HAOL, Núm. 7 (Primavera, 2005), 57-66 ISSN 1696-2060

SOVEREIGNITY, WEALTH, CULTURE AND TECHNOLOGY: AND GRAPPLE WITHE THE PARAMETERS OF ‘NATION STATE’ IN THE 21st CENTURY

Emmanuel Pastreich University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, United States. E-mail: [email protected]

Recibido: 28 Febrero 2005 / Revisado: 31 Marzo 2005 / Aceptado: 30 Abril 2005 / Publicado: 15 Junio 2005

Resumen: This paper introduces the historical of Taiwanese with the right to local self- background of the present confrontations and determination and insulation from potential negotiations between Taiwan and the mainland authoritarian interference by the mainland in terms of Formosa’s (“the beautiful island” in against the overarching goal of cultural and Portuguese) convoluted relations with the territorial integrity free from the shadow of Portugal and Holland, survivors of the Ming colonialism held up by mainlanders. Recently, dynasty, the (1644-1911), Japan, the debate over the future of Taiwan is carried and the United status. The foreign interests who out in newspapers, in postings of on-line have had control of Taiwán make its discussions, and in other media on multiple sovereignity more complex. A consideration of continents most of which are accessible to all the relationship of the Nationalist Republic of parties involved. Moreover, both sides of the China and the Communist People’s Republic Of argument are admitted into the discussion. China is also included. The debate on culture, Although the debate is heated at times, it unfolds economics and political control between their across the globe with a transparency two political entities is informed past events, unimaginable even ten years ago. In addition, and a concern for the present legitimacy of both Taiwanese newspapers recognize that the entities. Moreover, the challenges of question of Taiwan's relationship with the globalization further complicate the picture in mainland is inseparable from the rapidly that the odd convergence of economic and unfolding process of globalization and cultural convergence with political tensions may integration throughout the world –the final be representative of the conflicts we will consequences of which remain opaque. The encounter in this century. The paper considers future of Taiwan can no longer be reduced to an the economic, cultural, and technological ties either/or, unification/independence, equation. that continue to bind Taiwan and the mainland despite serious differences and closes with a Although Taiwanese newspapers continue to short consideration of possibilities for a long- display a distinctly Taiwanese perspective, even term peaceful solution. to the point of unfairly characterizing the Palabras clave: China, culture, Nation State, intentions of mainland policies regarding sovereignity, Taiwán, technology, wealth. exchanges with Taiwan, the term zhuanxing or ______"structural transformation" is employed again and again in descriptions of contemporary INTRODUCTION affairs. "Structural transformation" implies that Taiwan is playing a new and complex game of here has been a notable shift in the debate maintaining its economic base and political across the straits concerning Taiwan's autonomy through overlapping patterns of Trelationship to the larger political entity engagement with the People's Republic of known as People's Republic of China over the China, the other nations of East Asia, the United last five years. The debate over Taiwan's future States and the rest of the world. Self- (or the Republic of China's future) pits concerns preservation is no longer a matter of simply

© Historia Actual Online 2005 57 Sovereignity, wealth, culture and technology Emmanuel Pastreich standing up to the threatening Communist When the Ming dynasty collapsed under the presence. Rather it is a matter of systematic relentless attacks of the Manchu armies in 1644, negotiation within a panoply of international the political order in East Asia was shaken to its organizations –everything from the Boy Scouts foundations and the future of China clouded. to the World Trade Organization– on the one The Ming dynasty had been the cultural and hand, and internal transformations aimed at military power in East Asia and its overthrow by increasing the value added to Taiwan's northern barbarians from the periphery disturbed industrial, cultural, and educational capital on the international order for centuries. The the other. The political and military back and remnants of the Ming army gathered in southern forth between the Nationalist Republic of China China to resist, but lacked the conviction and and the Communist People's Republic of China organization necessary. No small number of has been a deliberate chess game spanning the Chinese attempted to cross to Taiwan fearing the last seventy years. Each side played on the wrath of the Manchu lords. It was the Dutch, other's weaknesses and appealed to the however, who seized the moment and took over international community for legitimacy while the island in 1646. They were soon displaced, trying to corner, and destroy from within, the however, by the Chinese General Zheng other. But today the very definition of "China" Chenggong in 1661, a Ming dynasty loyalist. and "nation" is challenged by dizzying Zheng Chenggong was a product of the protean, economic and technological transformation. The fluid new economic order that emerged along chessboard on which that battle was waged has the coasts of China and maintained close ties started to come apart. That is not to say that the with it. Piracy (or perhaps we should say battle has ended, just that its rules have become resistance to Qing rule) became a serious issue murky. in the second half of the seventeenth century and the new Manchu (Qing) dynasty took the A SHORT 'S extreme step of shutting down major ports in an SPECIAL STATUS attempt to stifle it, and Ming loyalists on Taiwan. Taiwan ceased to be a major trading A basic outline of Taiwan's cultural and political center as a result. The Ming loyalists on Taiwan history and the sources therein of its disputed remained a serious irritant to the Qing dynasty status is essential to understanding the and the cause for the first attempt to isolate the uncertainties of its future. The original island. inhabitants of Taiwan, who certainly did not use that name –or the Portuguese "Formosa" The Qing dynasty was eventually successful (beautiful island)– to describe this lush island, through a variety of political and military venues were Malayo-Polynesian aborigines with no in annexing Taiwan in 1683 after Zheng's death cultural affiliation with China whatsoever. and making it a part of province. Chinese Today those native Taiwanese, known in immigration from Fujian began in earnest from Chinese as shandiren, make up approximately 2 the eighteenth century and Taiwan became an percent of Taiwan's population and are virtually indisputable part of the Qing dynasty. Before we absent from urban centers. say Taiwan was part of China, however, we must consider carefully the nature of Manchu There were sporadic visits to the island of rule. Ethnic Chinese were not the ruling class of Taiwan by the Chinese and the Portuguese in the the Qing dynasty –although they eventually sixteenth century. The Portuguese produced dominated the bureaucracy– and the Qing records of those landings from the 1590s but dynasty included regions such as Manchuria and attempted no permanent settlements. It was Tibet whose residents thought of themselves as rather Holland and Spain that established part of a larger Manchu order, but not part of colonial settlements in Taiwan (in 1624 and China. In fact the Chinese term for this realm, 1626 respectively) as part of their larger hua (as in Zhonghua, the formal term for competition in trade throughout Southeast Asia. "China" today), denoted a cultural and economic Neither country made any serious investment in sphere transcending ethnicity. the infrastructure of these tiny outposts in Taiwan, however, seeing them as but stops on The Qing dynasty was an extremely efficient larger trade routes. agricultural empire. So successful was its peaceful rule that a massive increase in rural population occurred with serious implications for China today. Population pressure drove 58 © Historia Actual Online 2005

Emmanuel Pastreich Sovereignity, wealth, culture and technology immigration to Taiwan in the eighteenth century World War. Taiwan was critical to the Japanese from the adjacent provinces of Fujian and effort in the Pacific War because of its industrial Guangdong. The Hakka minority people of and logistical capacity. As early as the Cairo Southern China and the people of Conference, however, the Allies decided that Southern Fujian made up a significant portion of Taiwan should revert to China after the war was those immigrants. In 1886 a more densely won. populated Taiwan became an independent province of China with a governor assigned But mainland China had been torn apart by civil from Beijing. war before, during, and after the Second World War and it was not so clear who should have By the mid-nineteenth century, however, the control of this island when it reverted. The threat of foreign powers returned after two Nationalists (Guomindang1) and the hundred years of insularity. Following the defeat Communists (Gongchandang) had fought a of China by Britain and France in the Second multi-front conflict for military and political Opium War (1856-60), a new series of domination of China since the late 1920s. agreements was negotiated, opening China to Because the Japanese invasion pushed the the West. The humiliation of the Qing dynasty at Nationalists to Chongqing on the economic the hands of England and France during the periphery, they found themselves at a strategic Second Opium War resulted in the Treaty of disadvantage when the Japanese unexpectedly Tiantsin (Tianjin) in 1858, which forced the and unconditionally surrendered in 1945. The opening of a treaty port in Taiwan. Taiwan thus Nationalists, cut off from their base of support became again a focal point for the economic and torn from within, suffered a series of defeats impact of foreign powers. In addition, the in the late 1940s and ended up as a government Christianity- inspired Taiping Rebellion (1850- in exile in Taiwan facing impending invasion in 1864) of the mid-nineteenth century nearly 1950. toppled the Qing dynasty and loosened further its control of peripheral regions. The country The outbreak of the Korean War and the new limped on, but its central administration was policy of containment for Communism adopted considerably demoralized and its legitimacy by the United States changed Taiwan's situation uncertain. The potential for commercial and significantly. The United States felt increasing colonial exploitation of a weakened China was pressure to support all opposition to immensely tempting for Western powers. More Communism on an international scale. importantly, neighboring Japan felt an acute Considerable disillusionment with the actions of need to create an imperial sphere of influence. the Communist Party after it had taken power All of the important powers in Europe already also increased sympathy with the administration had one and Japan was anxious to catch up. led by General Chiang Kaishek in Taiwan. Taiwan was integrated into the United States The Qing dynasty suffered a total defeat in the Pacific Defense System and in 1954 the United Sino-Japanese War and was forced to accept the States and the Republic of China signed an iron- infamous Treaty of Shimonoseki (1895), by clad Mutual Defense Treaty. The Republic of which the Qing dynasty ceded Taiwan to Japan. China also continued to occupy the China seat Taiwan was to become the cornerstone of on the Security Council of the United Nations Japan's empire in Asia, later known as the "Co- with American backing. prosperity Sphere." Because Taiwan served as a model colony, Japan invested considerable The economic and strategic importance of the funds in its industrialization and modernization. People's Republic of China continued to grow, Although the harshness of Japanese colonial rule however, to the point that it could no longer be is indisputable, so also is the fact that Taiwan ignored by the United States. President Richard developed in a considerably different direction Nixon visited Beijing in 1972, paving the way than it might have as a peripheral province of for normalization of relations with the People's the Qing dynasty. Japanese was made the Republic of China and the end of formal national language of Taiwan and many Japanese diplomatic ties with the Republic of China in settled in this colony as part of the plan of Taiwan. Such a shift resulted from the growing cultural and economic integration. Citizenship in realization in the United States after the Vietnam the Japanese empire was offered to all War that there was no alternative to engagement Taiwanese, although that citizenship was with the People's Republic of China and that the abruptly withdrawn at the end of the Second © Historia Actual Online 2005 59

Sovereignity, wealth, culture and technology Emmanuel Pastreich People's Republic of China and the Soviet from interpreting such rhetoric as a first step Union did not form a contiguous political bloc. towards complete autonomy. The results of the As a result of the normalization process, Taiwan mainland's response were mixed, and led to the no longer enjoyed formal recognition as a election of Chen Shui-Pien of the Democratic sovereign state by any major industrial nation. Progressive Party in 2000 who had previously The People's Republic of China soon after advocated a more complete form of assumed the China seat on the Security Council independence than had Lee Teng-hui. Chen's and spoke thereafter as the official statements in August of 2002 concerning China representative of the Chinese mainland. and Taiwan as "One Country on Each Side of Ambiguity remained as to whether the United the Straits" brought forth considerable protest States had recognized the People's Republic's from Beijing, but not on the scale that might sovereignty over Taiwan. The United States have been expected. The combination of supported the idea of "one China" and increasing overt tension between the Republic of recognized the People's Republic as the China and the People's Republic of China with legitimate government of China. It might follow increased cultural and economic ties is not easily logically that if Taiwan were part of that one explained. Taiwan often appears to be heading China, the United States supported the control of in two different directions at the same time. Taiwan by the People's Republic of China. US support of Taiwan thereafter, however, THE QUESTION OF SOVEREIGNTY FOR suggested that such a conclusion was mistaken. TAIWAN

Taiwan did not wither away. The Taiwanese Taiwan's history is inseparable from the economy continued to grow and it became a lingering shadow of the conflict between major player in high technology fields such as colonialism and self-determination that has memory chips. Taiwan has remained within the haunted the world since the Treaty of Versailles. top three countries in terms of foreign reserves The US policy of recognizing the People's and continues to play a vital role in a variety of Republic of China as the proper representative international organizations. Moreover, the of China and supporting the concept of one Republic of China on Taiwan revoked martial China should logically have given the People's law in 1990 and allowed freedom of expression Republic sovereignty over Taiwan. In most and political organization unprecedented cases "international law assumes that anywhere in mainland China and probably in sovereignty to be undivided and complete."2 Chinese history. The legislature had previously China, Korea, and Germany proved exceptions. been dominated by exiles from the mainland and US support of the policy of "one China," their descendents and offered few opportunities however, sets the Taiwan-mainland case apart either for opposition parties, or natives of from the other two. So also the degree to which Taiwan, to participate in the political process. both Taiwan and the People's Republic of China Critical reforms in the 1990s changed this state have been integrated into the international of affairs and have made Taiwan one of the most community and engage international institutions vibrant democracies in Asia. With the return of simultaneously is distinct. The two entities even Hong Kong to the People's Republic of China in cooperate in certain disputes. And now that 1997, and the return of Macao in 1999, the Taiwanese firms have invested millions of question of Taiwan's future has become dollars in mainland China and Taiwanese increasingly critical. In 1984 Deng Xiao Ping citizens have gone as far as to purchase property spoke of "one country, two systems," implying there, the question of what sovereignty signifies, greater flexibility concerning the path to and whether independence for Taiwan is reunification. possible in any scenario, comes to the forefront.

President Lee Teng-hui, the first native of Taiwan has many features of sovereign state as Taiwan to be elected president of the Republic we currently define it. Taiwan has its own laws, of China, initiated a program for a slow, its own legislature, its own bureaucracy, methodical "Special State-to-State Relationship" including a foreign minister, its own military with the mainland from 1999. The approach was forces, and its own distinct cultural traditions. interpreted as a move towards greater And certainly an argument can be made that it is independence and led to a series of provocative entirely possible for an independent nation off military exercises by the People's Republic of the coast of the People's Republic of China to China aimed at discouraging the Taiwanese 60 © Historia Actual Online 2005

Emmanuel Pastreich Sovereignity, wealth, culture and technology exist that maintains close economic ties to China mainlanders and Taiwanese simply agree not to and a . The relationship of discuss certain sensitive topics. Canada with the United States would be a perfect example. Perhaps it would be accurate to say that Taiwanese and mainlanders engage Taiwanese citizens express justified concern for simultaneously in two separate discourses. At the curtailment of rights that would result from one level they embrace a common culture, a increased mainland influence. Yet there has not common sense of interdependence, and a been a significant exodus from Hong Kong in common hope for the future. At the same time, the last few years despite increasing control both sides perceive the actions of the other as from Beijing. Perhaps it is more accurate to say dangerous and destructive actions often that the rally for accountable government attributed to the respective governments. Both throughout East Asia, whether in Beijing, Seoul, political units move ineluctably towards or , has quieted down significantly. There integration, as represented by the recent has been a notable shift towards a concern with establishment of direct commercial flights immediate economic circumstances and less between Taiwan and the mainland. Yet the interest in direct political engagement on the military of the People's Republic of China part of many citizens throughout Asia. publishes elaborate descriptions of how a military campaign against Taiwan would be Nor is the pro-independence movement in waged. Taiwan clearly opposed to the possibility of a larger Chinese federation. The argument made ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF THE TAIWAN by the pro- independence scholar Cary Hung QUESTION (Hong Zhesheng) for Taiwanese autonomy does not rule out possible future reunification, nor The Taiwanese media openly admits the does it dispute the cultural continuity that makes growing importance of mainland China for the up China3. Rather, Hong stresses the ambiguities Taiwanese economy and in most cases does not in the term "nation state" and the uncertainties articulate fears of the loss of sovereignty that aroused by the original transfer of sovereignty might result from economic integration. Recent from the Qing (which was a dynasty not coequal articles acknowledge that the mainland market with "China") to Japan and then to the will become only more important as the nationalist Republic of China. Hong's point is economic slowdown reduces US demand. The that any conception of "China" that implies an greatest worry articulated in the Taiwanese imperative for reunification is simplistic4. media is that Taiwan is no longer competitive Mainstream Taiwan newspapers also carry with the mainland because of higher costs and elaborate discussions of the abstractions of race, less flexibility and therefore mainland concerns culture, and economics in recent days that may be more attractive to skilled workers from suggest an unprecedented openness in the debate Taiwan5. concerning Taiwan's identity and future. Meanwhile, the Taiwanese electronics industry The difficulty for the outsider lies in has aggressively pursued integration with distinguishing between the overt rhetoric of Singapore, Hong Kong, Shenzhen, and Shanghai condemnation or indignation towards mainland as part of a global competitive strategy. Such proposals on the part of the government and the links are considered to be both reliable and general attitude of most Taiwanese, whether potentially permanent. Many discussions in the students, shop keepers, or businessmen with media concern the jockeying for economic interests on the mainland. The ease with which advantage throughout East Asia; the issue is mainlanders and Taiwanese interact with each constructing a favorable network of industrial other in the United States and elsewhere, as well allies. No binary division between Taiwan and as the broad range of topics on which they agree the mainland is mentioned in these discussions. is striking. Moreover, are so attracted to Taiwanese and Judging from the Taiwan media's presentation, economic opportunities, and happy to interact the major issue for Taiwan in its battle for with Taiwanese, that it would be hard to say that survival and prosperity is the maintenance of either side considers the other an enemy. Rather, high "added value" in manufacturing. The fear expressed in most Taiwanese articles treating

© Historia Actual Online 2005 61

Sovereignity, wealth, culture and technology Emmanuel Pastreich the economy is that Taiwan may become a the People's Republic of China Jiang Zemin, has "second Japan" locked in a dated economic teamed up in business with Wang Wenyang, the system and unable to make fundamental son of Wang Yongqing, President of Taiwan's structural changes. Japan had previously served massive conglomerate Formosa Plastics Group. as a model for Taiwanese industrial and These two scions of privilege representing the economic development. Although not explicitly elite culture of Taiwan and the mainland are stated, recent doubts about Japan's economic starting a joint venture in silicon wafer significance imply that the relative status of the fabrication in Shanghai. The project has been mainland as an economic partner has been approved. If there were a massive conflict enhanced. Such articles do not state that the brewing at a high level in these two People's Republic of China could be an governments, one would expect these two men economic model for Taiwan. Yet the relative to know about it. I do not mean to dismiss the uncertainty about Taiwan's economic ties to possibility of actual military conflict should the Japan and the United States expressed does People's Republic of China feel such a move suggest that the mainland is now one of several was unavoidable because some aspect of the critical economic engines that Taiwan must Taiwan issue threatened the very legitimacy of balance6. Taiwan continues to run a trade that entity10, but the general trends at the very surplus with the mainland and the amount of top of both governments do not indicate that cross- straight trade grows every year7. they are bracing for conflict. As long as certain fundamental ideological tenets are not violated, The demands for reform imposed on the considerable flexibility exists. People's Republic of China as part of its admission to the World Trade Organization have The internet has become a critical part of the given leaders such as Luo Gan and Zhu Rongji economy and the basic social structure in both the bureaucratic justification required to Taiwan and the mainland. The People's implement far-reaching streamlining of the Republic of China also has shown a deep Chinese government. The result so far has been commitment at all levels to the international that as the central government ministries have development of the web even at the risk of been reduced from forty to twenty-nine, and greater access to information for its citizens. sprawling bureaucracies are pruned, the People's Jiang Zemin addressed the World Computer Republic of China will have an administrative Congress in August 2000 with these words, system that looks increasingly similar to that of "Virtual reality is profoundly changing the way the Republic of China in Taiwan8. Moreover, the people produce, learn and live," creating a "a increasing autonomy of some sectors of the borderless information space around the Chinese body politic may approach Hong Kong, world"11. Such a vision of China's future does or even Taiwan, eventually in their relative not imply complete freedom, but there is autonomy from Beijing9. Coastal centers of considerable evidence of greater transparency trade and manufacturing such as Qingdao or within the government and in society as a whole Shenzhen feature an economic and political on the mainland. There have been startling system built on complex ties with the outside changes in the administration of government world and other regions of China. Such entities agencies in China using on-line systems, many make up their own game plan for development accessible from around the world12. Such with little interference from Beijing at the internal shifts open up more areas for administrative level –although they are not cooperation and analogy with Taiwan. Both permitted to establish formal ties with Taiwan. sides are transforming and both are doing so The anticipated standard of living difference with an intense awareness of the other. between Taiwan and the major urban centers of China is no longer significant and Taiwanese CULTURAL TIES BETWEEN TAIWAN businessmen feel entirely at home moving AND THE MAINLAND between the two, although the undeveloped parts of China remain mired in poverty. The term "China" is more of a cultural than a political or geographical designation. One might The economic links between the two shores are say that if one speaks Chinese and follows not a mere product of the entrepreneurs leading Chinese precedents for human relations, one is a vanguard, but run to the very political and in "China" regardless of one's physical location- economic centers of power. For example, Jiang all the more so with the advent of the internet. Jinheng, the son of the (now retired) President of 62 © Historia Actual Online 2005

Emmanuel Pastreich Sovereignity, wealth, culture and technology

Until modern concepts of the nation-state were throughout the mainland in the 1950s. Taiwan introduced to East Asia in the late nineteenth under Nationalist administration has retained the century, Chineseness was a product of cultural more complex forms of the Chinese characters habits and language rather than race or religion. down to the present day13. That said, most The political unit that included Taiwan formally educated Taiwanese and mainlanders have was known as the Qing dynasty. That dynasty computer programs that allow them to read texts was commanded by the Manchus who were not in either form of the characters and most readers ethnic Chinese and included Tibet, Xinjiang, in both places find both forms comprehensible. and Mongolia. The authority of the Qing was Many web pages in Chinese throughout the based on the acceptance of cultural norms, and world are functional in either system. not on the defining characteristics of the nation- state. The very term for China in Chinese, The second issue in the Chinese language is the Zhongguo or "middle country," implies a center romanization of Chinese pronunciation. The for a larger cultural and economic unit that is People's Republic of China has adopted a equivalent to all of East Asia. China received system of romanization called that is tribute from the nations of that cultural space consistent and now accepted throughout the before the nineteenth century, but also granted world in the media and academia. The value of a them considerable autonomy. There was a clear standard form of romanization granted the difference between the provinces and the relative chaos that has resulted from previous independent states with a tributary status like haphazard attempts is not to be underestimated. Korea. Yet any individual who embraced the Nevertheless, the pinyin system features the Chinese cultural tradition, whether the teachings initial consonants Q, Z, Zh, C, and X, which are of Confucius or the style of classical Chinese unpronounceable to anyone not trained in writing, became a part of the Chinese cultural Chinese. Taiwan, however, has clung to a continuum. modified version of the Wade-Giles romanization system originally developed in Today as well, particularly with the advent of England. Although the Wade-Giles system has advanced technology for instantaneous its advantages, it is not a perfect system either, communication and the growth of a significant and it is rarely used outside of Taiwan. Chinese diaspora throughout the world, the Taiwanese use of Wade-Giles makes standard limits of what is meant by "China" are not clear. mainland terms seem alien and confuses many. Chinese businesses and immigrant communities Many articles have appeared in the Taiwanese maintain close ties with the mainland. Complete media recently concerning the issue of assimilation is not regarded as the highest goal. romanization in Taiwan. These articles indicate Most importantly, the government of the a new openness on the part of Taiwan to discuss People's Republic of China has openly the relative merits of the Pinyin system of encouraged the development of an international romanization employed on the mainland. Chinese network, even when such a network decreases Beijing's direct authority. For It may not seem immediately relevant, but a example, Chinese universities have for the first glance at Yahoo's web site gives some sense of time started to organize alumni throughout the the shifts in the boundaries of "China" world as part of this grander scheme of an engendered by technological and cultural international China. change. Yahoo is not a political entity, and it never comes up as a player at meetings of the Language lies at the core of the Chinese identity Association of Southeast Asian Nations despite the fact that China has so many mutually (ASEAN) or the International Monetary Fund unintelligible dialects. Although the standard (IMF). Nevertheless it has profound influence Chinese language employed in television on the manner in which international relations broadcasts and formal interactions in Taiwan are perceived around the globe. There is a and the mainland is essentially the same (let us section of the Yahoo web page list that includes call it Mandarin here), there are several the following web pages: "Asia," "China," important respects in which Chinese language "Hong Kong," "Singapore," and "Taiwan." Each on Taiwan is distinct. First, many of the Chinese has its own distinctive layout and the five are characters employed in Taiwan are written linked closely with each other. There are not differently than on the mainland. The People's many barriers between these five cyber worlds, Republic of China adopted a simplified form for and if anything observers are encouraged to the Chinese characters and promulgated it wander through all five. No trace of © Historia Actual Online 2005 63

Sovereignity, wealth, culture and technology Emmanuel Pastreich confrontation or competition is visible on the animated conversations between Taiwanese and surface of the pages whatsoever. For example, mainlanders that do not suggest the slightest the link to the "China" page is directly disagreement. The emphasis falls rather on the accessible from the "Taiwan" page. Moreover, Taiwanese rediscovery of the mainland. there is also a "United States in Chinese" web page dedicated to domestic matters but CONCLUSION presented entirely in the Chinese language. The United States itself is to some degree integrated The debate among scholars of political science within this imagined Chinese world. Spanish is in recent years has unfolded between those who the only other foreign language in which a page see the impact of globalization and rapidly for the United States appears. Yahoo's format is developing world-wide interconnectedness as indicative of the formation of a fine web of heralding a profound change in the nature of cultural, technological, and institutional links human relations on the one hand, and those who between institutions and information sources assert that the nation state and its institutions are using the Chinese language throughout the stable and growing in authority. Some hold that world. Such links do not mean that states are the globalization of markets and internet linkage merging, but we still do not know what the makes us increasingly part of a global village, limits are to the impact of such connections. If while others argue that regionalism and ties between corporations, individuals, nationalism are more prevalent today than they associations, and even public entities increase as were twenty years ago. The question we must part of the technologically driven process of ask ourselves is whether these two trends are globalization, can we be at all sure what the mutually exclusive. Could it be, whether we are point would be at which political talking about Taiwan's relationship to the "independence" steps in to put a break on such mainland or Turkey's relationship to Europe, integration? The variety of web pages available that local cultural identity is becoming in Chinese stands in marked contrast to the increasingly critical at precisely the moment that complete lack of such Yahoo links to many a large part of the political and economic countries throughout the world. In any case, machinery across the globe becomes even if Yahoo has no political significance increasingly integrated into larger systems and whatsoever, the children of Taiwanese and sets of systems? Could it be that both sides of mainland politicians employ Yahoo daily. The the argument will ultimately be true? Perhaps architecture of international Chinese culture that we will find ourselves in a world with greater they imbibe from their surfing will determine autonomy at the regional level but less the manner in which they conceive of the autonomy for specific sectors of the body politic political landscape. In turn, the discussion because of their integration into international around the dining room table concerning politics systems. And might it even be true that the will be subtly influenced by those contours. growing nationalism that we see across the Such a process will make it increasingly difficult globe is a natural response to globalization that to make extreme or confrontational arguments – at certain moments may impede the growth of not because such arguments do not make sense, connective tissue, but as a whole gives vent to but because they do not conform to this gelling inevitable frustrations and thereby plays its own cultural configuration. role in the process?

The results of such shifts are already visible. A Oddly enough the decline of Communism as a visit to one of the many web site chat rooms unifying ideology on the mainland has only open for discussion in Chinese concerning increased the emotional content for many Taiwan- mainland relations reveals many mainlanders of Taiwan's status. The essentially interactions between Taiwanese and capitalist economy of the mainland has left the mainlanders. Yet many of those discussions are Communist Party scrambling to find new ways rather subdued, and many concern cultural of justifying its existence. The Communist issues presented in a neutral tone. I was unable Party's support of "nationalism" (minzuzhuyi) to find anything like the ugly confrontations has become a major theme in public releases. between Israelis and Palestinians that unfold Some articles have literally rewritten the history elsewhere in cyberspace. Taiwanese television of Communism so as to appear entirely a features extended specials on the mainland nationalist struggle. Thus the confrontation with introducing the food and habits of various Taiwan is unnecessarily exacerbated by the regions. Such programs consist often of 64 © Historia Actual Online 2005

Emmanuel Pastreich Sovereignity, wealth, culture and technology search for a nationalist justification for the to the problems of the twenty-first century. The current system of government. better the model exhibited by nations like the United States, the more appealing the What can be done to insure a fair and permanent implementation of such reforms will appear. solution to Taiwan's status? It is clear that Taiwan cannot be completely independent The nations of the world should also do their economically or culturally from the mainland best to promote the autonomy of individual and that there will be no choice but engagement provinces in China relative to Beijing. The for the immediate future. The question is how greatest hope for China at the present moment Taiwan's engagement with China differs from has been the ability of local government to that of Korea or Japan. There are several institute reforms and even implement concrete approaches for working towards a democratic institutions without the interference peaceful and lasting solution to the Taiwan of the central government. The more relative question that take into account the complex autonomy the individual provinces have on the historical background of this conflict. The first mainland, the less offensive integration into a step is to encourage reform in government of the larger Chinese federation will be to Taiwan. People's Republic of China. Such a step is so And the more power is distributed throughout obvious and naïve that it barely seems worth the provinces, the less threatened Taiwan, mentioning, but recent reforms undertaken in Korea, and Japan will be by the concentration of China required by membership in the World economic and technological resources in the Trade Organization have given at least the hope hands of a few men in Beijing. that real change is possible on the mainland. Perhaps the importance of China's international The Chinese scholar Yang Xiaokai has made image at the time of the 2008 Beijing Olympics elaborate arguments that the economic and will be a far greater impetus than any particular cultural strength of Europe was born out of its policy foreign governments take to encourage fragmentation and diversity, which Yang argues reform. The second step is for the nations of the allowed heterodox thinking to find refuge. Yang world to do their utmost to integrate the People's argues that competition between England and Republic of China into international bodies such France from the sixteenth to nineteenth centuries as the World Trade Organization, the United encouraged economic and cultural development Nations, and other non-governmental and such internal division within China can have organizations (NGOs). The more multilateral a similarly salutary influence14. If China could in roles China must play, and the greater its share fact become something closer to the "United of international responsibility, the higher its States of China," it would be far easier to sensitivity to international standards will be. The establish a lasting security configuration in East third step is for the international community to Asia that accounts for the new role of China but do its best to promote the rule of law, does not present the asymmetrical configuration accountability, and democracy in its many of a Chinese colossus on the one side and Japan, aspects to representatives of the People's Korea, and other nations on the other. Republic of China as they grapple for solutions

NOTAS (1 December 1997), . This version is in simplified characters. is commonly abbreviated as KMT. 5 See the article "The Mainland Rises Up. How Much 2 Greg Austin, China's Ocean Frontier: International Economic Power Does Taiwan Still Have?" (in Law, Military Force, and National Development. St. Chinese) in Lianhebao newspaper, 2 July 2002. Leonards, NSW, Australia: Allen & Unwin in 6 The headline of an article in the Lianhebao association with the Dept. of International Relations newspaper of Taiwan states explicitly "The Mainland and the Northeast Asia Program, Research School of Is Poised to Replace the United States as the Engine Pacific and Asian Studies, Australian National Driving the Asian Economy," (in Chinese), 6 June University, 1998, 5. 2002. 3 Ibid. 7 See chart of Taiwan-mainland trade in Lee-in Chen 4 See Hong Zhesheng's article, "Hewei Zhongguo; Chiu's chapter "Taiwan's Economic Influence: weihe yibian yiguo?" ("What exactly is China? What Implications for Resolving Political Tensions," in is meant by "One side, one country?"), Minzhuluntan Dilemmas: China-Taiwan-U.S. Policies in the New Century, ed. Gerrit W. Gong © Historia Actual Online 2005 65

José Francisco Tinao Martín-Peña Médicos exilio republicano en Venezuela

(Washington, D.C.: Center for Strategic and International Studies, 2000), 129-30. 8 Dali Yang details the post-1998 restructuring of the government in his article "Can the Chinese State Meet its WTO Obligations? Government Reforms, Regulatory Capacity, and WTO Membership". The American Asian Review (summer 2002), 191-221. 9 The jury is still out concerning the relative fragmentation and integration within the People's Republic of China. For two contrasting views of China's future see David Sheff's China Dawn: The Story of a Technology and Business Revolution (New York: Harper Business, 2002), and Gordon G. Chang's The Coming Collapse of China (New York: Random House, 2001). Both give concrete examples in a highly anecdotal manner of the centripetal and centrifugal forces rippling through China. 10 See Andrew J. Nathan and Robert S. Ross, The Great Wall and the Empty Fortress: China's Search for Security. New York, W. W. Norton, 1997, 222- 235. 11 Dali Yang, "The Great Net of China: Information and Governance in China". Harvard International Review, winter (2001), 65. 12 Ibid., 66. On-line systems have been set up by the People's Bank of China, the Customs Administration, State Administration of Industry and Commerce, and the State Tourism Bureau. 13 Korea stopped using Chinese characters in most cases from the 1970s, but when Koreans do employ Chinese characters, they write them in the traditional, complex form. Japan employs traditional Chinese characters in most texts, but has adopted a certain number of simplifications. Those simplifications are neither as radical, nor as numerous, as those found on the mainland. Vietnam has entirely eliminated the Chinese characters since the beginning of the French occupation. 14 See Yang Xiaokai's , "Zhongguo tongyi zhi libi". (The benefits and costs of China's reunification), (17 December 2001): 3. The article is available at his personal website, .

66 © Historia Actual Online 2005