Semantics 126.134: Test #1 22 February 2006

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4 sections; 22 questions; 50 marks total

Fill in the Blanks Fill in the following blanks with the most appropriate term (1 mark each blank, 15 total).

1. The branch of linguistics called p h o n e ti cs is the study of sounds in language and how they are produced. 2. de Saussure said that language is a communication system with an arbitrary relationship between the s ig n if ie r / s ig n and the s ig n i fi e d .

3. u tt e r a nc e meaning can be defined as the meaning that results from using an expression in a given context (such as a particular speaker, time, or place).

4. A reference is associated with a real-world entity called a(n) r e f er e n t .

5. According to the Principle of C o m p o s it i on a l it y meaning is determined by a combination of lexical meanings, grammatical meanings, and syntactic structure. 6. A word like hiss that imitates the sound it represents is an example of o n o m a t o p o e ia . 7. While hyponymy describes a linguistic relationship, the corresponding real-world relationship between categories and subtypes is called a ta x o n o m y .

head 8. A compound word is generally a hyponym of its .

euphemisms 9. Good or indirect terms for bad or tabooed things are called .

10. The same or t h o g ra p h i c (or written) word with two different meanings are known as homographs. 11. The concept associated with a sentence (for declarative sentences, the statement it proposition asserts) is know as its .

opaque 12. A semantically combination of words is not predictable from the meanings of the individual words.

lexicon 13. A dictionary is also known as a (basically, a list of lexemes). 14. The use of a word to stand in for its meronym or hyponym – or the reverse – is known synecdoche as .

Test #1 22 February 2006 1 of 4 Recognition and Analysis Answer each of these questions in the space provided; include brief justification for your answer where required (15 marks total). 15. (6 marks) Name the exact lexical relations that exist between the following italicized pairs of words, choosing from these possibilities: synonym, complementary pair, gradable antonym, reverse, converse, heteronym, hyponym, meronym, metonym (the last three are direction specific; if appropriate, make sure you indicate which word is a hyponym/meronym/metonym of the other). For each pair of words, briefly (in a sentence or two) justify your answer.

(a) All that sweat finally paid off. / All that work finally paid off.

sweat is a metonym of work

sweat is a (possible) characteristic of work, used to stand in for it

(b) I hit the target. / I missed the target. complementary pair “missed” implies “not hit”

(c) chair / bookshelf (both nouns)

heteronyms both are types of furniture (they are both hyponyms of it)

16. (4 marks) Given their historical origins, indicate whether or not the following pairs of words are cognates. Then, using that as part of the evidence indicate whether you think they are homonyms or polysemes. Briefly (in a sentence or two) justify your conclusion.

(a) stall (noun, “stable for animals”) from P.Gmc. *stallaz “altar” stall (noun, “an avoidance or excuse”) from Ger. stellvogel “decoy bird”

not cognates

definitely homonyms

no historical connection, meanings are very different

(b) medium (noun, “middle ground”) from Latin root medius “middle” medium (noun, “person who conveys spiritual messages”) from same origin cognates strong suggestion of polysemy a medium (person) is a messenger between sender and recipient

17. (5 marks) For each of the following sentences, indicate whether the underlined portion is an example of a compound, idiom, phrasal verb, metaphor, or irreversible binomial (there is one of each). You do not need to justify your answer.

(a) Somebody messed up my jellybean collection! phrasal verb (b) What time’s the party? Beats me! idiom (c) Don’t go quail hunting with the vice-president. compound (d) Your answer may throw some light on the subject. metaphor (e) The tide came in fast and furious. irreversible binomial

Test #1 22 February 2006 2 of 4 Short Answer Answer each of these questions in the space provided (10 marks total). 18. (3 marks) Lexical relations can be classified as either syntagmatic or paradigmatic. What is the difference between them? Give one example of each (just name the relations, you do not need to give words that illustrate the relation, nor define those relations).

paradigmatic: between words used in alternation (choices) e.g. synonym, antonym, hyponym, metonym, meronym, homonym, …

syntagmatic: between words used together (within a phrase) e.g. idiom, phrasal verb, collocation, metaphor, irreversible binomial, …

19. (2 marks) Language change is one source of new meanings for words in language. Name (using appropriate technical terms) and briefly describe two processes of language change that affect meaning over time.

functional shift

folk etymology

narrowing, extension, bleaching

amelioration, pejoration

metaphor, metonymy

20. (2 marks) Unlike synonyms, which vary largely only in degree (how synonymous two words are), there are many different types of antonyms. Name two types of antonyms (using the appropriate technical terms) and briefly describe how pairs of words related differ from each other. Examples are not necessary, but you may want to provide some to help your discussion.

complementary pairs gradable antonyms reverses, directional opposites converses heteronyms

21. (3 marks) In class, we discussed four important characteristics of all languages. Name three of these characteristics, and give a brief description of each (a sentence or two long). You do not need to give any examples.

1. arbitrariness: an arbitrary relationship between signifier and signified 2. productivity: the ability to create novel messages that can be understood 3. discreteness: the ability to divide the elements of language into one of a number of limited categories 4. systematicity: languages have rules

Test #1 22 February 2006 3 of 4 Longer Answer Answer this question in the space provided (10 marks total). 22. (10 marks) Semantics is the study of meaning, but meaning is too vague a term to adequately identify what we have been studying; for example, the “meaning” of a word cannot always be completely expressed by a dictionary definition alone. Discuss how different levels and types of meaning contribute to the semantics of linguistic communication. You should describe five different components of meaning, and mention their role in understanding language (write five short paragraphs).

These are not the only answers, nor are they complete, but they may give you some ideas…

expression – introduces referents, compositional utterance – same utterance has different meanings in different contexts communicative – conveys the message

descriptive (words) – concepts, denotations descriptive (sentences) – propositions, truth conditions

social – politeness or rudeness expressive – attitude connotation – conveys emotions connected to ideas

Test #1 22 February 2006 4 of 4