Fast-forward nearly four looks forward to. better-quality data to validate decades, and reading is still one Both labs were founded in 1943, those simulations. of Mason’s hobbies, alongside so they have common roots in What is your vision for the So the question will be: Does hacking consumer electronics, the Manhattan Project—the weapons program? the rate of improvement of cycling, skiing, and exploring his crash e ort to bring the best our scienti c and engineering new hometown of of science and technology to As we look forward, we have to understanding of the stockpile Santa Fe, New Mexico. bear on the crisis of the day. deal with the reality of change stay ahead of the rate of change But time for such activities  e di erence—and one of in the stockpile. Weapons have that’s occurring in the stockpile? is in short supply these days, the reasons I  nd Los Alamos been in service longer than  at’s the thing I’m most focused as nearly all of Mason’s energy interesting—is that Oak Ridge is their original design intent. on in terms of the longer-term

› 8 ‹ SPRING 2019 direction of the Lab. We have things that go on now at NNSS challenge that we can identify to make sure our scienti c are exercising that system to and organize around. and engineering capabilities some extent—there’s more In the end, it’s about stay ahead of the challenges going on now than there has understanding the world around in the stockpile. been in many years, so that us. What technological surprises helps give me con dence. (See are lurking in the future that In September, you will sign p. 12 for more on subcritical will require some new kind the annual assessment experiments at NNSS.) of response that—being at letter that concludes the I’m not a weaponeer by the forefront of cutting-edge health of our nuclear training, but I’m quite con dent science and technology—we deterrent. How will you with the technical content. might be able to anticipate make sure you’re confi dent I am learning the speci cs and position for? signing that letter? of Los Alamos’ stockpile If we have people who responsibilities. We’ve got a great understand the physics and  at letter has four components: team. Even though the letter gets the chemistry and the biology the state of existing stockpile, signed by the Lab director, it’s and environmental science, whether there is a need to resume really the culmination of a very that understanding allows us testing, the adequacy of the tools, large e ort that draws on people to take action.  at’s part of and the readiness to resume full- across the Laboratory. the reason we have a place like scale nuclear testing. Los Alamos. ★  ere’s a large enterprise How do you see the that’s focused on the state of the Lab’s relationship stockpile. My responsibility is with the military? to make sure that the enterprise is properly sta ed and funded In the end, it’s the military that and asking the right sorts deploys the systems that we of questions.  ere are also create and develop.  ey set the requirements that the NNSA has to deliver, using the labs and the plants. Los Alamos has a long “We have to make sure our history and tradition of working with the military to understand scienti c and engineering those requirements. It’s also noteworthy that we capabilities stay ahead of the have a lot of former military on sta at the Lab—approximately changes in the stockpile.” 10 percent of our workforce. People who have served in the military see working at the Lab independent Red Team processes as a way to apply their military to crosscheck the enterprise and experiences and continue their then of course the very important national service. function between Livermore and Los Alamos to peer review What do you think is the one another. All of that can help biggest national security increase my con dence that we challenge of the future? have a good and correct technical judgment, whether it’s on the One of the challenges of state of the stockpile or the the future is there’s not a ability to continue the current single well-de ned national posture of not doing full-scale security challenge. China nuclear testing. is being aggressive—and In terms of the adequacy successful—in developing of the tools, I look at the types its scienti c and technical of questions we have about capabilities. Technologically and the stockpile. Do we—and economically, China probably will we—have the ability to is a more powerful player than answer questions that we see Russia, although from a nuclear arising in the future? You can’t point of view, Russia obviously wait until a question arises to has a larger stockpile. Add to start working on it. that the various wannabe nuclear In terms of the readiness powers and non-state actors, and to resume testing, a lot of the there is no longer a single biggest

SPRING 2019 › 9 ‹ › 10 ‹ SPRING 2019 BETTER SCIENCE = BETTER SECURITY

Scientists and engineers who think outside the box can address national security challenges in novel ways.

SPRING 2019 › 11 ‹ INNOVATORS

▶ Dave Funk leads Enhanced Capabilities for Subcritical Experiments, one of the initiatives the United States is pursuing “to ensure the necessary capability, capacity and responsiveness of the nuclear weapons infrastructure and the needed skills of the nuclear enterprise workforce,” according to the Nuclear Posture Review presented to Congress in 2018.

› 12 ‹ SPRING 2019 PLUTONIUM Radiographic imaging for late-stage subcritical implosions

BY WHITNEY SPIVEY

ave Funk has a the nuclear weapons in the complicated job. He U.S. stockpile. Dleads a multi-lab eff ort Th e accelerator for which to design and build a linear Funk is responsible—Scorpius— induction accelerator that can will be located in a new U1a take x-rays (radiographs) of tunnel and will be a key ECSE the late stages of implosion diagnostic tool. Th e radiographs experiments at NNSS. Not only it takes will allow researchers that, his team has to assemble to analyze exactly what’s the accelerator in a tunnel 960 happening from the beginning feet underground. to the end of each experimental Funk, of the Laboratory’s implosion. Creating those Accelerator Development radiographs requires a lot of Program Offi ce, is the senior high-energy x-rays, which is director of the Advanced why the 20-megaelectronvolt Sources and Detectors (ASD) (MeV) Scorpius is named aft er Project, part of the Enhanced the brightest x-ray source, Capabilities for Subcritical other than the sun, that is Experiments (ECSE), a federally visible from Earth. directed portfolio to enable Th e ability to take radiographs studies of what happens to of subcritical experiments is plutonium during the late stages the biggest diff erence between of its implosion (compression) Scorpius and the Dual-Axis inside a nuclear weapon. Radiographic Hydrodynamic Th ose studies will take the Test (DARHT) facility at Los form of contained implosion Alamos, which has been used experiments that include since 2000 for hydrodynamic fi ssionable, or fi ssile, nuclear implosion experiments. Th ese materials. Th ose materials, “hydros” get so hot that the however, are not allowed to “go imploded materials melt critical,” so the experiments and fl ow like water. DARHT produce no nuclear yield. Th ese takes up to fi ve high-speed noncritical experiments, called radiographic images of a mock- subcritical experiments, or nuclear device (it contains no subcrits, will be carried out fi ssile materials), capturing the in NNSS’s U1a Complex, a images as the device implodes subterranean laboratory. at speeds greater than 10,000 Starting in the 1960s, U1a miles an hour. Data from the was used for underground radiographs are compared nuclear tests, but those with high-performance tests stopped with the 1992 computing simulations that moratorium on U.S. nuclear predict how well a real nuclear weapons testing and the advent weapon will perform. of science-based stockpile “While DARHT provides stewardship—experiments multiple high-quality and computer simulations that radiographic images of give scientists the confi dence the late-time implosion of they need to ensure the safety, weapons containing surrogate security, and eff ectiveness of (nonfi ssile) materials, Scorpius

SPRING 2019 › 13 ‹ INNOVATORS

will provide, for the fi rst a key element in current U.S. Aft er the soil and rock are the end of one of these tunnels time in the United States, the nuclear weapons, some of which hauled up an 8-foot-square and sealed off to isolate and same radiographic imaging are more than 40 years old. elevator shaft , the accelerator’s contain the nuclear material. capabilities as DARHT, but Does old plutonium behave parts will be sent down the same “Th e biggest challenge for on experiments that contain like new plutonium? shaft for assembly underground. us in building Scorpius has fi ssile materials such as “Scorpius will be used to Th ree-dimensional computer been to develop the necessary plutonium,” explains Technical help us learn more about models are being used to work accelerator architecture and Director Mark Crawford, who aging plutonium,” explains out the logistics of building a technologies that will enable oversees the development Funk, noting that newfound 300-plus-foot-long accelerator multi-image radiography in and implementation of the knowledge will be coupled with composed of an injector, 72 cells, the very limited space of the radiographic system. data from past experiments a transport region, and an x-ray underground tunnels where Because Scorpius will and underground testing. “As converter target. the experiments must occur,” radiograph subcritical implosion we learn more, we’ll be able Entombment drift s (tunnels) Crawford explains. “We experiments containing to make our weapons safer will also be mined. Aft er have strived to build on the plutonium, scientists hope to and more secure.” each experiment, the six-foot technology base from DARHT learn a lot about how this fi ssile Mining—aka drilling—the spherical containment vessels wherever possible, but we will material acts in the later stages 420-foot-long tunnel for in which the experiments occur be using a novel solid-state of an implosion. Plutonium is Scorpius is currently underway. will be “entombed”—placed at (electronics) pulsed-power

INFOGRAPHIC ▼ SCORPIUS: A TEAM EFFORT ACROSS THE COMPLEX

The ASD Scorpius Team has broad experience on similar systems in the complex.

NEVADA NATIONAL

SECURITY SITE

ACCELERATOR U1a INTERFACE DETECTOR INTEGRATED TEST STAND SUPPORT GLOBAL SYSTEMS INTEGRATED TEST STAND PROJECT INTEGRATION The ASD Project Collaboration capitalizes on the strengths of the partner laboratories

INJECTOR SYSTEM  IVA INJECTOR PULSED POWER INTEGRATED TEST STAND SUPPORT DOWNSTREAM TRANSPORT SYSTEM INTEGRATED TEST STAND SUPPORT

› 14 ‹ SPRING 2019 system developed by Lawrence x-rays go through the test device will keep it in use in U.S. air- but also because no single Livermore National Laboratory.” (the imploding subcritical launched cruise missiles far into site can provide the necessary Th is innovative pulsed- experiment), they are converted the future. Los Alamos designed number of people for the power system allows for to normal light in a scintillator. the original W80 in 1976, and project while still meeting other higher-quality images and the Th at light is recorded by a Lawrence Livermore National institutional priorities.” ability to take radiographs at camera. (Of course, a camera Laboratory is overseeing the LEP. In addition, “with a planned very specifi c intervals. In this that can capture four images Th e multi-lab history of the lifetime of 30 years, Scorpius, system, Scorpius generates as close together as 200 W80 makes that warhead a with the capabilities it will high-energy electron pulses nanoseconds doesn’t exist fi tting subject for tests at U1a. bring to NNSS, will help us that are timed by the scientists yet, but MIT Lincoln Labs is Scorpius, aft er all, is a multi- train the next generation of and may be as close together as partnering with the Laboratory lab project. “Th is is a closely experimentalists and weapons 200 nanoseconds (billionths of to change that.) coordinated eff ort between designers across the entire DOE a second). Energy is added to Scorpius is expected to be Los Alamos, Livermore, Sandia, complex, ensuring the strength the electrons as they travel the operating by 2025. Its fi rst set and NNSS,” Crawford says. “Th e of our deterrent for decades to length of the accelerator. Near of experiments will focus on coordination is necessary not come,” Funk says. ★ the end, magnets focus electrons the W80-4, a nuclear warhead only because of the broad range onto a target that converts the currently going through a life of technical skills required to electron pulses to x-rays. As the extension program (LEP) that bring the system to completion,

▼ Pictured: A concept illustration shows the Scorpius accelerator and confi nement vessel.

SPRING 2019 › 15 ‹ INNOVATORS

▶ Major funding for the PuLMo project is provided by the Defense Threat Reduction Agency. PuLMo is part of the larger ATHENA (Advanced Tissue-engineered Human Ectypal Network Analyzer) program to design an integrated, miniaturized surrogate human organ system that includes the heart, liver, and lung.

› 16 ‹ SPRING 2019 BIOSECURITY Arti cial lungs protect against threats on the battle eld and beyond

BY JUSTIN WARNER

cientists rely on animal modular components, including testing to show a new the system’s life support Sdrug is safe for the system of valves, tubes, pumps, public, but biological diff erences and reservoirs. between humans and animals Along with their interest in complicate the testing process. pharmaceutical applications, One such diff erence is simply bioengineers at Los Alamos are the air animals and humans working to adapt the PuLMo breathe. Mice, for example, technology to identify and scamper and sniff at ground counter biological, chemical, level, so their lungs are adapted and radiological threats. Work to life down low, oft en in fi lth. is underway to make the Humans walk upright, so their technology deployable in respiratory systems typically two modes depending on the breathe higher, cleaner air. Th ese scenario and threat. In one diff erences mean that mice are mode, the technology is brought imperfect analogs as test subjects to bear on the battlefi eld in for drugs meant for humans. broad sweeps (such as in In fact, drugs that have passed a fl yover) to “inhale” large animal testing have even proven amounts of air and characterize dangerous to humans. potential airborne contaminants Th e need to build a bridge before soldiers are exposed to between animal and human the environment. Th is grants studies and eff ectively test warfi ghters critical intelligence new drugs with minimal risk about airborne threats and motivates Jennifer Harris of allows them to utilize proper Biosecurity and Public Health. protective gear to prevent Harris is one of the leaders of the human exposure. bioengineering capability at Los In the second mode, the Alamos National Laboratory. She technology operates in a specializes in creating laboratory- lightweight, wearable device that based artifi cial organs designed continuously monitors the air to be better preclinical test that a soldier breathes, scanning platforms than animals. and analyzing potential Harris’ love is the contaminants. Th e device would lung, and her team won an provide immediate actionable R&D 100 Award in 2016 for its intelligence in life-or-death work on PuLMo, a miniature situations, allowing medical human lung model. PuLMo personnel to prioritize treatment co-cultures many diff erent types of soldiers on the battlefi eld and of lung cells and replicates the apply countermeasures. conditions in an actual human “To see lung cells grow and lung, even the mechanical perform like they’re supposed stresses of breathing. A PuLMo to in PuLMo is amazing,” Harris unit resembles the human says. As the technology evolves, organ in cellular function but it promises to serve as a sentinel not in appearance; the model is for respiratory safety anywhere rectangular, about the size of a it is deployed. ★ shoebox, and features dozens of

SPRING 2019 › 17 ‹ INNOVATORS

SUPERCOMPUTING New  underX2 processors boost e ciency in nuclear stockpile simulations

BY KATHARINE COGGESHALL

n the world of supercomputers, team focusing on extreme- “fastest” traditionally equates scale computing environments I to “best.” But Los Alamos’ High that achieve higher effi ciency. Performance Supercomputing Grider’s team calls itself the Division leader, Gary Grider, is Effi cient Mission-Centric shaking up tradition. Computing Consortium Rather than continuing to (EMC3) and, in addition to the aspire to the fastest computers, Laboratory, it includes Mellanox Grider chooses to focus the Technologies, DDN Storage, division’s eff orts on computing nCorium, and Marvell. effi ciency, a more relevant and EMC3 recently brought timely consideration for U.S. Marvell’s new Th underX2 ARM national security applications. processors to Los Alamos. For decades, the TOP500 Rather than focusing on speed, list—a notable world ranking the Th underX2 answers the call of supercomputers by speed— for more-effi cient extreme-scale was the gold standard for weapons simulations. determining who could boast Th e Th underX2 off ers the top computer. Los Alamos high memory bandwidth and played prominently in the tolerance of complex problem competition, earning fi rst-place solving that’s strategically rankings several times over. A targeted to Laboratory and computer’s speed is assessed by EMC3 needs. In addition to the number of rapid calculations, its effi ciency, the Th underX2 or fl oating point operations per was also rapidly deployable— second (fl ops), it can execute weapons applications were for every watt of electricity it moved quickly from previous uses. Known as fl ops per watt, processors. Th is was a result that criterion has infl uenced the of careful planning and supercomputing industry, but execution, both in the design that benchmark has become of the processor and in the less relevant for mission-centric deployment strategy. computing: simulating nuclear Th e Th underX2 is the fi rst in weapon performance as part Grider’s planned family of more of the national program for effi cient processors. Marvell monitoring the health and and the Lab are allying to create reliability of the U.S. nuclear a variety of new architectural stockpile. For those simulations— components (pieces of hardware the bread and butter of the and soft ware) that will focus Laboratory’s national security on higher-effi ciency, more mission—Grider explains, stockpile-valuable computing in “the target of fl ops per watt the coming decade. ★ has led to ineffi cient use of supercomputers—think 1 percent effi cient for our needs.” Supercomputing has reached a fork in the road, with the TOP500 chasers speeding in one direction and the Grider INFRASOUND modeling—predicting how data types, “infrasonic Infrasound for missile tracking acoustic energy spreads through signatures contribute to a the atmosphere. “We use more complete picture and modeling to better understand improve our con dence in BY WHITNEY SPIVEY how infrasonic waves propagate characterizing foreign weapons from the source to the sensor; systems,” Blom explains. then we can learn where the Blom hopes to use infrasonic signal came from and supercomputers to improve f a tree falls and no one hears launched? How big was the what produced it,” Blom says. modeling and characterization. it, does it make a sound?  at’s nuclear explosion? Where did “ is potentially enables us to “ e future will bring even Ithe question Phil Blom of the that supersonic aircra go? discern the type of missile, how it  ner characterizations of Lab’s seismoacoustics team is “Infrasonic waves travel large was launched, and its trajectory.” missiles and supersonic researching…but with a national distances,” Blom says. “But Because of infrasound’s aircra , as well as explosions security twist. Blom wants they’re detectable 24/7 by relatively slow propagation and other phenomena,” he to know if a missile launches microbarometer sensors on the speed, Blom’s research will likely says. “Infrasound is proving very or a nuclear device explodes earth’s surface that inexpensively never be a warning system for useful for national security and or a supersonic aircra  ies and precisely measure incoming missiles. Instead, it can nuclear nonproliferation.” ★ by, and no one hears, do those  uctuations in air pressure.” A be used to retroactively detect, things make sound? large area can be monitored track, and characterize missiles  e answer, of course, is without a dense network of that have already launched. “We yes (anything that moves air sensors, and sensors don’t can help characterize missile creates sound, which travels in have to be near the source (of performance,” he says, “what waves), and Blom researches a missile launch, for example) occurred during launch,  ight, ▶ Phil Blom is the Laboratory’s the details using atmospheric to acquire data. and reentry.” Infrasound also has lead scientist for infrasound acoustics—the study of how Groups of microbarometers increasing battle eld applications, research. He is a co-organizer sound waves propagate in the can detect the direction sound such as tracking aircra , of the annual Infrasound atmosphere—and infrasonics— moves from its source. But localizing the source of gun re, & Missiles Workshop, held the study of sound waves with doing that for a fast-moving and detecting tunnels. each April at the Missile frequencies too low for humans source can be tricky, so Blom Combined with seismic, and Space Intelligence to hear. What type of missile turns to atmospheric acoustic electromagnetic, or other Center in Alabama.

SPRING 2019 › 19 ‹ INNOVATORS

▶ “We’re less the cops and more the detectives,” Pickett says. “Cybersecurity investigation is like the CSI television series, but with less gore.”

CYBER SECURITY sessions of Cyber Fire courses Pickett also teaches middle Defending against the dark art of will be held to meet increased school and high school computer hacking training demands. students, showing them how “We’re developing a sense to systematically analyze BY CRISTINA OLDS of teamwork by bringing a computer’s defenses and together students from national vulnerabilities and how to think laboratories, the military, like the hackers they need to the aerospace industry, U.S. defend against. eale Pickett is the the internet. For example, a bad government agencies, and even Cybersecurity requires literal poster boy guy might send phishing emails other governments,” Pickett says. fundamental information Nfor cybersecurity with an attachment carrying “ e bad guys are working in technology skills such as at Los Alamos. On a  yer a virus that, if opened, infects concert, so the defenders need to systems design and computer advertising a lecture about computer so ware and even work in concert as well.” architecture, as well as an “defending yourself from the dark hardware. Or worse, the virus Pickett’s Cyber Fire course, understanding of programming forces of the internet,” Pickett may allow the bad guy to access “Network Archaeology,” teaches languages for writing and was illustrated as a superhero in information on a computer analysts how to dig up and deciphering code. Creativity body armor, wielding a sword or its servers. decipher digital evidence. “In is also an essential skill. and shield, to represent his role Nefarious characters keep archaeology, you don’t have “Computer programming is an as a champion cybercrime  ghter. coming up with new challenges. manuals, just artifacts. If people inherently creative endeavor,” Much of Pickett’s work Part of Pickett’s job is training stumble across a CD 300 years Pickett explains. “At Cyber focuses on cybercrime, which the good guys to be ready for from now, they may wonder Fire, we’re giving people an he describes as a “cheaper, anything. For the 10th year, what we did with this technology, environment where creative more covert way to disrupt Cyber Fire, a cybersecurity and they’ll have to  gure out how thinking yields results, o en a government than previous training program Pickett they can access its data.  at’s wildly di erent results from one types of espionage.” developed, will teach students what we’re doing now: teaching student to the next.” ★ Cybercrime is any criminal hands-on techniques for dealing techniques for deciphering activity involving a computer or with cyberattacks. In 2019, four other languages.”

› 20 ‹ SPRING 2019 be responsive when asked a “Everyone’s door is open, and Using teamwork to solve di cult question,” Mussack says. “ en people are excited to talk about national security challenges we came up with ideas that could their work and thoughts.” actually work.” Mussack is quick to point out BY WHITNEY SPIVEY Mussack’s mentor, celebrated that her team’s ability to answer weapons designer John Pedicini, a challenging question builds provided behind-the-scenes on not only this collaborative guidance and encouragement. environment but also on decades n 1945, the U.S. Navy had a Terrones on what she calls “He pushed us, but he did it out of of previous Laboratory research. question: Could its ships survive “thought experiments.” love: love for us, the science, the “I looked back though historical Ia nuclear blast? It turned to “We started by talking about product, the nation,” Mussack documents and saw ideas Los Alamos, which provided an the physics at play and how we says. “His encouragement that were similar to the ideas answer a er the 1946 Crossroads wanted to change the dynamics gave us the freedom to explore we were brainstorming,” she test series in the Paci c. (See of the system in the question,” and trust ourselves while also says. “I was able to use some of p. 49 for more about Crossroads.) she explains.  e trio discussed questioning ourselves. We those ideas and develop them In 2018, the Navy had another and went back and forth on new needed to think deeply about further to  nally answer the question—a classi ed one—this ideas.  en they independently what we were doing.” Navy’s question.” time about nuclear weapons. investigated di erent parts of  ey also needed to talk “Innovation is slow steady Once again, it turned to Los the problem before continuing about what they were doing—to progress that builds to one Alamos for an answer. their conversation. Eventually, bounce ideas o colleagues thing that people notice,” she “To answer the question, we they began doing computer not directly involved in the continues, noting that progress started brainstorming,” says simulations, with actual problem. “ e Lab is not just a is o en the result of failure. physicist Katie Mussack, who experiments to come later. collaborative environment. It’s “You come up with an idea, try partnered with colleagues “Our initial goal was to a collaborative environment it, and if it doesn’t work, try Omar Wooten and Guillermo show the Navy that we could full of experts,” Mussack says. something else.” ★

▶ “Be fl exible with the way you approach a problem,” says physicist Katie Mussack, paraphrasing advice from her mentor John Pedicini. “Be tied to the outcomes and not to the specifi c details of the process.” INNOVATORS

› 22 ‹ SPRING 2019 BOMB IMAGING Seeing into bombs with sound

BY H. KRIS FRONZAK

hen bomb squads ACCObeam can show objects’ are called to check imperfections and densities Wout a potential and even distinguish between bomb, they need answers to diff erent materials. critical questions. Is the bomb For all its power and a fake? If it’s real, is it stable precision, ACCObeam is also enough to be defused, or could it tiny—smaller than a human explode at any second? pinky fi ngernail. Th e device’s A Los Alamos–invented portable nature and great acoustic imaging device, resolution gave its inventors the called ACCObeam, is being idea of using it to “see” inside repurposed to remove much bombs on location. of that uncertainty. Using In practical terms, this kind ACCObeam’s sound waves, bomb of data could help guide bomb techs of the future may be able techs who oft en have to make to build 3D images of bombs an urgent choice: whether to without physically looking defuse a suspected explosive on inside them. Cristian Pantea, an site or try to move it to a safe acoustic scientist who helped detonation zone. create ACCObeam, or the “Our goal is to make this Acoustic Collimated Beam, is device so precise and easy to working with a team to refi ne use that bomb squads could this device so that bomb squads get all the data they need to can get all the data they need make life-saving decisions in to make life-saving decisions in 5–10 minutes from the time only a few minutes. they approach.” Pantea cautions “Th e data ACCObeam gives that ACCObeam isn’t ready us doesn’t provide all the for prime time yet. More work answers, but it can at least show is being done to test how well techs whether they’re dealing the prototype can discriminate with a dud, something that between types of explosives. could explode momentarily, or Depending on the outcome something that can be defused of that research, Pantea and slowly and carefully,” Pantea says. his teammates at Los Alamos An early version of hope to license the device in ACCObeam was invented years about fi ve years. For bomb ago to assess the stability of gas squads and the many people and oil pipelines. Th e device they protect, the device would emits a low-frequency, acoustic be lifesaving. ★ beam that’s ultra-narrow (collimated). Users can assess the makeup of almost any material in any medium, such as water, rock, or metal, simply by changing frequencies and seeing how the sound waves penetrate or refl ect off diff erent objects. Th e end result is a 3D image with excellent resolution. In action,

SPRING 2019 › 23 ‹ AT 5:30 A.M. ON JULY 16, 1945, TRINITY, THE WORLD’S FIRST ATOMIC DEVICE, WAS DETONATED IN SOUTHERN NEW MEXICO. “It looked like a giant magnesium flare which kept on for what seemed a whole minute but was actually one or two seconds,” said physicist Hans Bethe. “The white ball grew and after a few seconds became clouded with dust whipped up by the explosion from the ground and rose and left behind a black trail of dust particles.”

75 YEARS OF WEAPONSADVANCES BETTER SCIENCE = BETTER SECURITY

As science advances, so do America’s national security capabilities.

WEAPONSADVANCESIn addition to creating the world’s first nuclear device, Los Alamos has made nuclear weapons more effective, safe, and specific to military needs to support U.S. nuclear deterrence. WEAPONS

N 1942, THE U.S. GOVERNMENT SELECTED LOS ALAMOS for Project Y of the top-secret Manhattan Project. Civilian and military men and women came to Los Alamos to solve a seemingly Iunsolvable problem: design and build an atomic fi ssion bomb to end World War II. On the morning of July 16, 1945, that the bomb was developed, that nuclear weapons deter Manhattan Project scientists that it was recognized as attacks—became the dominant conducted a test that proved something important and military strategy and drove the the feasibility of weaponizing new, and that it would have an Laboratory to design and deliver energy from the atom. Trinity, effect on the course of history,” increasingly more powerful and as the test was known, was the former Laboratory Director Robert compact nuclear weapons for detonation of the “Gadget”—the Oppenheimer told The New York ever-improving delivery systems. world’s fi rst atomic device—near Times Magazine in 1965. “In that With the development of these Alamogordo, New Mexico. world, in that war, it was the weapons came the responsibility After the success of the Trinity only thing to do.” to make them safer. Innovative test, two atomic bombs were In the decades since, science and engineering were— sent to the Pacifi c for use in the Los Alamos has continued to and still are—necessary in both war: Little Boy was dropped on pioneer weapons technology the development and safety of Hiroshima on August 6, 1945, and that is just as signifi cant but these complex weapons. Fat Man was dropped on Nagasaki perhaps not as well known as Here’s a look at 10 Los Alamos– three days later. World War II those fi rst fi ssion bombs. During developed weapons advances offi cially ended on September 2. the Cold War in particular, that continue to impact America’s “It was a damn good thing deterrence theory—the idea national security. ★

NUMBER ONE Thermonuclear fusion and boosting

Fission bombs are the prerequisite for developing other types of nuclear weapons. Not long after the success of the Gadget, Fat Man, and Little Boy, scientists began learning to make even more powerful bombs using fi ssion to initiate thermonuclear fusion, which occurs when atoms combine at high temperatures to produce tremendous amounts of energy—aka nuclear yield. In April 1951, Los Alamos began the Greenhouse nuclear test series at Enewetok Atoll in the Pacifi c Ocean. The series consisted of four explosive experiments (called shots): Dog, Easy, George, and Item. George was the fi rst experiment that produced thermonuclear fusion. With a 225-kiloton yield (the equivalent of 225,000 tons of TNT), George was the largest nuclear explosion up to that time. “George was an important way station on the path to development of thermonuclear devices,” according to a 1951 report by the Defense Nuclear Agency. The report explained that George proved that a fi ssion reaction could be used to start a sustained thermonuclear reaction, leading to the fi rst test of a thermonuclear device in 1952. On May 24, 1951, two weeks after George, the 45.5-kiloton test called Item was the fi rst test of the principle of fusion “boosting”: the use of a thermonuclear fusion reaction to increase the rate of a fi ssion reaction in order to boost ■ On May 8, 1951, effi ciency and therefore, yield. George was the In 1956, the concept of hollow-boosted primary fi rst experiment (fi rst stage) designs was proved in Los Alamos’ that produced Operation Teapot experiments. Hollow boosting used thermonuclear fusion. neutrons from the fusion of a gas mixture blown into a hollow core made of fi ssile materials, just before detonation to accelerate the chain reaction. ★

› 26 ‹ SPRING 2019 NUMBER TWO The hydrogen bomb

Thermonuclear weapons are colloquially called hydrogen bombs, or H-bombs, because they use the fusion of different forms (isotopes) of hydrogen. Using these isotopes—specifi cally deuterium and tritium—allows for yields in the megaton range. (A 1-megaton yield is the equivalent of 1 million tons of TNT.) The world’s fi rst megaton-class thermonuclear test was Mike, a Los Alamos–designed test in the Ivy series at Enewetok Atoll on October 31, 1952. Mike was a two-stage test device that weighed 82 tons and used a fi ssion bomb as the fi rst, or primary, stage to initiate a thermonuclear-fueled secondary stage (the “Teller-Ulam” concept). The resulting 10.4-megaton test was, at that time, the highest-yield device ever exploded and created a crater 6,240 feet across NUMBER THREE and 164 feet deep. In 1954, the Operation Castle series successfully proved the U.S. could make a deliverable thermonuclear weapon. Battlefi eld “[The] Castle results can be described as sensational,” wrote nuclear weapons Los Alamos weapons designer John Richter in his book, Risk Versus Threat. The two-stage designs tested in the Ivy Also called tactical and Castle series, together with the hollow-boosted primary or theater weapons, designs, set the template for the subsequent U.S. stockpile. ★ battlefi eld nuclear weapons are compact weapons designed to be used on the battlefi eld (to destroy 100 tanks, for example). In addition to designing nuclear bombs (dropped from planes) in the 1950s, Los Alamos designed nuclear missile warheads for the Army’s Honest John and Corporal short-range missiles and the Air Force’s Matador cruise missile. It also developed the Army’s 11-inch artillery-fi red atomic projectile. Battlefi eld nuclear weapons were a substantial part of the ■ In January 1950, peak nuclear weapons stockpile President Harry levels during the Cold War. They Truman directed “changed the tactical calculus the Atomic Energy between the Soviet Union Commission to and the U.S. on the Eastern continue its work European front,” says Jeremy on atomic weapons, Best of the Lab’s Offi ce of Nuclear including the and Military Affairs. “Battlefi eld development of a nuclear weapons were how we hydrogen bomb. balanced the manpower and “It is part of my conventional force difference responsibility as between us and the Soviet Union.” commander in Most of America’s battlefi eld chief of the armed nuclear weapons were either forces to see to it retired or dismantled after that our country is the Cold War. ★ able to defend itself against any possible ■ Pictured: Honest John aggressor,” he said. battalions were deployed in Europe in early 1954.

SPRING 2019 › 27 ‹ WEAPONS

NUMBER FOUR One-point safety

The concept of one-point safety was developed in the mid-1950s after physicist Harold Agnew, who would become the Laboratory’s third director, visited an Air Force base. There, he saw how casually the airmen handled nuclear weapons and became alarmed about the possibility of an accident. He wondered if, for example, inadvertently dropping a weapon on the tarmac could produce a detonation with nuclear yield and, if so, how such a disaster could be prevented. “It thus became a major design objective to assure that even when fi ssile and high-explosive components were fully assembled, there would be no nuclear yield if an accident resulted in detonation of the high explosive,” wrote Los Alamos weapons designers Robert Thorn and Donald Westervelt in a 1987 report. “Since such a detonation might start at any single point on or in the explosive components, this design objective came to be known as One-point ‘one-point safety.’” In the mid-to-late 1950s, multiple tests were devoted to safety studying one-point safety. The fi rst of these was the Project 56 series in Nevada, followed quickly by the was a game Project 58 series. After these two series, the one-point safety tests were integrated into many of the changer test series conducted at Nevada. One-point safety was a game- changer because it made the because it stockpile safer. ★ made the stockpile safer. ■ Pictured: One-point safety made transporting nuclear weapons—on planes such as this B-52 Stratofortress— safer because no nuclear yield would occur in the event of an accident.

› 28 ‹ SPRING 2019 ■ When a B-52 crashed at Palomares, Spain, in 1966, the conventional explosives of a nuclear weapon detonated, but no nuclear yield occurred—due to NUMBER FIVE modifi cations that were made as a result of the Hydronuclear tests hydronuclear program.

When a nuclear testing moratorium went into effect crippling safety issues.” on October 31, 1958, designers “took advantage of Ultimately, the tests generated the resulting opportunity to study in more detail the data needed to further study the somewhat puzzling results of recent one-point one-point safety while still fi tting safety tests,” according to Thorn and Westervelt. “The within the bounds of the test safety behavior of a given design seemed to depend critically moratorium. They advanced the on the particular point at which detonation of the high development of one-point safety explosive was initiated.” Because these designs could not design and engineering and be tested during the moratorium, Los Alamos developed a improved the understanding of hydronuclear test program. how much fi ssile material could Hydronuclear tests are small-scale underground tests that be used in a pit and remain use nuclear material and create fi ssion but are engineered to safe in almost any conceivable generate no nuclear yield. These tests involve a combination accident scenario. Located inside of high explosive and fi ssile material (enriched uranium a weapon, the pit triggers nuclear and/or plutonium) in quantities too low to generate a fi ssion when compressed by nuclear explosion. high explosives. Once the Atomic Energy Commission (the earliest “The speed at which our predecessor of the Department of Energy) and President scientists designed, built, and Eisenhower approved the hydronuclear test program, tests diagnosed the hydronuclear were conducted at Los Alamos rather than at the Nevada Test experiments was remarkable,” Site. Supposedly, this was so Los Alamos designers would not says Mark Chadwick, chief be tempted to create nuclear yield (because if they did, they scientist and chief operating risked contaminating the town in addition to violating the offi cer of the Laboratory’s test moratorium). Weapons Physics Directorate. The Laboratory’s fi rst hydronuclear test was conducted on “These experiments allowed January 12, 1960, and after several series, “by April 1 the most them to quickly identify and urgent safety questions had been answered,” according to resolve safety concerns.” ★ Thorn and Westervelt. “The hydronuclear experiments…made it possible to identify, and in some cases to resolve, otherwise

SPRING 2019 › 29 ‹ WEAPONS

Photo: Daniel Preston NUMBER SEVEN Insensitive high explosives

Los Alamos began researching insensitive high explosives in the 1950s, with the goal that no nuclear weapons would ever be unintentionally detonated. The Laboratory developed manufacturing and formulation methods for the explosive TATB (triaminotrinitrobenzene), a molecule that was fi rst synthesized at Harvard University in the 19th century. TATB burns but does not explode when it’s heated and does not react even when struck by bullets or shrapnel. Deliberately detonating this unique material requires a well-engineered initiation system. The Laboratory played a key role in refi ning TATB and NUMBER SIX patenting its manufacturing process. Los Alamos also became the fi rst Plastic-bonded national lab to use a TATB composition conventional in stockpile nuclear weapons, high explosives specifi cally in the B61 bomb, the W80 High explosives trigger cruise missile, and the nuclear weapons that use W85 Pershing II missile. ★ an implosion process. By the early 1950s, Los Alamos had TATB is typically the main developed the plastic-bonding component of insensitive plastic- process for conventional high bonded explosives, including PBX explosives. In a plastic-bonded 9502, an insensitive high explosive explosive (PBX), explosive powder that the Lab produced for use in is bound together using a nuclear warheads. “PBX 9502 is synthetic polymer, which allows uniquely suited for nuclear bombs,” the explosive to be formed says Laboratory high-explosives into specifi c shapes. The PBX expert Cary Skidmore. 9501 formulation, introduced in the 1960s, improved safety in handling and transportation scenarios, while maintaining performance and facilitating compact warhead designs. It allowed the Lab to retire the earlier, more sensitive (and less safe) PBX 9404 explosive. ★

■ Pictured: PBX allowed ■ A B-52 drops a B61 gravity scientists and engineers to adjust bomb. Photo: U.S. Air Force explosive properties to balance performance and safety.

› 30 ‹ SPRING 2019 NUMBER EIGHT ■ Pictured: An unarmed Minuteman III ICBM is test-launched from Vandenburg Air Force Base in ICBM and SLBM warheads California. Photo: U.S. Air Force

In the 1970s and ’80s, These powerful, small, accurate weapons. Since 1979, Minuteman Los Alamos designed warheads can go anywhere in ICBMs have been armed the W76, W78, and the world and are an essential with the W78 nuclear warhead. W88 warheads to be used on component in deterring our Ohio-class submarines can carry intercontinental ballistic missiles adversaries. The warheads can up to 24 Trident II D5 SLBM (ICBMs) and submarine-launched be carried inside a multiple missiles, with each missile being ballistic missiles (SLBMs). A independently targetable capable of delivering up to 12 ballistic missile is rocket powered reentry vehicle (MIRV) and can independently targetable W76 or and is guided into outer space in each be programmed to hit a eight W88 warheads with a range a high, arching trajectory. It falls, different target. beyond 4,600 miles. ★ unguided, with gravity until it These warheads remain reenters the Earth’s atmosphere the cornerstone of the U.S. and descends to its target. deterrent—its stockpile of nuclear

SPRING 2019 › 31 ‹ WEAPONS

NUMBER NINE ■ A worker uses a glovebox to handle Plutonium plutonium. R&D and pit production

Early in its history, Los Alamos measured the critical mass of plutonium—the smallest amount of plutonium needed for a sustained nuclear chain reaction—and to this day, the Laboratory leads experimental and simulation work in nuclear criticality and criticality safety. Since 1943, Los Alamos has designed a variety of plutonium alloys and pit types to meet specifi c weapons requirements. The Laboratory has the nation’s only facility capable of handling large quantities of plutonium for manufacturing pits and power sources and for conducting basic R&D. Plutonium pits are critical components of every nuclear warhead, but nearly all the pits in the current U.S. stockpile were produced from 1978 to 1989 at Colorado’s Rocky Flats facility, before it was shut down. In the 2000s, Los Alamos demonstrated an ability to build war-reserve pits. A war-reserve pit is one that meets the engineering and physics standards for use in deployed nuclear weapons. In May 2018, the NNSA reconfi rmed that Los Alamos will establish a safe, secure, reliable, and effi cient capability to manufacture at least 30 war-reserve plutonium pits per ■ A plutonium dioxide Make no year by 2026 (the Savannah power source used in mistake, River Site in South Carolina NASA space missions. will develop the capability to Los Alamos manufacture 50 war-reserve pits is—and will per year by 2030). “Make no mistake, Los Alamos remain—the is—and will remain—the nation’s nation’s plutonium center of excellence,” NNSA Administrator Lisa Gordon- plutonium Hagerty said during an April center of 2018 visit to Los Alamos. “The work that is done here is critical excellence. to our nation’s nuclear security —NNSA Administrator and central to our stockpile Lisa Gordon-Hagerty stewardship mission.” ★

› 32 ‹ SPRING 2019 ■ Science-based stockpile stewardship combines scientifi c and experimental capabilities (such as those at DARHT, pictured), Deterrence with high-performance supercomputing simulations. starts and ends with nuclear weapons. —General John Hyten

NUMBER TEN The U.S. nuclear stockpile today

Historically, of the 63 types of nuclear weapons This article was inspired entered into the U.S. stockpile, 46 were designed at by a list compiled by Los Alamos. Of today’s seven types of nuclear weapons, Mark Chadwick and Michael fi ve are Los Alamos–designed: the B61 gravity bomb; the W80 Bernardin. Chadwick and cruise missile warhead; and the W76, W78, and W88 ballistic Bernardin are the chief missile warheads. scientist/chief operating Los Alamos continues to maintain the stockpiled variants offi cer and the associate of the B61, W76, W78, and W88 and is actively modernizing Laboratory director, the W76, the W88, and the B61 to ensure that these nuclear respectively, of the weapons remain safe, secure, and reliable. Los Alamos is Laboratory’s Weapons integral to ensuring a continued effective deterrent in the Physics Directorate. coming decades. “What you do here is the most important work in the country,” General John Hyten, commander of U.S. Strategic Command (STRATCOM), told Laboratory employees during a visit last year. “Deterrence starts and ends with nuclear weapons.” ★

SPRING 2019 › 33 ‹ At the Laboratory’s Sigma Complex, metal components are created ▶ This pressure vessel was built by with powder, layer layering metal powder—a process called additive manufacturing. by layer, to withstand extreme environments. BETTER SCIENCE = BETTER SECURITY

Innovative manufacturing techniques may result in higher-quality, safer, and less-expensive parts for nuclear weapons. ABSTRACTSSIGMA

N THE SIGMA COMPLEX at Los Alamos National Laboratory, John Carpenter—a materials scien- tist—sits quietly at his desk analyzing his latest data. Colorful line graphs and black-and-white images  ll his computer screen.  e glow of the images pulls Ihim forward to investigate more closely, and he smiles at the success these data imply.

Since 2015, Carpenter has been a lead scien- tist for the NNSA–funded Pressure Vessel Project. Working with researchers at Sandia National Laboratories, Savannah River National Laboratory, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, and Kansas City National Security Campus, Carpenter guides this inter-labora- tory collaboration.

 is project is the  rst of its kind because it circumnavigates the linear “process leads to product” methodology to instead work with a chicken-or-egg scenario: What comes  rst, the manufacturing process or the product? For Carpenter, the answer is both.  e initial process leads to a product, which is then analyzed to determine how that process can be improved, which leads to a better product, and so on.  is is what Carpenter and the NNSA have termed science-based quali cation, and it is at the crux of the Pressure Vessel Project’s purpose: Use the scienti c method to prove, step by step, that a process known as additive manufacturing (AM) is suitable for building metal components.

“We are pioneering the pathway for additive manufacturing,” Carpenter explains, “and once this pathway is established for the pressure vessel, other metal components can be built.” The point of the pressure vessel

 e pressure vessel these scientists are making is a humble component no bigger than an average person’s palm. Made from stainless steel powder, its simple egg-like structure belies this component’s importance for national secu- rity—it is the model by which science-based quali cation will be used to determine whether AM can reliably manufacture and repair metal components that are faced with extreme envi- ronmental conditions and are relevant to ▶ A 3D STL fi le, like the one shown national security. here of a pressure vessel, is the starting point for additive In particular, component repair is important manufacturing. STL stands for for the aging U.S. nuclear stockpile. Over time, Standard Triangle Language. stockpile components su er from age and need to be repaired or replaced, but o en the knowl- edge and equipment for manufacturing those

› 36 ‹ SPRING 2019 components have disappeared with time. People methods. “Additive manufacturing is not retire, machines break, and life moves on, which going to replace traditional machining, but it is why scientists such as Carpenter are exploring allows for the expansion of capabilities,” says AM as the technology for  lling in the gaps. Colt Montgomery, an AM postdoc at Sigma.

 e AM process produces real-world prod- As of yet, there is no certi cation process for ucts from powdered materials such as metals, AM, but in the opinion of Michael Brand (an polymers, and ceramics. AM is similar to 3D AM engineer at Sigma who has played a role in printing but with two key di erences: the scale developing the technique from its beginning), a and the materials. In terms of scale, 3D printing certi cation process is needed for the future. is at one end (for everyday consumers) and AM  is is because the success of the technique is far at the other (industrial).  e materials can is still somewhat dependent on the skill be far more exotic in AM, and AM can build and experience of the operator and because products that are far more useful as compared AM technology changes rapidly over short with 3D printing. For weapons, AM provides amounts of time. “It has blown my mind how an alternative way to build, repair, or refurbish far additive manufacturing has gone in the  ve critical components. years since I started,” Brand says.

Carpenter’s team is materializing a small army of pressure vessels from metal powder, with How additive each new vessel slightly better than the one before.  e army will continue to grow until manufacturing works NNSA requirements have been met and charac- teristics such as material strength and ductility, Essentially, AM takes a 2D drawing and brings burst pressure, resistance to leakage, and perfor- it to life as a 3D component. Computer so ware mance in extreme environments are assessed. takes the  rst step in initiating this process by modeling a drawing out of tiny triangles.  ese  e data from this latest pressure vessel are triangles spread over the drawing to form a what splash Carpenter’s screen with color. net-like 3D image—an STL  le. From there, Coming full circle—process to product and the  le can be customized to add labels to the back to process again—these new data put proof 3D component, insert holes, or delete portions. behind the science-based quali cation method.  e STL  le encompasses all of the program instruction details required to physically build Where additive the component, but  rst the  le must be sliced. For powder-bed AM (the type used in the manufacturing fi ts in Pressure Vessel Project), slicing so ware cuts the STL  le into 40-micrometer horizontal Di erent from traditional forms of manufac- layers; this is the thickness each physical layer turing, such as molding and casting, AM is will possess. Note that the diameter of a human a solution for building uniquely challenging hair is 60 micrometers and a single micrometer components, such as components with complex is a millionth of a meter, so these AM slices are architectures. For example, nature’s intricately quite thin.  e sliced  le is fed by a computer fashioned honeycomb is a structure that to the AM machine, communicating how to ▼ During the additive manufacturing cannot be realized by traditional machining actually build the pressure vessel layer by layer. process, digital 3D design data is methods but can easily come to life using AM. used to build up a component in  is is one niche that AM can serve without In the Sigma Complex, the AM shop houses layers by depositing metal powder. completely replacing other manufacturing a single computer atop a modest desk, which Illustration: EOS North America

SPRING 2019 › 37 ‹ SIGMA

is in stark contrast to the considerable AM Much of that excess powder can be recycled ▶ Materials scientist John Carpenter machine that dominates the middle of the for the next build. Careful post-processing of is confi dent in the additive room.  e rectangular 14-foot-long by 8-feet- the excess powder removes any particles that manufacturing pathway being tall by 5-feet-deep machine o ers only a small have been sintered (or glued) together because forged by science-based window for viewing the “build” chamber, which these particles would be di cult to spread while qualifi cation. is equipped with four infrared lasers. Brand building the next pressure vessel. explains that four lasers as compared to the traditional one laser reduces the component build time substantially (which is still on the The process–product order of 80–100 hours). feedback loop Carpenter’s AM team uses stainless steel powder between 20 and 60 micrometers in At the crux of the Pressure Vessel Project is the particle size, adding it to the argon- lled AM desire to link the AM process variables to the chamber one layer of powder at a time. Stainless  nal performance of the component (or the steel is the material of choice for this project product), which leads to informed decisions because it is relatively inexpensive, readily on how to tweak the process in order to make available, easy to work with, and well-char- a better product. acterized in terms of properties for non-AM applications.  is allows Carpenter’s team to In the world of science, form is related to func- focus on the process variables at play rather tion. For example, a  sh is equipped with  ns than being surprised by an unexpected result to help it swim, and lung cells are quite thin to due to a lesser-understood material. allow gas transfer for breathing. On any scale, form couples with function. In a pressure vessel, Inside the argon- lled AM chamber, the  rst its form on a microscale is coupled with its func- layer of stainless steel powder is spread on a tion (performance). build plate.  e sliced STL  le tells the laser where to strike in order to melt w powder  e pressure vessel’s microstructure is predic- together, according to what is needed for that tive of certain properties, such as strength and layer of the pressure vessel. To an observer, toughness. So, when Sigma scientists and engi- the laser is invisible, until it strikes the metal neers identify a speci c microstructure (called and a bright spark of light appears. Not characterizing) in a pressure vessel, they are all of the powder in a given layer is melted, able to associate a list of predictable proper- some remains loose. ties that go with it.  ey can tweak the process variables in order to tweak the microstructure, Before another layer of powder is added on which results in a change in performance.  is top of the  rst, the build plate moves down is science-based quali cation, and it gives the scientists greater control over the product. Science- based quali cation is not a For weapons, additive guess-and-check process; rather, it is a fundamentally manufacturing provides di erent way of qualifying components. By linking an alternative way to build, structure to properties, a component can be quali- repair, or refurbish critical  ed based on whether it has the right microstructure, components. regardless of the synthesis or production route.

However, AM is a unique 40 micrometers (equal to the thickness of the form of manufacturing and produces micro- layer that will be added).  e pressure vessel structures that are considerably di erent from is built from the bottom up and is constantly what would be seen if casting or forming lowering deeper into the chamber below. A er methods were used. Everything scientists know 4,000–5,000 layers, the  nished component is about how microstructure from those latter below the starting place of the  rst layer and methods relates to performance must be tossed buried within the excess loose powder that out when considering AM, and new form-func- wasn’t melted by the laser. Like an archae- tion links must be forged. “ is necessitates ologist excavating a bone, the component is creating new linkages between microstructure carefully removed from the chamber using a and properties,” Carpenter says, “and this is one vacuum and brushes. of the reasons this project is so important.”

› 38 ‹ SPRING 2019 SPRING 2019 › 39 ‹ SIGMA

loom. Carpenter’s team members showed their Sigma: a manufacturing newly learned links between microstructure and properties allowed them to change their powerhouse process while still producing a pressure vessel of predictable performance.  e applications  e Sigma Complex was the obvious choice to of this strategy are far-reaching. headquarter the Pressure Vessel Project because Sigma houses many of the world’s top manu- facturing and metallurgical scientists under one roof. Working elbow-to-elbow, these experts “It has blown my mind how can put their heads together at a moment’s notice and o er instant feedback on the project. far additive manufacturing

Carpenter took advantage of this perk when has gone in the fi ve years one of the machines used in the Pressure Vessel Project went down. Between the resources at since I started.” Sigma (both people and equipment) and the rapid learning from science-based quali cation, °MICHAEL BRAND Carpenter’s team was able to continue to make headway. “We did have machines go down over the course of the project,” Carpenter explains. “Our e orts in science-based quali cation Jumping on the bandwagon smoothed over this speedbump rather than causing us to start over.” Scientists and engineers at Sandia, Savannah River, Lawrence Livermore, and Kansas City A substitute for the downed machine was put collaborate with the folks at Los Alamos on the in place and produced quality pressure vessels. Pressure Vessel Project. It is clear there is more  is highlights the importance of science-based to this project than meets the eye; the applica- quali cation—understanding why a process tions of AM and the science-based quali cation works and how it produces a component with process entice researchers from all walks of life. speci c performance characteristics unchains the scientists from having to always replicate With this level of inter-laboratory collabora- the same process on the same machines. In tion came the need for a biannual technical real life, things break while deadlines still exchange, so everyone can be kept up to speed

› 40 ‹ SPRING 2019 and contribute to the project in a timely and complete. Now that the initial process has been Not only is the useful manner. Twice a year, everyone gathers determined through science-based quali ca- Pressure Vessel Project in one location to hash out the latest data and tion, the next phase of the project will focus on pertinent to national analyses and contribute their ideas for reaching scaling up and transitioning AM to programs. security, particularly the NNSA objectives. as it relates to All eyes will be on the technology readiness level Altogether, there are seven deliverable categories (TRL), a numerical estimation of the technol- the aging stockpile, but for the AM project: vessel design, a quali ca- ogy’s maturity.  e scale is from 1 to 9, with 9 AM is also predicted to tion plan, AM building, material and processing being the most mature.  e pressure vessel is replace older, less-e cient assurance, modeling and simulation, inspection considered to be at a TRL level of 3 right now, manufacturing techniques. and metrology, and characterization/perfor- with the hopes that it will be at a TRL level of 5 AM is expected to be a mance/function testing. by the year 2020. Most programs require a TRL “greener,” more sustainable level of 5 (along with a possible pathway to TRL technique that will reduce  ese categories are discussed both inde- level of 9) before adopting a process. the production footprint pendently and as they relate to each other. For as well as the cost of instance, the vessel design and AM building  anks to the science-based quali cation fabrication within the NNSA teams ensure that what is designed is build- method, the scale-up for AM is expected to be plants (as compared to other able and what is buildable will meet the straightforward, as compared to more tradi- manufacturing methods). prescribed requirements. tional manufacturing techniques. Scale-up inherently causes changes in a manufacturing Carpenter’s team is cognizant of its  e  ve institutions will continue to collaborate process, which can cause unexpected problems, position on the frontlines of AM as the Pressure Vessel Project reaches a critical but Carpenter is already well-versed in over- development. “We’re in an exciting turning point—a change in focus from meeting coming these challenges. area,” Montgomery says, “we’re NNSA performance objectives to scaling up seeing the innovation take place.” and perfecting the process in order to build Carpenter and his team view the future of His team is also aware that staying ahead other components. AM as very bright, with many collaborations of AM innovations is important for national expected in the coming years. Innovations security, as other countries are beginning to in the AM materials used, the components adopt this technology. No others, however, are The future of AM produced, and streamlining the process as as adept at science-based quali cation as the well as the characterization are all anticipated. researchers at Sigma and their collaborators at  ree years of hard work have led to the Along with powder-bed AM, other types of AM the four other national laboratories. ★ successful data on Carpenter’s computer screen will be investigated, and modeling and simula- (which proves the NNSA objectives have been tion tools will be developed to further enable met), but the Pressure Vessel Project is far from science-based quali cation.

▶ A partially manufactured pressure vessel.

SPRING 2019 › 41 ‹ SIGMA

At the Sigma Complex, a part is heated in preparation to be formed by a press.

INSIDE THE SIGMA COMPLEX At Los Alamos, material design, manufacturing, and testing is all under one roof. Since the late 1950s, Sigma’s mission has been to make products (for weapons or otherwise) effi ciently, predict a product’s functionality, and guarantee a product’s quality. These products are not only complicated—structurally and materially complex—but also essential to national and global security. Sigma products can be found in nuclear warheads, in outer space, and in models that predict material aging driven by radiation and heat.

Creating alloys Contributing Building Studying the Developing (mixtures of to the fi eld of components for simulation of a series metals), such as radio pharmacy by space, such as those oil and natural gas of four reactors Nambé, a lustrous developing thorium in Cassini (a robotic in deep geological (Kiwi, Phoebus, silver-looking alloy of targets that recover spacecraft sent to reserves as well as Peewee-1, and eight metals that was radium isotopes for study Saturn) and crack formation Nuclear Furnace-1) adopted by dishware cancer treatment and the A-10 Warthog (a and seismic wave to understand the artisans because creating SHINE, a U.S. military fi ghter propagation via principles needed of its resistance to system that diagnoses plane). Sigma has also a 5,000-ton high- to create a nuclear- tarnish and chipping. a multitude of diseases, produced uranium- pressure press, called powered rocket Additionally, depleted such as cancer impregnated graphite the Sigma Press (Project Rover) U6Nb is a mixture of and heart disease, fuel components depleted uranium and through the use of for the Rover II niobium that can be the molybdenum-99 and Mars Rover cast into weapon parts isotope and used for radiation shielding

› 42 ‹ SPRING 2019 The Sigma Complex consists of seven shops

These shops work separately or together to create solutions for their clients.

■ Foundry and Solidifi cation Science ■ Deformation Processing ■ Powder Materials Processing (includes Additive Manufacturing) ■ Machining and Inspection ■ Electrochemistry and Corrosion ■ Welding and Joining ■ Characterization and Special Projects

Machining and Inspection

Processing Supporting beryllium and the Lab's radioactive parts Weapons program. and manufacturing For example, Sigma custom uranium produces critical components for components of stockpile stewardship the test devices experiments used at the Dual- Axis Radiographic Hydrodynamic Test facility

Foundry ANALYSIS The Science of Policy  ree NNSA o cials—who used to work at Los Alamos—share their thoughts on innovation and an ever-evolving stockpile.

AS TOLD TO WHITNEY SPIVEY

Kathleen Alexander Assistant Deputy Administrator for Research, Development, Test, and Evaluation in NNSA’s Offi ce of Defense Programs

I oversee what is traditionally viewed as We still have to make sure sta members the science-based stockpile stewardship receive su ciently challenging experiences portfolio—theoretical, analytical, so that they are prepared for the future. experimental, and computational Additionally, it is important that we allow capabilities.  e organization also sta to take risks and recognize that when oversees all of our academic programs, you allow for that risk taking, sometimes as well as Laboratory Directed Research the good results don’t happen immediately. and Development, which is where a We don’t want to be so success oriented lot of innovation actually originates. that we start designing experiments to While providing oversight for our con rm what we already know. I o en say academic programs, I take the opportunity to team members, “Tell me the experiment to speak with students about how compelling that might prove you’re wrong—and do it.” our mission is. I also emphasize that In our experiments, we o en require working on our mission requires a “we” very fast diagnostics with high resolution perspective because we work in teams to to obtain the information we need. We’ve learned a lot from the hydrodynamic test facilities at the Dual-Axis Radiographic It’s all about the data Hydrodynamic Test (DARHT) facility at Los Alamos National Laboratory and Flash and results—that is what X-ray Induction Linear Accelerator (FXR) at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. energizes the workforce.  e time is right to apply that knowledge to the subcritical experiment program contribute to the security of the nation. using state-of-the-art diagnostics at the We’ve been doing science-based NNSS (see p. 12). Subcritical experiments stewardship for well over 20 years now. are a key tool in our toolkit, and it’s very Materials continue to age while threats important to collect as much information continue to surface and evolve. We must as we can from these experiments. remain prepared to respond to new You can see and feel the enthusiasm technical challenges and surprises.  e and energy of the Nevada and laboratory questions we need to answer grow more workforces when they’re performing challenging. Yet, we must continue to be subcritical experiments and especially when responsive, agile, and resilient. We have to they’re implementing new diagnostics. think outside our current set of acquisition It’s all about the data and results—that programs so that we can challenge people is what energizes the workforce. ★ beyond their current knowledge base. In the past, our designers and engineers conducted a certain number of experiments ■ Pictured: Facilities such as as part of the journey to becoming experts. DARHT provide data that increases So how do we create experts in an era in scientists’ con dence in the weapons which we’re not doing as many experiments? in the U.S. nuclear stockpile.

› 44 ‹ SPRING 2019 Mark Anderson Director for the Offi ce of Advanced Simulation and Computing and Institutional R&D

I run the advanced simulation and threshold in computing power, we uncover to work without testing them.  e question computing program at NNSA. Advanced new science issues that need to be resolved. is: Can you build up a body of evidence that’s simulation and computing is a major federal We’re not able to increase the density convincing and compelling enough that you program that pushes the boundaries of of transistors on a chip at the rate we do not need to test?  at’s the Holy Grail we’ve computing and has been doing that since were anymore. And so we’re looking at been chasing for the past 25 years almost. the beginning of stockpile stewardship. other methods of enhancing performance Originally, stockpile stewardship was this: Advanced simulation and computing that may translate into more  ops We’re not going to change anything. We’re going has been at the forefront of high- and may not. NNSA needs to pursue to keep the weapons we have and just make sure performance computing R&D for over two e ciency over  ops from here on out. they’re good.  en we started to realize, well, decades since the  rst tera op computer  e communication angle is actually good forever? What does that mean? You start at Sandia and the  rst peta op computer— extremely important. Any hint of science trying to refresh these weapons so they live Roadrunner—at Los Alamos, and we’re going in a conversation can put certain people longer, and all of a sudden things aren’t available to put an exa op computer at Livermore in o , even if it’s necessary to truly answer the that used to be. So you have to turn to additive 2023. So we have gone up by six orders of question. So it makes it a real challenge to manufacturing (see p. 34) or to other materials, magnitude in computing power, a million communicate in terms that your audience and all of a sudden, you’ve made changes, and times.  at’s a big jump in two decades. can understand or is willing to accept. you have to deal with those changes. ★ A er 20 years we are reevaluating what it It’s easier to work with the laboratories means to be a leader in this  eld. We’ve been if they respect your background a little chasing the  ops— oating point operations bit. I can participate in the discussions about per second—ever since the beginning, with how to solve problems in a way that federal good reason.  e laboratories and the program managers who don’t have that designers initially thought that we could background cannot. Policy sets constraints, handle stockpile stewardship by higher- but being able to argue the value proposition resolution calculations of weapons. We got pro or con is really important, and that to a point where we could do those higher- means understanding the technical issues. resolution calculations and we realized Anybody who has a technical that at these higher resolutions, we need background understands that you better physics. Whenever we reach a new cannot demonstrate weapons are going Kevin Greenaugh Assistant Deputy Administrator for Strategic Partnership Programs

I worked at Los Alamos National Laboratory which results in quali cation changes. You qualify something that introduces di erent as a scientist and engineer, and when I have to be able to qualify that components material properties, such as grain structures, came to the D.C. area to manage technical made from new materials will not while not impacting performance? programs, it was a smoother transition. If impact weapon performance. You need Lastly, strategic partnership projects and you understand the science and engineering scienti c understanding to determine technology transfer enable weapons activities. that you’re trying to manage, it’s helpful. how policy can change technology, which In both programs, capabilities at our sites are There’s an intersection between can change weapon performance. used to help other agencies meet their missions, science and policy. For example, there’s We want to be responsive to the while exercising NNSA site core capabilities. a policy that established a moratorium stockpile. As we execute life extension Technology transfer, resourced by programs on underground nuclear testing. So, what programs, we consider certi ability and such as Cooperative Research and Development does that mean technically? What do manufacturability. When you go down the Agreements, o en results in technologies that you need to do in weapon programs to path of manufacturability, you ask, how support weapon activities while improving local be able to certify that weapons will work can I manufacture this component quicker, and global markets through commercialization. as a result of that policy decision? with improved performance and with  ese are valuable by-products of the weapons Another example of where policy minimal waste? That takes us down the program that normally are unappreciated. ★ intersects technology is nuclear weapons path of new manufacturing approaches, materials.  e policy is to no longer use such as additive manufacturing (see some hazardous materials in weapons, p. 34).  en we have to ask, how can we

SPRING 2019 › 45 ‹ BEING ESSENTIAL THE NEED FOR SPEED A dedicated “gearhead,” Je rey Luehring is all about BY OCTAVIO RAMOS parts—weapons parts for executing his job in materials management and boat parts for the jet boat he drag races. PHOTOGRAPHS BY MICHAEL PIERCE

e rey Luehring of the Laboratory’s Material Management and Business classi ed parts used by weapons designers and Services group can’t help but embrace the need for speed. On any production agencies. It’s a challenging and rewarding given weekend, Luehring takes to a lake or a river, not to  sh, water job—I get to see the other side, tracking where materials ski, or casually drive around in a motorboat but rather to experience an and parts come from, how they move through the adrenalineJ rush and test his nerves. Drag racing against a competitor, he eases processing system, and how  nished parts are moved and his hydro boat Sucker Punch into a short rolling start, checking the stillness tracked to their end users.  ese parts play a huge role in of the water while watching for the green “start” light to illuminate. Once the the Laboratory’s number one national security mission, light signals “go,” Luehring slams down the boat’s throttle. In six or so seconds, and I’m a big part of that.” Luehring and his jet boat attain speeds in excess of 150 miles per hour. “I’ve always enjoyed speed,” Luehring explains. “I started racing bicycle THE SPEED GENE motocross—BMX—at an early age while growing up in White Rock, New Mexico. Luehring’s machining background has also served to From there, I progressed to racing dirt bikes, which I still do occasionally. But feed his need for speed. “What I learned from precision jet-boat drag racing—there’s nothing quite like it in all of racing.” machining enables me to build and modify my own race engines at home,” Luehring says. “At work, I’m always THE MECHANICAL GENE looking for ways to improve and streamline materials Luehring’s father worked as a mechanical engineer for the Laboratory’s Weapons management.  e techniques I come up with while Experimental Division for 18 years. “I de nitely picked up his mechanical gene,” doing my job emphasize precision and e ciency. It’s the Luehring says. “I’ve been a ‘gearhead’ my whole life—I was always out in the same when I work on my jet boat—I’m always re ning garage messing around and helping him work on my older brother’s car when engines so that they can achieve 2,000 horsepower, which I was younger.” translates to speeds of 150 miles per hour across a water track of only 1,000 feet.” Luehring’s interest in all things mechanical led him to machining, which he practiced in industry for 16 years before he came to the Laboratory, where for the Luehring says that he inherited his need for speed from  rst eight years he built hydro assemblies.  ese assemblies his mother’s side of the family. “On my mother’s side, I are used for hydrotesting, a special type of testing in have a cousin who races sprint cars and another cousin which materials  ow like water (“hydro”) under high who races  at-track motorcycles. It’s obvious I got my temperatures and pressures. He then spent time as an mother’s speed gene when it comes to racing.” explosives assembly technician before taking on his current position as a production control specialist. In late 2018, Luehring earned season wins in both the Lucas Oil Drag Boat Division 1 Quick Eliminator Class “My background in machining has proved essential Championship and the Arizona Drag Boat Association in my current job,” Luehring says. “Basically, I am Division 1 Quick Eliminator Championship. He responsible for materials previously earned back-to-back championships in 2017. management, receiving high- “It’s funny, but I’ve found that the organization skills I’ve pro le and, acquired in my job at the Lab have really helped me when o en, I’m working on my jet boat,” Luehring says. “I handle all kinds of classi ed parts that you simply cannot misplace or lose.  e same is true when it comes to building and modifying motors, as some of the components are customized and di cult to replace quickly. At work or on the water, successful organization is what lets you bring home the big win.” ★ THE NEED FOR SPEED

When you’re on the water, moving along at 20 miles per hour feels like 50 miles per hour—imagine what it feels like in excess of 100 miles per hour.

SPRING 2019 › 47 ‹ ACCOLADES BETTER SCIENCE = THE DISTINGUISHED BETTER SECURITY

ACHIEVEMENTS OF Hardworking people— LOS ALAMOS EMPLOYEES the Laboratory’s most important asset—enable Los Alamos to perform its NNSA Administrator Lisa Gordon- Brian Albright of XTD Primary of nitrogen analogs of national security mission. Hagerty presented outgoing Lab Physics, Jennifer Hollingsworth the ubiquitous uranyl Director Terry Wallace with the of the Center for Integrated ion. Angel Garcia of the Gold Award, the highest honor Nanotechnologies, Center for Nonlinear that an NNSA administrator can Brian Jensen of Shock and Studies has earned international In its winter issue, Careers and bestow. “Terry and I are of the Detonation Physics, and recognition as a theoretical and the Disabled magazine named belief that the work we do is not Brian Kendrick of Physics and computational biophysicist. Los Alamos as one of the top 20 about ‘us.’ It is about the nation,” Chemistry of Materials. Lawrence Hull of the Integrated government employers in the she said. “I saw that from him Weapons Experiments Division country for people with disabilities. time and again.” R&D Magazine selected is the leading authority in Los Alamos is the only national theoretical biologist Bette Korber understanding the complex laboratory to make the list, Marc Kippen was awarded the as its 2018 Scientist of the Year. mechanisms and physics ranking at No. 13. (Last year, the inaugural Los Alamos Global Korber’s innovative HIV “mosaic” underlying high-explosive–metal Lab was No. 19.) Security Medal. Established vaccine design—assembled from interactions. Dave Jablonski in 2018, the medal honors the fragments of natural sequences of the X-Theoretical Design Soft-matter physicist Stacy Copp achievements of active or through a computational Division is a recognized authority was one of fi ve recipients of recently retired Lab employees optimization method—led to a in stewardship, weapons the 2018 L’Oreal for Women in who have made signifi cant fi rst-in-class preventative HIV physics, and design. Chemical Science Fellowship. Copp uses soft contributions to the Lab’s vaccine now being tested for physicist Sergei Tretiak of the molecules to research the creation global security mission. effi cacy in humans with support Theoretical Division develops of materials that emit or interact Kippen was recognized for his from the NIH and the Bill & theoretical frameworks for with light. The resulting materials leadership and achievements Melinda Gates Foundation. electronic properties in complex have potential applications in developing, promoting, and molecular structures. in biomedical diagnostics, sustaining national security John Pedicini, Paul Whalen, and solar energy, and energy- capabilities and programs in Geoffrey West were awarded George (Rusty) Gray III is the effi cient lighting. space-based sensing and nuclear the Los Alamos Medal, the 2019 recipient of the American detonation detection. Laboratory’s highest honor, Physical Society’s George E. The National Academy of for their achievements that Duvall Shock Compression Sciences awarded physicist In September 2018, for the third contributed to the success of the Science Award. Gray was cited Michelle Thomsen the Arctowski year in a row, the Laboratory was Laboratory. Pedicini is a weapons for “pioneering contributions Medal, which includes a $100,000 recognized as one of the 50 best designer, weapons scientist, in dynamic constitutive and cash prize. The Arctowski Medal companies for Latinas to work and assessor of foreign threats. damage response of materials; is presented every two years for in the United States. The Lab His major contributions include for leadership in developing and recognizes outstanding ranked at No. 41 on the list, which pushing the frontiers of weapons programs and tools to advance contributions to the study of is the same spot it held in 2017. design with fi ve innovative our understanding of materials solar physics and solar–terrestrial It is the only national laboratory designs during the mid-1980s to and structures in response relationships. that ranked in the top 50. early 1990s. Whalen is renowned to high-strain-rate and shock for his pioneering work that deformation; and for leadership On October 25, 2018, fundamentally changed the test in the technical community.” Cynthia Reichhardt and and evaluation of computational Hari Viswanathan received the physics codes used for nuclear Laboratory’s annual Fellows Prize weapons simulation. West’s for Research, and Kevin John ability to fi nd broad patterns received the Fellows Prize for in complex systems and Leadership. “The Fellows Prizes develop an understanding recognize both exemplary of the underlying principles research and leadership activities of these patterns resulted in support of the Laboratory’s in discoveries that proved mission and national needs,” important in nuclear, atomic, and says John Sarrao, deputy condensed-matter physics. director for Science, Technology and Engineering. Five Laboratory scientists were honored as Laboratory Fellows in The American Physical Society October 2018. James Boncella of selected its 2018 Fellows, four of the Chemistry Division made the John Pedicini, Paul Whalen, and Geoffrey West were awarded the whom are Los Alamos scientists: seminal discovery of the fi rst set Los Alamos Medal at a ceremony on February 7, 2019.

› 48 ‹ SPRING 2019 LOOKING BACK

LOOKING BACK

YEARS AGO 11Photographed in 2008, the USS Arkansas lies upside down in 180 feet of water at the bottom of Bikini Atoll in the Pacifi c Ocean. The Wyoming-class battleship was sunk on July 25, 1946, during the Baker test of Operation Crossroads. The Los Alamos–designed test was used to study the effects of nuclear weapons on naval vessels. Placed approximately 500 feet from ground zero, “the 26,000-ton battleship Arkansas sank almost at once,” according to Bombs at Bikini, the offi cial report of Operation Crossroads. “In sinking, she carried with her the dubious honor of being the fi rst battleship to be sunk by an atomic bomb and the fi rst battleship to be sunk by a bomb which never touched her.” Photo: Reinhard Dirscherl/Getty Images

Detonated 90 feet underwater, the Baker test device displaced 2.2 million cubic yards of water. The dark area on the right of Commissioned in 1912, the upward-sweeping the USS Arkansas column is believed to served in both world be a cavity formed by wars before being the USS Arkansas. used as a target in Operation Crossroads. Presorted Standard U.S. Postage Paid Albuquerque, NM Permit No. 532

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THEN

&Built in 1928, FullerNOW Lodge was one of the main structures at the Los Alamos Ranch School. Above, students, staff, and community members gather for a graduation ceremony. When Los Alamos was acquired for the Manhattan Project in 1943, Fuller Lodge was used as a dining hall and for social events. In June 2018, the building was used during the Laboratory’s 75th anniversary celebration.