DOCSLIB.ORG

Traditional Medicine Research Doi: 10.12032/TMR20200603187

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Traditional Medicine Research Doi: 10.12032/TMR20200603187 Traditional Medicine Research doi: 10.12032/TMR20200603187 Traditional Chinese Medicine The riddles of number nine in Chinese medicine processing method Xiang-Long Meng1#, Xiao-Yan Zhang1#, Cong Hu2, Xiao-Juan Su1, Shuo-Sheng Zhang1* 1College of Chinese Materia Medica and Food Engineering, Shanxi University of Chinese Medicine, Jinzhong 030619, China; 2School of Pharmacy, Jiangxi Science and Technology Normal University, Nanchang 330013, China. #Xiang-Long Meng and Xiao-Yan Zhang are the co-first authors of this paper. *Corresponding to: Shuo-Sheng Zhang. College of Shanxi University of Chinese Medicine, No.121 University Street, Yuci District, Jinzhong 030619, China. E-Mail: [email protected]. Highlights This review discovers the aim and the molecular mechanism of “nine” processing of some representative Chinese medicinal materials prepared using the “nine times steaming and drying method” from the viewpoints of modern pharmacochemistry and pharmacology, to provide a theoretical support for the “nine” processing method of Chinese medicines. Tradition The “nine cycles of steaming and shining” method was first recorded in Lei Gong Pao Zhi Lun (Master Lei’s Discourse on Medicinal Processing), the earliest monograph on the science of processing in China written by the famous pharmacologist named Lei Xiao in Southern and Northern Dynasties (420−589 C.E.). It is a traditional Chinese medicine processing method and characterized by repeated steaming and shining. The primary purposes of this processing method can be summarized as follows: altering the properties of medicines, increasing the contents of effective ingredients or reducing the toxic ingredients, making the herbs digest-friendly, and conducing to the drying and preservation of medicines. Submit a manuscript: https://www.tmrjournals.com/tmr 1 doi: 10.12032/TMR20200603187 ARTICLE Abstract The “nine cycles of steaming and shining”, “nine making”, “nine turns” and “nine cycles of calcining and quenching” methods that are recorded and used since ancient times are merely one aspect of the unique processing methods of traditional Chinese medicine. Inducing the Chinese medicine processing method “nine cycles of steaming and shining” from historical review and summarizing the practical wisdom based on the canonical aspects of traditional Chinese medicine and the experiences of ancient Chinese medicine sages to promote the new development of traditional Chinese medicine. After the long-term and multiple “nine” processing, the materials of traditional Chinese medicine exhibit significant beneficial changes in terms of taste, efficacy, and chemical composition contents, thus emphasizing that Chinese medicine processing plays a significant role in their efficacy enhancement and toxicity reduction. Heshouwu (Polygoni Multiflori Radix), Dihuang (Rehmanniae Radix), Huangjing (Rhizoma Polygonati), Dahuang (Radix et Rhizoma Rhei), and Xixiancao (Herba Siegesbeckiae) are representatives of Chinese medicinal materials prepared using the “nine-system” processing method. This review discovers the aim and the molecular mechanism of “nine” processing of the abovementioned herbs from the viewpoints of modern pharmacochemistry and pharmacology to provide a theoretical support for the “nine” processing method of traditional Chinese medicine and to promote the international market of traditional Chinese medicine. Keywords: Nine cycles of steaming and shining, Chinese medicine processing, Historical review, Efficacy enhancement, Toxicity reduction Author contributions: Shuo-Sheng Zhang developed the idea for the study and directed the article; Xiang-Long Meng searched the literature and provided the overall framework of the article; Xiao-Yan Zhang collated and supplemented the literature and wrote this article; Cong Hu and Xiao-Juan Su further corrected the details and format; All authors read and approved the final manuscript. Acknowledgments: This study was supported by a grant from The Key Technology Research for Traditional Chinese Medicine Modernization of Shanxi Province (Zhendong Special Project, 2014ZD0302), The Key Research & Development Plan of Shanxi Province (Social Development Project, 201603D3112002 ), and Cultivate Scientific Research Excellence Programs of Higher Education Institutions in Shanxi (20190127). Abbreviations: TCM, traditional Chinese medicine. Competing interests: The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest. Citation: Meng XL, Zhang XY, Hu C, Su XJ, Zhang SS. The riddles of number nine in Chinese medicine processing method. Tradit Med Res. 2021;6(2):16. doi: 10.12032/TMR20200603187. Executive editor: Jing-Na Zhou. Submitted: 17 April 2020, Accepted: 04 June 2020, Online: 26 July 2020 © 2021 By Authors. Published by TMR Publishing Group Limited. This is an open access article under the CC-BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/BY/4.0/). 2 Submit a manuscript: https://www.tmrjournals.com/tmr Traditional Medicine Research doi: 10.12032/TMR20200603187 is a traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) processing Background method and characterized by repeated steaming and shining. The primary purposes of this processing Numbers have been given profound significance as method can be summarized as follows: altering the they developed along with cultures over time. As properties of medicines, increasing or reducing the Arabic numerals entered China fairly late, ancient contents of effective ingredients or toxic ingredients, Chinese people generally counted things using making the herbs digest-friendly, and conducing to the Chinese characters, which was formulated into a drying and preservation of medicines [4–6]. This nine-character system, and “nine” was the biggest one. unique processing procedure plays a vital role in For example, from the Su Wen (Basic Questions) in rendering effectiveness to Chinese medicines, Huang Di Nei Jing (The Yellow Emperor’s Inner reflecting the wisdom of ancient Chinese people. Classic; publication time is unknown), which is the Because the cycle number of processing is a key first of China’s four medical classics, written in Qin concept during the entire procedure, the ancient (221–260 B.C.E.) and Han (202 B.C.E. –220 C.E.) Chinese left the processing records of “nine cycles of Dynasties, “nine” was explained as “nine, the change steaming and shining”, “nine making”, etc. for the of Yang (bright and upward)” [1]. “Nine” contains the future generations. ideas of “tending to Yang (bright and upward) and This paper reviews the processing methods related avoiding Yin (negative and downward)” and “tending to the “nine cycles of steaming and shining” method to luck and avoiding evil” and was very popular and summarizes the processing methods and their among ancient Chinese. underlying mechanism of TCM, which can provide a In Chinese culture, “nine” is not only a number theoretical support for the inheritance and innovation character, but it also contains important cultural of modern Chinese medicine processing. significance. It represents the limits and the political power related to imperial power, official position, History of processing Heshouwu (Polygoni etiquette, and construction. For representing limits, Multiflori Radix) using the “nine cycles of The Yellow Emperor’s Inner Classic · Basic Questions steaming and shining” method has recorded that “the numbers in universe start with one and end in nine” [2]. In addition, there are several Polygoni Multiflori Radix, which is derived from the commonly used phrases, such as “nine cattle one hair” root of Fallopia multiflora Thunb, has a long history (represents a lot) and “outside of nine clouds” of use in TCM. The first usage record was published in (represents very high). The Nine Ding made by Yu (the Kai Bao Ben Cao (Materia Medica of the Kaibao Era; first emperor of Xia Dynasty (2070–1600 B.C.E.)) 973–974 C.E.) written by the famous medical demonstrated the supreme power of the emperor. scientists Liu Han, Ma Zhi, et al. in the Northern Song Moreover, in Chinese, “nine” and “permanence” have Dynasty (960–1127 C.E.), and the first record of the same pronunciation, and hence it also has the processing was published in Xian Shou Li Shang Xu meanings of “last forever” and “safe and successful”. Duan Mi Fang (Secrets of Treating Wounds and The cultural significance of “nine” is revealed through Bonesetting; 841–845 C.E.) written by the famous the entire classic Chinese medicine theory system. For medical scientist Lin Daoren (790–850 C.E.) in Tang example, in The Yellow Emperor’s Inner Classic, the Dynasty (618–907 C.E.), who described it as steaming “basic questions theory of three sections and nine with black beans [7]. Polygoni Multiflori Radix was times” has mentioned some medical terms such as classified as nourish medicine in the Ben Cao Gang “nine organs (heart, liver, spleen, lung, kidney, Mu (Compendium of Materia Medica; 1552–1578 C.E.) stomach, large intestine, small intestine, and bladder)” written by the famous medical scientist Li Shizhen [3]. (1518–1593 C.E.) in Ming Dynasty (1368–1644 C.E.) Chinese medicine processing comprises a series of [8]. In ancient times, the methods of processing traditional technologies that are used to process herbs Polygoni Multiflori Radix were boiling, steaming, into drinking pieces according to different shining, shining after steaming, frying, baking, requirements from medical treatment, modulation, stewing, washing, decocting, roasting, spraying, preparation, storage, and the herbs’ nature based on the drenching, and cooking.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Enforcement of ICSID Awards in the People's Republic of China Julian G
    Maurice A. Deane School of Law at Hofstra University Scholarly Commons at Hofstra Law Hofstra Law Faculty Scholarship 2013 Enforcement of ICSID Awards in the People's Republic of China Julian G. Ku Maurice A. Deane School of Law at Hofstra University Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarlycommons.law.hofstra.edu/faculty_scholarship Part of the Dispute Resolution and Arbitration Commons Recommended Citation Julian G. Ku, Enforcement of ICSID Awards in the People's Republic of China, 6 Contemp. Asia Arb. J. 31 (2013) Available at: https://scholarlycommons.law.hofstra.edu/faculty_scholarship/293 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by Scholarly Commons at Hofstra Law. It has been accepted for inclusion in Hofstra Law Faculty Scholarship by an authorized administrator of Scholarly Commons at Hofstra Law. For more information, please contact [email protected]. THE ENFORCEMENT OF ICSID AWARDS IN THE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA Julian Ku* ABSTRACT The People ' Republic of China is one of the most enthusiastic signatories of bilateral investment treaties that grant mandatory jurisdiction to the ICSID investment arbitrationsystem. This essay considers the PRC's domestic laws affecting the fulfillment of its ICSID Convention obligations to recognize and enforce ICSID awards. It notes that the PRC has failed to enact any specific legislation to comply with the ICSID Convention recognition and enforcement obligations, making its compliance with these obligations uncertain. It concludes that the only way that the PRC could claim to have fulfilled its treaty obligations is to declare that the ICSID Convention and related agreements have direct effect in its domestic law.
    [Show full text]
  • Introduction
    Introduction “Bian Zhuang Lun Zhi” (Differentiating Appearance to Determine Quality): The essence of experience-based Chinese medicinal identification Authentication is fundamental for the standardization and globalization of Chinese medicinal materials. Macroscopic identification is an essential foundation for practitioners dedicated to authentication and herbal pharmacy, and represents a simple and convenient method that relies on using the naked senses to identify authenticity and quality. In macroscopic identification, the external features of medicinal materials are assessed by looking, smelling, touching and tasting, complemented by techniques known as fire and water testing. As these methods are based on experience accumulated by practitioners over the course of history, macroscopic identification is also known as “experience-based” differentiation. Historical Literature on Medicinal Materials According to ancient Chinese tradition, the mythological founder of Chinese herbal medicine, Shen Nong (the “Divine Husbandman”), was said to have “tried the hundred herbs by tasting them, encountering 70 toxicities within a day.” This description of Shen Nong was recorded in the early Western Han Dynasty in the ancient text The Philosophers of Huainan (Huai Nan Zi, ca. 200 B.C.E.), and it reflects the importance of directly assessing medicinals based on organoleptic features such as taste and the mouth’s associated sensory response. Valuable experiences accumulated through ancient human trial and error have been passed down from generation to generation in a rich oral and literary history, and the myth of Shen Nong honors the countless unknown individuals that dedicated their lives to discovering the effects of the botanicals around them. The broad genre of Chinese materia medica texts is often referred to as “ben cao” literature.
    [Show full text]
  • THE LAST YEARS 218–220 Liu Bei in Hanzhong 218–219 Guan Yu and Lü Meng 219 Posthumous Emperor 220 the Later History Of
    CHAPTER TEN THE LAST YEARS 218–220 Liu Bei in Hanzhong 218–219 Guan Yu and Lü Meng 219 Posthumous emperor 220 The later history of Cao Wei Chronology 218–2201 218 spring: short-lived rebellion at Xu city Liu Bei sends an army into Hanzhong; driven back by Cao Hong summer: Wuhuan rebellion put down by Cao Cao’s son Zhang; Kebineng of the Xianbi surrenders winter: rebellion in Nanyang 219 spring: Nanyang rebellion put down by Cao Ren Liu Bei defeats Xiahou Yuan at Dingjun Mountain summer: Cao Cao withdraws from Hanzhong; Liu Bei presses east down the Han autumn: Liu Bei proclaims himself King of Hanzhong; Guan Yu attacks north in Jing province, besieges Cao Ren in Fan city rebellion of Wei Feng at Ye city winter: Guan Yu defeated at Fan; Lü Meng seizes Jing province for Sun Quan and destroys Guan Yu 220 spring [15 March]: Cao Cao dies at Luoyang; Cao Pi succeeds him as King of Wei winter [11 December]: Cao Pi takes the imperial title; Cao Cao is given posthumous honour as Martial Emperor of Wei [Wei Wudi] * * * * * 1 The major source for Cao Cao’s activities from 218 to 220 is SGZ 1:50–53. They are presented in chronicle order by ZZTJ 68:2154–74 and 69:2175; deC, Establish Peace, 508–560. 424 chapter ten Chronology from 220 222 Lu Xun defeats the revenge attack of Liu Bei against Sun Quan 226 death of Cao Pi, succeeded by his son Cao Rui 238 death of Cao Rui, succeeded by Cao Fang under the regency of Cao Shuang 249 Sima Yi destroys Cao Shuang and seizes power in the state of Wei for his family 254 Sima Shi deposes Cao Fang, replacing him with Cao Mao 255 Sima Shi succeeded by Sima Zhao 260 Cao Mao killed in a coup d’état; replaced by Cao Huan 264 conquest of Shu-Han 266 Sima Yan takes title as Emperor of Jin 280 conquest of Wu by Jin Liu Bei in Hanzhong 218–219 Even while Cao Cao steadily developed his position with honours, titles and insignia, he continued to proclaim his loyalty to Han and to represent himself as a servant—albeit a most successful and distin- guished one—of the established dynasty.
    [Show full text]
  • Bibliothèque – Bibliothek – Biblioteca – Library
    Bibliothèque – Bibliothek – Biblioteca – Library Acquisitions récentes – Neuanschaffungen – Acquisizioni recenti – Recent acquisitions 05/2015 1 A 12 e COMP/19 2015 Turkish reports to the XIXth International Congress of Comparative Law / ed. by Rona Serozan ... [et al.]. - Istanbul : Vedat, 2015. - 166 p. - ISBN 9786054823789. R008143567 IF ISDC Libre-accès * Classif.: A 12 e COMP/19 2015 * Cote: ISDC 181755 A 15.1 g ERBG 2015 Energie-Infrastrukturrecht : Kolloquium anlässlich der Verabschiedung von Prof. Wilfried Erbguth am 11. September 2014 / hrsg. von Sabine Schlacke ... [et al.]. - Berlin : Duncker & Humblot, 2015. - 131 p. - (Schriften zum Öffentlichen Recht ; Bd. 1289). - ISBN 9783428145669. R008114767 IF ISDC Libre-accès * Classif.: A 15.1 g ERBG 2015 * Cote: ISDC 181933 A 15.1 g JACO 2014 Ad Fontes : Liber amicorum prof. Beatrix van Erp-Jacobs / E.J.M.F.C. Broers ; R.M.H. Kubben. - Oisterwijk : W.L.P. (Wolf Legal Publishers), 2014. - 293 p. - ISBN 94-6240-151-9. ISBN 9789462401518. R008106056 IF ISDC Libre-accès * Classif.: A 15.1 g JACO 2014 * Cote: ISDC 181789 A 15.1 g MAHM 2014 International law and changing perceptions of security : Liber Amicorum Said Mahmoudi / ed. by Jonas Ebbesson ... [et al.]. - Leiden : Brill, 2014. - 350 p. : ill. - ISBN 9789004274570 (hbk.). R007924005 IF ISDC Libre-accès * Classif.: A 15.1 g MAHM 2014 * Cote: ISDC 181814 A 15.1 g PHAR 2015 International law and politics of the Arctic Ocean : essays in honor of Donat Pharand / Edited by Suzanne Lalonde, Ted L. McDorman. - Boston : Brill Nijhoff, 2015. - 458 p. - Includes index. - ISBN 9789004284586 (hardback : alk. paper). ISBN 9789004284593 (ebook).
    [Show full text]
  • Yang Obeys, but the Yin Ignores: Copyright Law and Speech Suppression in the People's Republic of China
    UCLA UCLA Pacific Basin Law Journal Title The Yang Obeys, but the Yin Ignores: Copyright Law and Speech Suppression in the People's Republic of China Permalink https://escholarship.org/uc/item/4j750316 Journal UCLA Pacific Basin Law Journal, 29(1) Author McIntyre, Stephen Publication Date 2011 DOI 10.5070/P8291022233 Peer reviewed eScholarship.org Powered by the California Digital Library University of California THE YANG OBEYS, BUT THE YIN IGNORES: COPYRIGHT LAW AND SPEECH SUPPRESSION IN THE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA Stephen McIntyret ABSTRACT Copyright law can either promote or restrict free speech: while copyright preserves economic incentives to create and pub- lish new expression, it also fences off expression from public use. For this reason, the effect of copyright law on speech in a given country depends on the particular manner in which it is under- stood, legislated, and enforced. This Article argues that copyright law in the People's Repub- lic of China (PRC) serves as a tool for speech suppression and censorship. Whereas China has engaged in official censorship for thousands of years, there has historically been little appreciation for proprietary rights in art and literature. Just as China's early twentieth century attempts to recognize copyright overlapped with strict publication controls, the PRC's modern copyright regime embodies the view that copyright is a mechanism for policing speech and media. The decade-long debate that preceded the PRC's first copy- right statute was shaped by misunderstanding,politics, ideology, and historicalforces. Scholars and lawmakers widely advocated that Chinese copyright law discriminate based on media content and carefully circumscribe authors' rights.
    [Show full text]
  • The Tibet-Dzungar Ideological Alliance's Challenge to the Qing
    The Tibet-Dzungar Ideological Alliance’s Challenge to the Qing Empire and the Adaptation of Qing Ideology in the mid- 18th century Master’s Thesis (credits 45) Author: Xinyang Wang Supervisor: John Hennessey Seminar chair: Margaret Hunt Semester: Spring 2021 HISTORISKA INSTITUTIONEN Abstract The Yellow Hat Sect of Tibetan Buddhism exerted an important influence on the ideology of the Dzungar Empire and the Qing Empire. At the end of the 16th century, the rise of the Romanov and the Qing squeezed the living space of nomads. The Mongols, including the Dzungars, chose to convert to Tibetan Buddhism to regulate the increasing internal and external tensions. In the 17th and 18th centuries, the power structure of Central Eurasia continuously changed with the expansion of the Yellow Hat Sect’s cross-regional religious, political and economic systems and religious wars. By the 1740s, the Qing Empire established a new order in Tibet and its surrounding areas, as well as Mongolia, in other words, in most Tibetan Buddhist areas except Dzungaria. Due to the special relationship between the Dzungar and Tibet, the Dzungar constantly challenged the new ideological order constructed by the Qing with the “irrational” request of inviting Tibetan lamas. In response, the Qing constantly adjusted its strategy, which is the main problem discussed in this thesis. The ideological conflict between the two eventually led to a war that eliminated the Dzungar and the attempt to ontologically homogenize the Qing Empire in the post-Dzungar era. 1 Acknowledgements Thanks to my supervisor John Hennessey, who made me discover my interest in Qing ideology and has encouraged and helped me to study this topic.
    [Show full text]
  • The Hundred Surnames: a Pinyin Index
    names collated:Chinese personal names and 100 surnames.qxd 29/09/2006 12:59 Page 3 The hundred surnames: a Pinyin index Pinyin Hanzi (simplified) Wade Giles Other forms Well-known names Pinyin Hanzi (simplified) Wade Giles Other forms Well-known names Ai Ai Ai Zidong Cong Ts’ung Zong Cong Zhen Ai Ai Ai Songgu Cui Ts’ui Cui Jian, Cui Yanhui An An An Lushan Da Ta Da Zhongguang Ao Ao Ao Taosun, Ao Jigong Dai Tai Dai De, Dai Zhen Ba Pa Ba Su Dang Tang Dang Jin, Dang Huaiying Bai Pai Bai Juyi, Bai Yunqian Deng Teng Tang, Deng Xiaoping, Bai Pai Bai Qian, Bai Ziting Thien Deng Shiru Baili Paili Baili Song Di Ti Di Xi Ban Pan Ban Gu, Ban Chao Diao Tiao Diao Baoming, Bao Pao Bao Zheng, Bao Shichen Diao Daigao Bao Pao Bao Jingyan, Bao Zhao Ding Ting Ding Yunpeng, Ding Qian Bao Pao Bao Xian Diwu Tiwu Diwu Tai, Diwu Juren Bei Pei Bei Yiyuan, Bei Qiong Dong Tung Dong Lianghui Ben Pen Ben Sheng Dong Tung Dong Zhongshu, Bi Pi Bi Sheng, Bi Ruan, Bi Zhu Dong Jianhua Bian Pien Bian Hua, Bian Wenyu Dongfang Tungfang Dongfang Shuo Bian Pien Bian Gong Dongguo Tungkuo Dongguo Yannian Bie Pieh Bie Zhijie Dongmen Tungmen Dongmen Guifu Bing Ping Bing Yu, Bing Yuan Dou Tou Dou Tao Bo Po Bo Lin Dou Tou Dou Wei, Dou Mo, Bo Po Bo Yu, Bo Shaozhi Dou Xian Bu Pu Bu Tianzhang, Bu Shang Du Tu Du Shi, Du Fu, Du Mu Bu Pu Bu Liang Du Tu Du Yu Cai Ts’ai Chai, Cai Lun, Cai Wenji, Cai Ze Du Tu Du Xia Chua, Du Tu Du Qiong Choy Duan Tuan Duan Yucai Cang Ts’ang Cang Xie Duangan Tuankan Duangan Tong Cao Ts’ao Tso, Tow Cao Cao, Cao Xueqin, Duanmu Tuanmu Duanmu Guohu Cao Kun E O E
    [Show full text]
  • An Analysis of Chinese Talent Management Strategy: Emphasis on Cao Cao’S Competencies from the Records of the Three Kingdoms
    AN ANALYSIS OF CHINESE TALENT MANAGEMENT STRATEGY: EMPHASIS ON CAO CAO’S COMPETENCIES FROM THE RECORDS OF THE THREE KINGDOMS LU KUICHENG A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT DEPARTMENT OF INTERNATIONAL GRADUATE STUDIES IN HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT FACULTY OF EDUCATION BURAPHA UNIVERSITY MAY 2018 COPYRIGHT OF BURAPHA UNIVERSITY ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I wish to express my sincere gratitude to the many people who supported and helped me in the completion of this study. For my worthily principle advisor Associate Professor Dr.Chalong Tubsree, I send my heartfelt thanks for his patience and guidance in helping me. In the process of composing this paper, he gave me much academic and constructive advice, and helped me to correct my paper. Without his enlightening instruction, impressive kindness and patience, I could not have completed my thesis. His keen and vigorous academic observation enlightened me not only in this thesis but also in my future study. At the same time, I would like to express my appreciation to my Co-advisor, who gave me useful literature knowledge and information in this paper. She is Assist. Prof. Dr. Wilai Limthawaranun. I am very grateful for her patient guidance in the course of my thesis writing. Finally, I would like to thank the teachers who helped me during my entire study process in the International Graduate Studies Human Resource Development Center of Burapha University. Dr. Watunyoo Suwannaset, Dr. Chalermsri Chantarathong and Rattanasiri Khemraj in the IG-HRD office, thank you for taking care of me meticulously for the last three years.
    [Show full text]
  • Development of Restorative Justice in China: Theory and Practice
    www.crimejusticejournal.com IJCJ&SD 2016 5(4): 76‐86 ISSN 2202–8005 Development of Restorative Justice in China: Theory and Practice Yinzhi Shen University at Albany, State University of New York, USA Abstract Restorative justice has become a global social movement for criminal justice reform, with over eighty countries adopting some form of restorative justice program to tackle their crime problems. The theory of restorative justice was introduced to the Chinese academia in 2002. So far, various restorative justice programs have been developed in China. This paper aims to systematically review the development of restorative justice in China by analyzing academic literature on restorative justice and key legislative documentations. Major debates in restorative justice among Chinese scholars and a review of the indigenous restorative justice practice, criminal reconciliation (Xingshi Hejie), are provided. The study also analyzes the impetus of this soaring popularity of restorative justice in China, considering the macro social, political and legal background. Last but not least, a review of the major evaluation studies of current programs reveals that little is known about the process of various restorative justice programs from the parties’ own perspective. Keywords Restorative justice; literature review; criminal reconciliation; China. Please cite this article as: Shen Y (2016) Development of restorative justice in China: Theory and practice. International Journal for Crime, Justice and Social Democracy 5(4): 76‐86. DOI: 10.5204/ijcjsd.v5i4.339. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Licence. As an open access journal, articles are free to use, with proper attribution, in educational and other non‐commercial settings.
    [Show full text]
  • Symbolic Capital, Existential Insecurity, and Industrial Policies: a Neo-Bourdieusian
    Symbolic Capital, Existential Insecurity, and Industrial Policies: A Neo-Bourdieusian Theory of the Leninist State in China (1927-1982) Yuting Chen Advisor: Prof. George Steinmetz Second Reader: Prof. Andrei S. Markovits A THESIS Submitted to The University of Michigan Department of Political Science in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Honor Bachelor of Arts March 2021 1 Dedication This study is dedicated to my mentors: Prof. George Steinmetz, Prof. Andrei S. Markovits, Prof. Krisztina Fehervary, and Prof. Qixuan Huang. Thank you for the guidance, strength, and skills. 2 Contents List of Abbreviations 3 Acknowledgments 4 Abstract 7 Introduction 9 Chapter 1. The Games of Old Bolsheviks 20 Chapter 2. Existential Insecurity as the Producer of the Militarized Socialist State 38 Chapter 3.The Becoming of the Third Front: Macro-Structural Change, Reformulated Socialist Statecraft, and the Militarized Logic of Big Push Industrialization 69 Chapter 4. The Beginning of State Capital Differentiation: Power Struggles, Subfield Autonomy, and Delegation of Political Will 97 Conclusion: State Strategies and Zeitgeist 148 Bibliography 155 3 List of Abbreviations Intercontinental ballistic missiles – ICBM The Central Military Commission – CMC [中央军事委员会] The Chief Directorate of Automobile Industry – CDAI (It was a subordinate unit of the First Ministry of Machine Building till 1982) [汽车总局] The Chinese Communist Party – CCP [中国共产党] The Chinese State Automobile Corporation – CSAC (The successor agency of the Chief Directorate of
    [Show full text]
  • Bibliography of Chinese Linguistics William S.-Y.Wang
    BIBLIOGRAPHY OF CHINESE LINGUISTICS WILLIAM S.-Y.WANG INTRODUCTION THIS IS THE FIRST LARGE-SCALE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF CHINESE LINGUISTICS. IT IS INTENDED TO BE OF USE TO STUDENTS OF THE LANGUAGE WHO WISH EITHER TO CHECK THE REFERENCE OF A PARTICULAR ARTICLE OR TO GAIN A PERSPECTIVE INTO SOME SPECIAL TOPIC OF RESEARCH. THE FIELD OF CHINESE LINGUIS- TICS HAS BEEN UNDERGOING RAPID DEVELOPMENT IN RECENT YEARS. IT IS HOPED THAT THE PRESENT WORK WILL NURTURE THIS DEVELOP- MENT BY PROVIDING A SENSE OF THE SIZABLE SCHOLARSHIP IN THE FIELD» BOTH PAST AND PRESENT. IN SPITE OF REPEATED CHECKS AND COUNTERCHECKS, THE FOLLOWING PAGES ARE SURE TO CONTAIN NUMEROUS ERRORS OF FACT, SELECTION AND OMISSION. ALSO» DUE TO UNEVENNESS IN THE LONG PROCESS OF SELECTION, THE COVERAGE HERE IS NOT UNIFORM. THE REPRESENTATION OF CERTAIN TOPICS OR AUTHORS IS PERHAPS NOT PROPORTIONAL TO THE EXTENT OR IMPORTANCE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF CHINESE LINGUISTICS ]g9 OF THE CORRESPONDING LITERATURE. THE COVERAGE CAN BE DIS- CERNED TO BE UNBALANCED IN TWO MAJOR WAYS. FIRST. THE EMPHASIS IS MORE ON-MODERN. SYNCHRONIC STUDIES. RATHER THAN ON THE WRITINGS OF EARLIER CENTURIES. THUS MANY IMPORTANT MONOGRAPHS OF THE QING PHILOLOGISTS. FOR EXAMPLE, HAVE NOT BEEN INCLUDED HERE. THOUGH THESE ARE CERTAINLY TRACE- ABLE FROM THE MODERN ENTRIES. SECOND, THE EMPHASIS IS HEAVILY ON THE SPOKEN LANGUAGE, ALTHOUGH THERE EXISTS AN ABUNDANT LITERATURE ON THE CHINESE WRITING SYSTEM. IN VIEW OF THESE SHORTCOMINGS, I HAD RESERVATIONS ABOUT PUBLISHING THE BIBLIOGRAPHY IN ITS PRESENT STATE. HOWEVER, IN THE LIGHT OF OUR EXPERIENCE SO FAR, IT IS CLEAR THAT A CONSIDERABLE AMOUNT OF TIME AND EFFORT IS STILL NEEDED TO PRODUCE A COMPREHENSIVE BIBLIOGRAPHY THAT IS AT ONCE PROPERLY BALANCED AMD COMPLETELY ACCURATE (AND, PERHAPS, WITH ANNOTATIONS ON THE IMPORTANT ENTRIES).
    [Show full text]
  • Xinfang: an Alternative to Formal Chinese Legal Institutions Carl F
    Fordham Law School FLASH: The Fordham Law Archive of Scholarship and History Faculty Scholarship 2006 Xinfang: An Alternative to Formal Chinese Legal Institutions Carl F. Minzner Fordham University School of Law, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: http://ir.lawnet.fordham.edu/faculty_scholarship Part of the Foreign Law Commons Recommended Citation Carl F. Minzner, Xinfang: An Alternative to Formal Chinese Legal Institutions, 42 Stan. J. Int'l L. 103 (2006) Available at: http://ir.lawnet.fordham.edu/faculty_scholarship/3 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by FLASH: The orF dham Law Archive of Scholarship and History. It has been accepted for inclusion in Faculty Scholarship by an authorized administrator of FLASH: The orF dham Law Archive of Scholarship and History. For more information, please contact [email protected]. XINFANG: AN ALTERNATIVE TO FORMAL CHINESE LEGAL INSTITUTIONS CARL F. MINZNER* I. INTRODUCTION Problems in Faxi village started out small. Residents suspected the local Communist Party secretary of skimming public funds for his own use. Groups of villagers mounted multiple trips to township authorities, requesting the secretary be removed from his post. Gradually, problems spread. After sacking the Party secretary to appease popular sentiment, township authorities attempted to reassert control over local affairs by rigging village committee elections. Villagers, now incensed by a combination of both electoral and financial injustices, began a steady process of petitioning higher levels of government for redress of their grievances. Over the next two years, Faxi petitioners launched petitions and protests directed at a range of township, county, and provincial officials.
    [Show full text]