young hatch as miniature froglets (Lazell, animals ate numerous ants, mites, spiders, Villa, 1972; Meyer and Foster, 1996; Lev- 1989; Bartlett and Bartlett, 1999a). Devel- and longlegs (Stewart, 1979). ell, 1997; McCranie and Wilson, 2002). opment may be accelerated by warmer 0.Predators. In the Everglades, green- temperatures, with hatching occurring as house frogs are eaten by Cuban treefrogs 1. Historical versus Current Distribution. early as 13 d post-deposition (Lazell, (Osteopilus septentrionalis) and ring-necked White-lipped frogs (Leptodactylus bgilis) 1989). Lazell (1989) notes that hatching snakes (Dindophis punctatus; Wilson and are known throughout lowland Middle appears to be most successful with 100% Porras, 1983; Meshaka, 1994, 2001; Me- America to the north coast of South Amer- humidity. shaka et al., 2004). ica as far as Venezuela (Heyer, 1978,2002). i. Brood sltes. Eggs are laid on the P. Anti-Predator Mechanisms. Unknown. In the United States, these frogs margin- ground under moist cover (Lazell, 1989), a. Diseases. Unknown. ally occur in southernmost Texas, specifi- but females are not known to brood R. Parasites. None reported in the cally in the extreme southern edge of the (Goin, 1947a). United States. Lower Rio Grande Valley (Garrett and li. Parental care. None (Goin, 1947a). Barker, 1987). They are known historically D. Juvenile Habitat. Humid areas that 4. Conservation. from one locality in Cameron County, provide cover, such as leaf mold, flower Greenhouse frog populations appear to be two localities in Hidalgo County, and one beds, and moist litter (Goin, 1947a; Carr stable across much of their native range. locality from Starr County (Heyer, 1978). and Goin, 1955). They have been rapidly expanding their Dixon (1987, 1996) reported no new lo- E. Adult Habitat. Same as juveniles; distribution up peninsular Florida and calities. adults are found in humid habitats that along the Gulf Coast and have been intro- provide cover (Carr, 1940a). Greenhouse duced in Hawaii on Hawaii Island and 2. Historical versus Current Abundance. frogs are particularly common in gardens, Oahu, where they are considered an inva- Dixon (1987, p. 66) commented: "This greenhouses, nurseries, and other moist sive species (Bartlett and Bartlett, 1999a; frog may be extirpated from Texas substrates (Goin, 1944; Bartlett and Kraus et al., 1999; Meshaka et al., 2004; through the continuous dispersal of Bartlett, 1999a). These frogs will hide be- M. Stewart, personal communication). organophosphate chemicals in the Rio neath leaf litter, mulch, boards, or step- Greenhouse frogs are locally abundant Grande Valley." ping stones (Carr, 1940a; Bartlett and and occur across a wide range of habitats Bartlett, 1999a). Greenhouse frogs are also and regions in Florida (Carr, 1940a; Dal- 3. Life History Features. found outside of human influence in suit- rymple, 1988; Lips, 1991; Meshaka et al., A. Breeding. able natural habitats (Buttertield et al., 2000). In this connection, greenhouse i. Breeding migrations. Males have been 1997). They are secretive and nocturnal frogs have the potential to compete for found calling under clumps of grass, dirt except on warm, overcast, or rainy days food with lizards such as reef geckos clods, and from small depressions (Garrett (Carr, 1940a; Bartlett and Bartlett, 1999a). (Sphaerodactylus notatus) and mole skinks and Barker, 1987). F. Home Range Size. Unknown. (Eumeces egregius), which are already li. Breeding habitat. Brooding chambers, G. Territories. Unknown. threatened because they are habitat spe- excavated by males, are found under H. Aestivation/Avoiding Desiccation. Un- cialists and their habitat is rapidly disap- rocks, logs, or debris in clay soil (Dixon known. pearing. and Heyer, 1968). Dixon and Heyer (1968) I. Seasonal Migrations. None. note that these chambers may contain calling males or foam nests. J. Torpor (Hibernation). In late March in Leptodactylus fragilis Brocchi, 1877 B. Eggs. the southern Everglades of Florida, green- WHITE-LIPPED FROG house frogs have been found hibernating i. Egg deposition s~tes.Eggs are laid in W. Ronald Heyer underneath the loose bark of wild foam nests, created by. body. secretions, in tamarind (Lysiloma sp.), a small tree com- Author's note: Leptodactylus fragilis has small brooding chambers excavated by mon in the hammocks (Harper, 1935). been cited historically as either L. albi- adults (Maslin, 1963a,b; Garrett and K. lnterspecific Associations/Exclusions. labris (e.g., Metcalf, 1923, in part) or L. Barker, 1987).The foam aids in preventing Greenhouse frogs are found under the labialis (e.g., Mulaik, 1937; Maslin, 1963a,b; desiccation of the eggs during develop- same cover objects as eastern narrow- Dixon and Heyer, 1968; Heyer, 1971; ment (Garrett and Barker, 1987). mouthed toads (Gastrophryne carolinensis; Carr, 1940a; personal observations) and in the same habitats as many small fossorial and semi-fossorial amphibians and rep- White-lipped Frog (Leptodactylus fragilis) I tiles (Dalrymple, 1988; Conant and Collins, 1998; Meshaka et al., 2000; Me- shaka and Layne, 2002,2005), with which they may or may not compete. L. Age/Size at Reproductive Maturity. Sexually mature male greenhouse frogs range in size from 15.0-17.5 mm SVL; fe- males range from 19.5-25.0 mm SVL (Bartlett and Bartlett, 1999a). Lazell (1989) records a large adult measuring 32 mm. Sexual maturity is reached in 1 yr (Goin, 1947a; Duellman and Schwartz, 1958). M. Longevity. Unknown. N. Feeding Behavior. In order of occur- rence, greenhouse frogs eat ants, beetles, and roaches, but include other types of small invertebrates (Goin, 1947a; Duell- man and Schwartz, 1958; Lazell, 1989). In Jamaica, diet did not include roaches, but -- - ---- 11. Clutch s~ze-Afoam nest from Texas County (Heyer, 1978; see above). Dixa_n_- gles, 1952; B1ane~-1971; Gibbons and contained 86 yellow eggs_&iulaik, 1937). (1987, 1996) reported nmgities Coker,_l918; Braswell, 1988; Learm et al., Villa (1972, p. 122) reported 25-250 eggs/ and comments (1987, p. 66) "This frog 1999). Th-nct population In south- - - nest. may be extirpated from Texas through the eastern Iowa may be extirpated (Klimstra, C. Larvae/Metamorphosis. Early devel- continuous dispersal of organophosphate 1950; Nelson, 1972~). opment takes place in the foam nests chemicals in the Rio Grande Valley." within the brooding chamber; larvae are McCranie and Wilson (2002, p. 533) released to ponds during heavy rains state that white-lipped frogs are of low 2. Historicalversus Current Abundance. (Dixon and Ileyer, 1968). vulnerability in at least parts of their dis- Eastern narrow-mouthed toads are soli- tary, secretive, and common throughout I. Length of larval stage. Mulaik (1937) tribution. reported a larval duration of 30-35 d in a Alabama (Mount, 1975), Florida (Carr, Texas population. Meyer and Foster (1996) 1940a), and Louisiana (Penn, 1943; An- state that in Belize the tadpoles usually Family Microhylidae derson, 1954), and locally common in Illi- metamorphose in <2 wk. nois (Phillips et al., 2000) and Virginia Gastrophryne carolinensis (Holbrook, 1836) (Hoffman and Mitchell, 1996). Eastern 11. Larval requirements. Unknown. EASTERN NARROW-MOUTHED TOAD 11i.Larval polymorph~sms.None. narrow-mouthed toads are commonly Joseph C. Mitchell, Michael J. Lannoo captured in drift fences with pitfall traps IV. Features of metamorphos~s.See ''Length of larval stage" above. (Gibbons and Bennett, 1974; Buhlmann v. Post-metamorphic mlgratlons. Unknown. 1. Historical versus Current Distribution. et al., 1994; Enge, 1997). Some studies D. Juvenile Habitat. Likely the same as Eastern narrow-mouthed toads (Gas- have revealed large numbers in local pop- adults. trophryne carolinensis) occur in the south- ulations (e.g., Bennett et al., 1980; Gib- E. Adult Habitat. Adult white-lipped eastern and lower midwestern United bons and Semlitsch, 1981; Dodd, 1992, frogs have been found in a variety of habi- States, from Maryland south to the Florida 1995b), although annual variation in tats where moisture is sufficient (Garrett Keys, west to central Texas, and north to numbers encountered varies among sites and Barker, 1987). These frogs can be Kentucky, southern Illinois, southern Mis- and years (Dodd, 1995b; Semlitsch et al., found in semi-permanent water bodies souri, and extreme southeastern Nebraska 1996; Enge, 1997). such as prairie potholes, oxbow lakes, and (Carr, 1940a; Wright and Wright, 1949; Abundance estimates or counts are resacas (Edwards et al., 1989). Garrett and Duellman and Schwartz, 1958; Nelson, highly dependent on the sampling tech- Barker (1987) note that white-lipped frogs 1972c; Harris, 1975; Martof et al., 1980; nique used. Funnel traps along drift fences may be encountered in irrigated agricul- Ashton and Ashton, 1988; Dundee and revealed few individuals in a study in tural fields, Irrigation ditches, low grass- Rossman, 1989; Conant and Collins, northern Florida (Vickers et al., 1985). lands, and runoff areas. These frogs are 1991; Redmond and Scott, 1996; Bartlett Lamb et al. (1998) reported only 19 east- nocturnally active and may hide in bur- and Bartlett, 1999a; Mitchell and Reay, ern narrow-mouthed toads among 1,070 rows during the day (Garrett and Barker, 1999; Phillips et al., 1999; Dixon, 2000; frogs encountered under coverboards in a 1987). Johnson, 2000). Minton (2001) specu- North Carolina floodplain. Coverboards F. Home Range Size. Unknown. lated that this anuran may occur in Indi- in South Carolina produced few captures, G. Territories. Males call in association ana. They reach elevations to 549 m in the whereas drift fences with pitfall traps with incubating chambers (Dixon and Smoky Mountains National Park (Huheey yielded thousands of captures over the Heyer, 1968) and would be expected to de- and Stupka, 1967), although they are ab- same time period (Grant et al., 1992). fend these sites from other males, al- sent from most of the Blue Ridge Moun- However, Grant et al. (1994) recorded though this has yet to be documented. tains and the Appalachian region north of high numbers of narrow-mouthed toads H. Aestivation/Avoiding Desiccation. Un- Tennessee (Redmond and Scott, 1996).