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William Kandowe 546338 Supervisor Dr Norman Sempijja Co Supervisor Ekeminiabasi Eyita-Okon Examining the Impact of Peacekeeping

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William Kandowe 546338 Supervisor Dr Norman Sempijja Co Supervisor Ekeminiabasi Eyita-Okon Examining the Impact of Peacekeeping FACULTY OF HUMANITIES DEPARTMENT OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS William Kandowe 546338 Supervisor Dr Norman Sempijja Co Supervisor Ekeminiabasi Eyita-Okon Examining the impact of peacekeeping and peace enforcement in Democratic Republic Congo–the cases of Operation Artemis 2003 and Force Intervention Brigade 2013. Research submitted to the Faculty of Humanities in fulfilment of the requirements of the Master‘s Degree in International Relations, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg South Africa Declaration I William Kandowe declare that this is solely my own work, and where otherwise appropriate referencing has been made. Signed---------------------------------------------Date--------------------------------------------------------- i Dedication To my wife Marjory and my children: Laura Leaza, Lavender Layla and Lee William. ii Acknowledgements I wish to thank my supervisor Dr Norman Sempijja, co-supervisor Ekeminiabasi Okon, my wife Marjory Muneri, as well as my daughters Laura, Lavender and my son Lee William. I would further like to thank Lyn Brown, Dickson Kamungeremu, Princington, Rudo, Fellowship and Isaac. Further thanks are due to Professor Gilbert Kadiyagala, and Dr Sandi Sithole. , Professor Sheila Meintjes–your assistance with violent and conflict discussion is gratefully acknowledged, and to Dr Roxanne Richter your encouragement strengthened me. I am also very happy with the following people who worked closely with me during my research: Misheck Mudzengerere; Farai Sankurani; Mum Muneri; Siwach Mandivengerei; Enos Tsikiwa; Mr and Mrs Jervas Mudzengerere; as well as Jervas Nyokanhete. My friends from Wits University and staff from the International Relations Department, and to all the Masters Students I shared ideas with–thank you. Those whom I worked with I appreciate the work you did during my absence without supervision. Lastly, I acknowledge the organisations and websites which provided information I was looking for. iii Table of Contents Declaration………..……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………i Dedication…..………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….ii Acknowledgements………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..iii Table of Contents……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..iv List ofFigures…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….vi Abbreviations ............................................................................................................................................... vi Abstract ........................................................................................................................................................ ix CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND TO THE DRC CONFLICT.......................................................10 1.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….10 1.2 Objectives of the study and research questions …………..……………………………………………………………………13 1.3 Problem statement and rationale ……….…………………………………………………………………………………………….14 1.4 Methodology….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….18 1.4.2 Variables………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….20 1.4.2 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…21 CHAPTER 2 PART ONE: LITERATURE REVIEW………………………………………………………………………………………………22 2.1. UN peacekeeping missions and use of force in peace……..………………………………………………………………..42 2.1.1 Conflicts on greed, grievance,ethnicity and Colonialism ushers in war reocurrence………………………..30 2.1.2 Knowledge gaps and value added to literature …………..…………………………………………………………………38 2.1.3 Conclusion…. ………………………………………………………………………..……………………………………………………..39 CHAPTER 2 PART TWO: BACKGROUND TO THE DRC CONFLICT ………………………………………………………………..40 2.2 The Congo Wars 1 and 2……..…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..40 2.2.1 Attempts and humanitarian crisis in Ituri ………….………………………………………………………………………..22 2.2.2 Post-second Congo War……….……………………………………………………………………………………………………...43 2.2.2 General Nkunda off-shoot…………….…………………………………………………………………………………………..43 2.2.3 The refusal of EU to assist UN in 2008…..……….…………………………………………………………………………….45 2.2.4 Conclusion….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..46 CHAPTER 3 FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS : OPERATION ARTEMIS 2003………………………………………………………..…47 3.1 What were the issues at the heart of the 2003 regional conflict in Ituri?...........................................48 3.1.2 Ituri….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 48 3.1.3 Factors necessitated the UN authorisation of Artemi..s………….…………..…………………..…………………..51 3.1.4 To what extend did Operation Artemis meet objectives…………..………………………..……………………...53 iv 3.1.5 Exploring casualties and conflict in Ituri………………………………………………………………………………………53 3.1.6 Conclusion….………..………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………58 CHAPTER 4 FINDINGS AND ANAYSIS: FORCE INTERVENTION BRIGADE (FIB)………………………………….59 4 What were the issues at the heart of the 2013 M23 rebellion? 4.1 M23 rebellion…..…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………....59 4.2 What factors necessitated the UN authorisation of the FIB in 2013?.................................................61 4.3 To what extent did the FIB meet its objectives……….…..…………………………….……………………………………...63 4.4 Exploring casualties in eastern DRC…..…..………,………………………………………………………………………………….63 4.5 Conclusion….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………70 CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS………………………………………………………71 5.1 Recommendations………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…74 6. REFERENCES………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..76 v List of Figures Figure 1: Underlines the inherent linkages and grey areas between the different categories in peacekeeping……………………………………………………………………………………..29 Figure 2: Number of casualties before, during and after peacekeeping in Ituri 2001-2005……..54 Figure 3: Number of conflicts before, during and after peace keeping in Ituri 2001-2005……...56 Figure 4: Number of casualties per year before and during peacekeeping in eastern DRC 2011- 2018………………………………………………………………………………………………64 Figure 5: Number of conflicts per year before and during peacekeeping mission in DRC 2011- 2018………………………………………………………………………………………………66 vi Abbreviations ACLED Armed Conflict Location & Event Data Project APC Congolese Popular Army ASADHO African Association for the Defense of Human Rights AU African Union BBC British Broadcasting Corporation CEU Commission of the European Communities CNDP National Congress for the Defence of the People DPKO Department of Peacekeeping operations DRC Democratic Republic of Congo ECA Economic Commission of African ESDP European Security and Defence Policy ESDP European Security Defence Policy EU European Union FARDC Armed Force of the Democratic Republic of Congo FDLR Democratic Force for the Liberation of Rwanda FIB Force Intervention Brigade GLR Great Lakes Region HRW Human Rights Watch ICGLR International Conference for the Great Lakes Region IEMF Interim Emergency Multinational Force LRA Lord‘s Resistance Army M23 March 23 Movement MCDA Military Civil and Defence Asset PKMs Peacekeeping Missions MLC Congo Liberation Movement MONUC Organisation Mission in the Democratic Republic of Congo vii MONUSCO United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo OAU Organisation of African Union RCD Congolese Rally for Democracy RCD-Goma Congolese Rally for Democracy-Goma RCD-ML Congolese Rally for Democracy Liberation Movement SADC Southern African Development Community SNCP National Synergy for Peace and Concord SSR Security Sector Reform UN United Nations UNBPU United Nations Peacekeeping Best Practices Unit UNDPKO United Nations Department of Peacekeeping UNICEF United Nations Children‘s Fund UNMOC United Nations Mission in the Democratic Republic of Congo UNSC United Nation Security Council USA United States of America USD United States Dollar WTO World Trade Organisation viii Abstract This study set out to examine how effective peace enforcement mechanism of peacekeeping missions has been in conflict-ridden countries, in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Consequently these conflicts have led to various interventions, including the adoption of both peacekeeping and peace-enforcement strategies in an attempt to resolve conflicts. However, in the face of humiliation of peacekeeping forces and the continuation of human suffering, there has often been the need to change the mandate of the forces to that of enforcement. The study adopts a mixed method approach – using both qualitative and quantitative methodologies. It makes use of a case study method to examine the implementation of peacekeeping in SSA. In addition this study used quantitative data to examine the effectiveness of peacekeeping missions in the region. The focus of this study was on the European Union‘s (EU) Operation Artemis and the United Nations‘ (UN) FIB, activity in the Eastern Democratic Republic Congo (DRC) to determine their effectiveness in keeping peace in the region. Peacekeeping missions are defined as techniques designed purportedly to ensure peace returns in previously hostile societies. The use of force is considered as the last resort in the UN Charter. The abovementioned operations have continually used force in an attempt to keep peace in the Eastern DRC. Irrespective of the missions‘ effort, conflict still recurs in the region. The findings of this research show that colonialism, ethnic division, differences over ancestral land, marginalization, greed and grievances are at the core of the conflict in Ituri
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