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Environmental Racism and Environmental Justice in Boston, 1900 to 2000

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Environmental Racism and Environmental Justice in Boston, 1900 to 2000 The University of Maine DigitalCommons@UMaine Electronic Theses and Dissertations Fogler Library Summer 8-22-2019 "The Dream is in the Process:" Environmental Racism and Environmental Justice in Boston, 1900 to 2000 Michael J. Brennan University of Maine, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.library.umaine.edu/etd Recommended Citation Brennan, Michael J., ""The Dream is in the Process:" Environmental Racism and Environmental Justice in Boston, 1900 to 2000" (2019). Electronic Theses and Dissertations. 3102. https://digitalcommons.library.umaine.edu/etd/3102 This Open-Access Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by DigitalCommons@UMaine. It has been accepted for inclusion in Electronic Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons@UMaine. For more information, please contact [email protected]. “THE DREAM IS IN THE PROCESS:” ENVIRONMENTAL RACISM AND ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE IN BOSTON, 1900 TO 2000 By Michael J. Brennan B.S. University of Maine at Farmington, 2001 A.L.M. Harvard University Extension School, 2012 A DISSERTATION Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy (American History) The Graduate School The University of Maine August 2019 Advisory Committee: Richard Judd, Professor Emeritus of History Elizabeth McKillen, Adelaide & Alan Bird Professor of History Liam Riordan, Professor of History Jacques Ferland, Associate Professor of History and Graduate Coordinator of History Program Roger J.H. King, Associate Professor of Philosophy THE DREAM IS IN THE PROCESS: ENVIRONMENTAL RACISM AND ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE IN BOSTON, 1900 TO 2000 By: Michael J. Brennan Dissertation Advisor: Dr. Richard Judd An Abstract of the Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in American History (August 2019) The following work explores the evolution of a resident-directed environmental activism that challenged negative public perception to redevelop their community. Beginning in the 1950s, city leaders justified the dislocation of non-white residents from Boston’s South End with the argument that they failed to maintain personal property and degraded community institutions. Most of these minority residents were forced to move to Roxbury. From 1963 to 1983, Roxbury lost 2,200 housing units. The vacant lots led to illegal dumping, and increased toxicity in the air, water, and soil from undesirable land use businesses such as asphalt plants. As a result, banks, supermarkets and pharmacies refused to locate in the area. By 1985, the Dudley area of Roxbury shared a median income with the poorest communities in the United States. The negative perception of residents, abrogation of civil and property rights, and denial of essential services led to isolation and vulnerability that instituted and enforced environmental racism. The roots of the Environmental Justice Movement (EJM) that gained public recognition in Boston during the 1990s extend back to the nineteenth century. Minorities employed a variety of environmental strategies and actions to control their community and shape policies that impacted their community. In response to urban renewal and coupled with civil rights efforts, residents developed an activist approach in the 1960s. In the 1970s, groups recruited participants, built organizational capacities, and improved the networking capabilities of residents. While they did not identify as environmentalists, their pragmatic pursuit of equality led to specific environmental improvements. In the 1980s, the Dudley Street Neighborhood Initiative (DSNI) drew directly from the experiences and personnel of previous efforts to build a national exemplar of environmental justice. Building an “urban village” in Dudley Square facilitated a variety of environmentally focused initiatives that increased access to public transportation, expanded clean energy use, improved air quality, and reduced pollutants. Activist groups pioneered civic environmentalism, the philosophy that environmentalism and civic activism begins in the home, street, and neighborhood where one lives. Proponents of civic environmentalism contend that local environmental stewardship leads to sound environmental policy on larger and more complex scales. TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES........................................................................................................................vi LIST OF FIGURES.....................................................................................................................vii INTRODUCTION: ENVIRONMENTAL RACISM AND ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE IN BOSTON, 1900- 2000.............................................................................................1 Environmental Racism………………………………..………………………………………..3 Environmental Justice…..…………………………………………………………...................5 Urbanizing Environmental History..……………………………………………………….…..9 Civic Environmentalism: Pragmatic and Transformative………………..……………….…..13 CHAPTER ONE: “THE SURVIVAL OF THE SPIRIT IS AT STAKE:” THE ENVIRONMENTAL ROOTS OF URBAN RENEWAL IN BOSTON………………….....19 The South End as Boston’s Premier Neighborhood..………………………………………...20 The South End as a Mixed-Use Neighborhood and Minority Archipelago..……....................25 The South End in the Industrial Era: The Settlement House…………………..………..…....31 Patterns Coalesce in the Early Twentieth Century………….……………………………......38 The New Deal Accelerates Patterns of Thought and Behavior..……………………………..39 Environmental Conditions and Discourse……………………………………………….…...42 The Early Stages of Urban Renewal in Boston….……….......................................................45 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………....49 CHAPTER TWO: "NO MORE ROADS OVER PEOPLE:" ENVIRONMENTAL RACISM AND CIVIL RIGHTS IN BOSTON, 1955-1970 ……...………………..................50 The Roots of Environmental Racism: Alienation and Isolation……………………………...52 Urban Renewal in the South End: Dislocation and Dispossession…………………...............58 iii Civil Rights’ Environmental Focus………………………………………………………......67 Minority Residents Fight for Community Control…………………………………...............73 A “New Environment” Worsens Inequality in Roxbury…………………………………......76 The Development of Black Radicalism………………..…………………………..................82 Conclusion……………………………………..…………………………………..................85 CHAPTER THREE: “THE DREAM IS IN THE PROCESS:” ENVIRONMENTAL RACISM AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT, 1970 to 1980 ..........................................86 The South End: Gentrification Amid Declining Resources………………………..................89 Urban Renewal Degrades the Environment in Roxbury………………………………….......95 Community Development Confronts Environmental Racism……………………………....103 Mel King and the Institution Building Stage……………………………………………......111 Conclusion: The Dream is in the Process………………….…………………..…................114 Tables Showing Longitudinal Changes in Boston Population and Housing Stock………....115 CHAPTER FOUR: “THE NEIGHBORHOOD HAS DECIDED WHAT IT WANTS:” THE DUDLEY STREET INITIATIVE IN THE 1980s......................................117 Dudley Street in 1980: Antecedents of Redevelopment………………………..…...............123 The Birth of the Dudley Street Neighborhood Initiative………………………………........127 Collecting Victories: Don’t Dump on Us!..............................................................................132 DSNI in the Vanguard: The Plan for Eminent Domain…………………………………......135 “The Force” Drives Community Development…………………………………………......137 Conclusion……………………………………………………………..…………................152 iv CHAPTER FIVE: "WE MAKE THINGS HAPPEN THAT CAN’T HAPPEN:” ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE IN BOSTON…….…………..........................................….153 Alternatives for Community and Environment and Just Sustainabilities……..….................154 Deterring and Defending: The Fight For Clean Air……………………………………..…..156 Restoration: Greening the Brownfields….…………………………………….....................160 Controlling and Building…..……………………………………………………..................163 Conclusion: Changing Perception……………..……………………………….....................173 CONCLUSION: RECLAIMING POWER THROUGH ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE……………………….................................................................................................174 Nodes of Power Untangle through Environmental Concerns………..…………...................175 An Urban Village as a Cradle of Democracy…………………………………………….....177 Environmental Justice Affirmed..………………………………………………..............….180 Afterthought…………..…………………………………………………………..................182 BIBLIOGRAPHY:.....................................................................................................................184 Archival Sources ……………..…………………………………………..............................184 Master’s Theses…….………………………………………………………….…................185 Newspapers…..……………………………………………………………………...............185 Government Documents.........................................................................................................188 Unpublished Material …………………….…………………………………………...........190 Material Available for Download...........................................................................................190 Books and Journal Articles ………………………………………..……………………......190 BIOGRAPHY OF THE AUTHOR……………………………………………...…...............199 v LIST OF TABLES Table 0.1: Urban Ecosystems…………………..…………………………………..................…17 Table 0.2: Qualities of Resilient Urban Communities……………..……………....................…17
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