PATH TO STATEHOOD

EARLY CLAIMS AND SETTLEMENTS

TAMING NEW FRANCE

THE SEVEN YEARS WAR

PRIZE OF THE EMPIRES

SPANISH DEFENSES

KEYSTONE OF THE FRONTIER

BIRTH OF THE MILITIA

CLAIBORNE AND THE MILITIA

Raising of the American Flag: Louisiana Transfer Ceremonies,1803, Thure de Thulstrup, c. 1902, Courtesy of the Louisiana State Museum and the Louisiana Historical Society. EARLY CLAIMS 1541 COMPETING CLAIMS Among the early European explorers of North America, Hernando DeSoto claimed all the lands drained by the for Spain in 1541. Spain, however, was not the first naon to colonize the land that would become Louisiana.

Nave American tribes in the area, such as the Discovery of the Mississippi by de Soto Natchez, , Creek, and Chickasaw, both Hernando de SotoHernando de Soto by William Henry Powell, 1853 resisted and aided the opposing European empires who were systemacally conquering their nave Lands. The alliances oen fell along tradional rivalries. For example, the Creeks allied with the Brish while long term enemies, the Choctaw, aligned 1682 with France.

Rene-Robert Cavalier, Sieur de La Salle claimed the Mississippi River basin for France in 1682. It would fall on other Frenchmen to consolidate the claim for the monarchy.

Rene-Robert Cavailer, Sieur de La Salle

La Salle Colony Map, 1701 TAMING NEW FRANCE . . .

La Louisiane 1699 The Canadian LeMoyne brothers were leaders of French exploraon and selement efforts along the Gulf Coast and up the Mississippi River. Pierre LeMoyne D’Iberville established military outposts and small selements at Biloxi and Mobile, 1699-1701. A temporary fort was created near the mouth of the Mississippi, but Iberville could not find high enough ground to sele a permanent Mississippi River port city.

Louis Antoine Juchereau de St. Denis Pierre Le Moyne D’Iberville 1718 In 1714, Fort St Jean Bapste was established along the Red River, near , by Louis Antoine Juchereau de St. Denis, a cousin of the Le Moynes. An important military post along the early Southwest Iberville’s younger brother, Jean Bapste borderlands, Natchitoches is the oldest connuous Le Moyne de Bienville, connued colonizing selement in the state of Louisiana. efforts in Louisiana. He founded the city of New Orleans in 1718. Despite a rough start, St Denis was a skilled diplomat and created alliances Bienville managed to make the colony work with local tribes. Natchitoches would remain an and grow. New Orleans connued to gain important outpost to keep an eye on Spanish acvies. importance as a center of commerce in the A small military post was also established at Baton Atlanc World/Gulf Region and as the Rouge in 1721, named for the “Red Sck” that marked a entrance to the vast North American river boundary between tribal hunng grounds. system emanang from the Mississippi River. Jean Bapste Le Moyne de Bienville

Campagnies Franches de la Marine by Ralph Mitchard, 1998 . . . TAMING NEW FRANCE The Natchez Wars In this early period, the Natchez tribe was 1725 a major source of contenon for the French selers. Bienville was a skilled French Colonial Militia diplomat regarding the Nave Tribes, A handful of Regulars were supplied resorng to war only if necessary. In 1725, by the Crown for city defense and law two departures created a rapid decline in enforcement, but appropriate Natchez/French relaons. The praccal defensive consideraons required tribal chief, Taooed Serpent, died and that some milia units be formed. Bienville was recalled to France and Map showing Indian territories Milia during the French period eventually replaced by Governor Eene tended to be decentralized and built Perier. Perier was not as effecve or around prominent civilian leaders. respected as Bienville and Taooed Among the colonial milia Soldiers who Louisiana French Milia, Serpent’s successors were less peaceful. parcipated in the Natchez campaigns, c 1750s, by Trevor Denham, Unhappy with the chaos unfolding in 2019 The French military post near the Natchez, several were African slaves who gained the territory, the French government , was commanded by an even their freedom by volunteering for these removed the inept Perier and less effecve officer, Sieur de Chepart. bales. These Soldiers were among the ordered Bienville to return to the Aer a series of insults and indignies by original group of free African Americans colony. The few remaining Natchez Chepart in 1729, the Natchez aacked the that went on to become the influenal made occasional guerilla aacks on Fort Rosalie selement, killing all the men, Free People of Color community in the French selers, oen hiding including Commandant Chepart, and New Orleans. among the Brish allied Chickasaws. capturing the women, children, and slaves. This led Bienville to mount two failed Perier’s answer was to aack and campaigns against the Chickasaws, massacre a nearby Chaouacha town. The ulmately making peace terms in Chaoucha had nothing to do with the 1739. Natchez refugees were Natchez acons. French military scaered among the Chickasaw, expedions then aacked the Natchez Cherokee, and Creek, soon with help from Choctaw and Tunica allies. completely disappearing as a people. Hundreds of capves were sold into slavery at Saint Domingue and the Natchez Indian Family remaining Natchez were forced to hide The Natchez Revolt among other tribes. by John Egan, Circa 1850 THE SEVEN YEARS WAR

A largescale, eighteenth century war was Another consequence of the war that waged across the globe between the affected Louisiana was Britain’s expulsion 1756 - 1763 Brish Empire and the French Monarchy. of the French Acadians from Canada. In the , the North American Already controlled by the Brish Empire, theater of this conflict is more commonly Acadia held a populace that was not The Fixed Infantry referred to as “The French and Indian trusted by the government during a me War.” Britain came out victorious, forcing of war. Skirmishing began Regiment of Louisiana French governance out of the North in the New World by 1754. Under Ulloa’s governorship the Spanish American connent. The result was a In 1755, the Brish military Regiment was staffed with 12 massive shi in who controlled what governmenorced the Spanish and 24 French Officers under a territory. Maintaining Mexico and the deportaon of thousands lieutenant colonel. By 1769, under O’Reilly lower Pacific Coast, Spain took over the of Acadians to various they grew to 600 men – 180 or so of them . Britain came to locaons. A large facon from Louisiana. The Regiment had soldiers control East and West , as well as made their way to South of many ethnic backgrounds reflecng the Canada, while sll controlling the 13 Louisiana by the 1760s. diversity of people living in Spanish colonies on the East Coast. Later referredto as “,” Louisiana. Other than Spanish, Acadians became a Spanish-American (Criollo) and French men, permanent and influenal many Irish, German, Portuguese, Italian, Transfer From group in Louisiana. Greek, Sardinian, and even Hungarian were Deportaon of Acadians order,1755 known to have been soldiers of the France to Spain by Charles Williams Jeffreys, 1923 Regiment. The purpose of the Fixed Treaty agreements and the French cession of Regiment was to enlist the local the Louisiana Territory to Spain came in the inhabitant's in its own defense. early 1760s, but the first Spanish aempt to govern the colony did not come unl 1766. Ulloa sought to enforce Spanish was the first Spanish commercial laws prohibing trade governor of Louisiana. He arrived with three between colonists and French officials and ninety soldiers. Colonists were holdings in the Caribbean. As apprehensive about the new administraon. a result, the French Creole soldiers of the colony threatened revolt, forcing The Bale of Quiberon Bay, 20 November, 1759 by Nicholas Pocock, 1812 America 1763- 1783, Aer the Seven Years War PRIZE OF THE EMPIRES . . .

1764 1775 British Louisiana and the American Revolution Bernardo de Galvez at the Bale of Pensacola, Beginning in 1775, the Brish Empire found its May, 1791, by Augusto Ferrer Dalmau Museo del Ejercito Madrid In 1763, West hands full with rebellion in the American Florida came to colonies and another war with France. Once be a part of the Governor Bernardo deGalvez learned that Brish Empire. Spain had also declared war on Britain, he saw Fort New Richmond, the military post at an opportunity. East and West Florida were Baton Rouge, gave Britain access to the ripefor the taking. Mississippi River. As rebellion grew in Britain’s thirteen East Coast colonies, Galvez added and improved some Loyalists moved to Baton Rouge, St cavalry and arllery units within Francisville, and other parts of West the Louisiana milia and used Florida. When France declared war with them in concert with regular Britain during the American Revoluon, troops to aack Brish posions Brish commanders along the Eastern Gulf of Mexico. in the had The first strikes came in 1779 at to be wary of Fort Bute near Manchac and in Spanish Louisiana. Baton Rouge, Louisiana. On France and Spain August 18, a major hurricane were allies. made landfall near New Orleans. Despite the resulng personal Bernardo de Galvez Near Baton Rouge,1779 hardship and damaged property, by Augusto Ferrer Dalmau Courtesy Iberdrola, 2018 . . . PRIZE OF THE EMPIRES

One of the most successful Spanish military commanders of the 18th century, Bernardo De Galvez's snt as military governor of Louisiana came aer combat 1780 experience in Portugal, Algeria, and against the Apaches in Mexico. Aer reclaiming the Floridas By 1779, Galvez had created from the Brish in 1780, he was eventually the "Disnguished Company promoted as the Viceroy of , of Carabineer Milia of New responsible for all Spanish possessions in the Orleans". Since wealthy Western Hemisphere. Galveston, Texas and St. French creoles Bernard Parish are both named in his honor. In declined to serve 2014, US Congress granted Galvez honorary next to their cizenship for his contribuon to American shoemakers and Independence. barbers in the Aer Baton Rouge, Galvez and his forces saw Galvez also seled colonists from the Canary Baalion of New even greater victories at Mobile and Pensacola in Islands into Louisiana. The Islenos are sll a part Orleans Milia, he 1780-1781. A failed English resurgence at Natchez of the state’s ethnic landscape and many have decided to organize a was stopped by the Aakapas milia, under the served in the milia and Guard over the company of cavalry command of Captain Estevan Moriandiere. generaons. He also seled Spanish colonists composed of the Removing Brish forces from the Gulf Coast and into at the town of New Iberia. most prominant men the Florida peninsula, Galvez supported the with Galvez himself as captain. The Revoluonaries by clearing Brish military Despite a tumultuous start, the Spanish first group of 49 men bought their own support funcons in those areas and by drawing administrators of Louisiana generally did a fair uniforms and horses but the Spanish Brish soldiers and resources away from George job in administering to the colony as it, and New government supplied carbines, pistols, Washington’s Army. Orleans in parcular, began to increase its saddles and other cavalry equipment. importance to global trade and commerce. As By 1792 there were 2 companies of 40 Louisiana prospered and grew, so did its milia. men each, none of whom were paid except in mes of war. Flintlock Mechanism 17th - early 19th century When released by the trigger, the spring-loaded hammer moves forward, causing the flint to strike the "frizzen", resulng in a spark. This moon pushes the frizzen back, opening the cover to the pan which allows the spark to ignite the SPANISH DEFENSES

Governor Francisco Luis Hector de Carondelet was the principle designer of Spanish Louisiana’s defensive system. This included the five protecve forts on the edges of New Orleans, the fort at Bayou St. John at Lake Pontchartrain (now known as “Spanish Fort”), and Fort St. Philip. Spanish governor of Louisiana from 1791-1797, Carondelet wanted the milia to equal the regular army in regard to chains of 1798 Sketch of New Orleans command, training and equipment. His reforms showing the surrounding five forts sustained a milia in direct proporon to the strength of Louisiana’s populaon.

As a sergeant in 1779, Balderes earned disncon by capturing a post at Pass Manchac during the Bale of Galvez-Town. Balderes was knighted by the king of Spain and given a large land grant near Pensacola. The city of Monroe began as Fort Miro. It was founded by Captain Jaun Filhoel, who served under Galvez. Galvez In the early 1790s, Balderes was a Sub- promoted him and named him “Commandant of the Lieutenant of the Grenadiers, Second Milias.” The fort was intended to act as an interior Baalion of the Regiment of Louisiana, and defensive posion and create a post on the Ouachita commander at Balize, an outpost guarding River. Monroe is now a major city in Northeast Louisiana. the mouth of the Mississippi River. Balderas Ignacio de Balderes, c 1790 was respected for his zeal and leadership. by Jose Francisco Xavier Francisco Bouligny, his commander, wrote "I believe it de Salazar y Mendoza, is always fing to provide officers of well-known La State Museum courage, good conduct, assiduity and who are intelligent, with promoon” when he became adjutant-major of the Third Baalion in 1793. Plan of Fort Saint Charles Balderes eventually reached the rank of captain in The Historic New Orleans Collecon, acc. no. 1970.2.11 1798, and died in 1815 at the age of fiy-eight. KEYSTONE OF THE FRONTIER 1800 Napoleon Re-acquires 1803 Louisiana Purchased Desperate to control access into and out of expanding US boundaries, Louisiana for France the Thomas Jefferson Administraon sought to purchase the crical port city of New Orleans to protect US economic interests. Napoleon’s In the secret Treaty of San Ildefanso of 1800, Spain government offered the enrety of the Louisiana Territory, which agreed to return the Louisiana Territory to France, would double the size of the US. Jefferson’s diplomats took the deal. now under the rule of Napoleon Bonaparte. Due to The land was split into mulple territories, with the area several circumstances, however, France never encompassing most of current Louisiana designated resumed full administraon of the colony. By 1803, “The Territory of Orleans.” it was willing to sell the land for money to support the wars raging on the European connent. The Spanish government was unhappy with the land deal, although they retained the Floridas and most of the Southwest. The Brish government did not recognize the legality of Napoleon’s treaes or transacons.

The French official, Pierre Clement de Laussat, acted asthe temporary governor between Spanish and American administraons. He accepted service of a mostly American provisional milia unit to help oversee the transfer. This unit was later known as the Orleans Volunteers

Raising of the American Flag: Louisiana Transfer Ceremonies,1803, Thure de Thulstrup, c. 1902, Official Presidenal Portrait of Thomas Jefferson, Courtesy of the Louisiana State Museum and by Rembrandt Peale, 1800 the Louisiana Historical Society KEYSTONE OF THE FRONTIER

Aer the , Americans streamed from the East Coast and upper Mississippi into the Gulf Coast, Spanish West Florida and including Spanish controlled West Florida. As Spain’s control over its New World territories was waning, some the “Neutral Ground” Americans in West Florida began to clamor for Spain sll controlled West Florida, which included the independence or annexaon to the United States. areas of modern Louisiana east of the Mississippi River Reuben Kemper and his brothers led an 1804 revolt and north of Lake Pontchartrain, Lake Maurepas, and against the Spanish administraon, but it did not garner Bayou Manchac. U.S. officials believed the area to be enough steam to succeed. By 1810, however, the part of the transacon, but did not want war with majority of Americans in the territory were ready to Fulwar Shipwith, the first and only President of the Republic of Spain in aempng to take it by force. The Jefferson shake themselves of their status as subjects to a distant West Florida in 1810 and Madison administraons followed a policy of monarch. biding me as thousands of Americans streamed into the territory from the East Coast. The only bale in this rebellion occurred at Baton Rouge, with a raid on Fort San Carlos. The military commander Another point of territorial contenon was the strip of of West Florida was a Revoluonary War veteran named land between the Territory of Orleans and Spanish Philemon Thomas. Spanish forces fell back to Mobile and Texas, making Natchitoches a crical outpost. Pensacola. Victory was declared, and the Republic of Diplomacy created a de-militarized “Neutral Ground” West Florida was announced on September 26, 1810. which neither side officially claimed. The current The Madison Administraon annexed the republic on boundaries were ironed out later between the U.S. December 10, 1810 and it was folded into the new state and an Independent Mexico. of Louisiana in 1812. The geographic boundaries of the short lived republic consist of today’s “.” Philemon Thomas, Military Commander of West Florida 1810 by George Peter Alexander Healy, c. 1845 Courtesy of the Louisiana State Museum KEYSTONE OF THE FRONTIER

15 Stars and Stripes 1812 The fieen star flag was adopted by Congress in 1794 following the admission of Vermont and Kentucky into the Union. The number of stripes was also increased to fieen. This Statehood was the official US flag during Louisiana’s 1836 New Orleans Lithograph In 1811 a delegaon of 17 Americans and purchase, admission to the US, and the 26 Creoles convened in New Orleans to version flown during the Bale of New adopt a state constuon. The US House Orleans. Fearing that the connued addion of Representaves passed the bill in of stripes would become unwieldy, Congress March of 1812, the Senate approved passed a law in 1818 returning the number of it in April and President Madison signed it stripes to thirteen and providing that a new into law soon aer, making Louisiana Louisiana Constuon star be added for each state admied. Louisiana’s the 18th state to join the American Union. Pelican Flag Governor Claiborne reorganized the milia The state seal was adopted in 1813. It depicts a into two divisions. The 1st Division was mother pelican tearing at her breast to feed centered around the New Orleans area. her hungry chicks. The symbolism derived from The 2nd Division encompassed the rest of Catholic European beliefs and is indicave of the state and was commanded by Louisiana’s strong Catholic influence. The Philemon Thomas, former commanding imagery was incorporated into unofficial state officer of the Army of the West Florida flags throughout the 19th century. Finally, in Republic. 1912, the state legislature adopted the pelican flag as official. BIRTH OF THE LOUISIANA MILITIA

“The merits of the case resulted in the penalty of the gallows for six of them, but as one of them had 1769 already died in prison, and as there is no hangman Aer the armed rebellion by here, five of them were shot on the 25th instant, at French colonists, Spain sent three o’clock.” Alexander O’Reilly to pacify the territory. An Irishman who -Alexandro O’Reilly, October 27, 1769 provided a lifeme of military service to Spain, he brought O’Reilly can be considered the founder of 2,600 Soldiers with him in 1769. the Louisiana Naonal Guard. He established O’Reilly arrested nine ringleaders of the a colonial milia of thirteen companies and insurrecon, execung five of them. This 1,040 men on February 12, 1770. Eligibility earned him the nickname “Bloody extended to able bodied males aged 15 to O’Reilly.” Despite his swi acons to pacify 50, including Free Men of Color. Military Louisiana, he was generally lenient uniforms were authorized for the part me considering the circumstances. Soldiers. O’Reilly iniated a weekly training regimen and one strenuous mul-week annual training period. While the United States eventually took over the territory, governors maintained the basic organizaon from the preceding Spanish administraon. Unbroken connuity of the Louisiana milia is traced back to 1770.

Aer further organizaon and strengthening of territorial forficaons, O’Reilly le for Havana. His replacement, Governor Unzaga, “Statement showing the names and ranks of all the milia officers employed veteran Regulars to train milia of this province appointed by me into a more professional force. Unzaga and the districts where they are established the Baalion of New Orleans to serve.” Milia on June 1, 1775. BIRTH OF THE LOUISIANA MILITIA

By the me of the American Revoluon, all of the elements necessary to create a baalion of Free Men of Color were 1775 present – Spanish authorizaon and format modeled aer the colored milias in Havana; a legacy unit of the former Address from the Free People of Color slaves who won their freedom through military service under to William Claiborne, January 1804 Bienville; and manpower in the form of 169 free colored males in New Orleans. The Baalion survived, albeit with “We were employed in the military service of the late controversy, into the American period. government, and we hope we may be permied to say, that our conduct in that service has ever been disnguished Officials in Washington and incoming American by a ready aenon to the dues required of us. Should we selers were less comfortable with arming free be in like manner employed by the American government, African Americans than their French or Spanish to which every principle of interest as well as affecon predecessors. A factor in this discomfort was the aaches us, permit us to assure your Excellency that we ongoing unrest in the island naon of Hai and shall serve with fidelity and zeal. We therefore respecully the fears stoked by the potenal for slave offer our services to the government as a corps of revolts. In 1811, the milia put down a volunteers agreeable to any arrangement which may be large slave uprising in St Charles thought expedient”. Parish, intensifying racial unease.

The Baalion of Free Men of Color was respected by most and eager to serve. Governor Claiborne ulmately allowed it, Battalion of despite the connued ambivalence by many of his peers. Due to a lack of clarity on the unit’s status via the territorial legislature, Free Men of Color the unit existed in limbo unl 1814.

Some historians have suggested this Baalion wore white linen uniforms with red or green facings, but extensive research of primary documents have found no evidence to support this. Unl at least 1801, the Free men of color very likely wore the same milia uniform as the white units - Blue with red facings, cuffs, waistcoat and breeches. BIRTH OF THE LOUISIANA MILITIA

Captain Julien Vienne, wearing the uniform Battalion of the Louisiana Milia, and son Julien George Vienne, c. 1795 by Jose Francisco Xavier de Salazar y d’Orleans Mendoza

Baalion d’Orleans A French creole unit of 5 companies numbering about 500 men were considered “foreigners” by the new American administraon and therefore capable of disloyalty and treason. These Louisiana Miliamen proved 1775 those fears groundless as they executed their dues.

Michel Dragon (1739-1821) was a nave of Athens, Greece. He immigrated to New Orleans about 1760 as a soldier in the French Colonial Army. In 1764, as Spain assumed control of the Louisiana Territory, Dragon received a commission in the Spanish milia. Aer having disnguished himself at Pensacola with Bernardo de Galvez, Dragon aained the rank of second lieutenant and received a Royal Appointment in 1792.

Lieutenant Michel Dragon, Aributed to F. Godefroid, c. 1810, Courtesy of the Louisiana State Museum, Gi of John T. Block. CLAIBORNE AND THE MILITIA

William Charles Cole Claiborne, a Jefferson polical ally, was appointed governor of the territory, and therefore Commander in Chief of the milia. The 1805 Territorial Milia was established by the legislature in 1805. The American milia did not change much in organizaon from the Spanish period. Free men between the ages of 18 and 45 sll drilled once a month. A sizable milia offered the least expensive soluon to the need for security against potenal invasion from both Spanish Florida and Texas. One major difference for the Louisiana milia under American authority was that Jeffersonian principle considered the milia to be the main military force instead of being supplemental to the regular army. Claiborne was not a natural military commander and had a difficult me ensuring that the milia was William Claiborne prepared to defend against a mounng threat of by E. B. Savary Early Disaster Response Louisiana Historical Society Brish aack. In the spring of 1790, members of the milia, both black and white, were called out by their officers to repair breaks in the levee. Each man was paid 4.5 reales (about $3) a day plus meals for the month it took to rebuild the break. Many Orleans Volunteers of the officers in charge were notable veterans of service under Galvez during the American Revoluon. The Orleans Volunteers was an all volunteer unit of New Orleans’s middle and working class Anglo-Americans led by officers drawn from the upper ranks of society. These miliamen volunteered under a transional French administrator to execute the transfer of Louisiana to the U.S. By 1804 the territorial legislature allowed for the establishment of more volunteer companies like this where any group of free white men could elect officers, clothe and equip themselves, restrict membership and drill regularly.