THE ANTANANARIVO ANNUAL
AND
MADAGASCAR MAGAZINE.
A RECORD OF INFORMATION ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND NATURAL PRODUCTIONS OF MADAGASCAR, AND THE CUSTOMS, TRADITIONS, LANGUAGE, AND RELIGIOUS BELIEFS OF ITS PEOPLE.
EDITED BY JAMES SIBREE, JUN., Mt'ssz'onary of tlie L. M. S., Aut!zor of "Madagascar a1id z'ts People," &c.
No. Il.'-CHRISTMAS, 1876.
ANTANANARIVO: PRINTED AT THE PRESS OF THE LONDON MISSIONARY SOCIETY. 1876. All rights reserved. Ill.
CONTENTS.
PAGE 1.-0UR SECOND NUMBER. By the EDITOR ...... , ... .
2.-0VER SWAMP, MOOR, AND MOUNTAIN: Being tlze '.Jour nal of a visit to A ntong·odralzoja, and lzome by A mbaton drazaka. By REV. C. F. Moss, L. M. S...... 3
3.-WORDS RESEMBLING MALAGASY IN THE SWAHILI LANGUAGE. By REV. W. E. Cousrns, L. M. S...... 20
4.-MALAGASY 'TONON-KIRA' AND HYMNOLOGY. By REV. J. RICHARDSON, L.·M. S .... : ...... ,..... 23
5.-AMBATONDRAZAKA: THE CAPITAL OF THE ANTSIHA NAKA PROVINCE. By REV. J. PEARSE, L. M. S...... 36
6.-THE 'INFIX' IN MALAGASY: A MALAYAN FEATURE. By REV. L. DAHLE, N. M. s...... 41
~ 7.-THE WESTERN IBARA, AND THEIR CUSTOMS. Translated by the EDITOR ...... , , , , , .. , . 45
8.-MADAGASCAR TWO CENTURIES AGO. Proposal to make z't a Brit/sit "Plantation." By REV. A. B. GROSART, Blackburn. 51
9.-THE GHOSTS OF AMBONDROMBE LAID. By MR. G. A. SHA\V, L. M. S...... , ...... '· · · · · · · ...... · .. , 57
10.-A VISIT TO AMBOHIMANGA IN THE TANALA COUNTRY. By REV. T. BROCKWAY, L. M. S ...... , , ...... 58
11.-CARVING AND SCULPTURE, AND BURIAL MEMORIALS AMONGST THE BETSILEO. By the EDITOR...... 65 IV. PAGE 12.-DR. MULLENS AND THE POPULATION OF ANTANANA RIVO. By REV. J. RICHARDSON ...... • ,, .••• , •. , 'j2
13.-THE INFLUENCE OF THE ARABS ON THE MALAGASY LANGUAGE. By REV. L. DAHLE...... 75
14.-TANALA CL'STOMS, SUPERSTITIONS, AND BELIEFS. Collected by DR. A. DAVIDSON, and translated by REV. J. RICHARDSON ...... ·. • . • • • • ...... , •.• , , ..•..•• , , ...... 92
15.-ROUGH SKETCHES OF A JOURNEY TO THE IBARA. By MR. G. A. SnA,v •...... · ...... •..•. 102
16.-NOTICES OF NEW BOOKS ...... III
17.-BRIEF SUMMARY OF IMPORTANT EVENTS. By the EDITOR ...... ,.,, •..... , ...•. , ••.•..•.•••••.•. , 121
18.-LIST OF FOREIGN BOOKS ON MADAGASCAR, CHIEFLY IN THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. Arranged by the EDITOR. 123
19.-MALAGASY CONUNDRUMS. Collected by REV. J. RICH- ARDSON ...... , ...... 126
20.-HOVA, TANALA, AND BETSILEO NAMES OF THE MONTHS. By REV. J. RICHARDSON .. , .. ,, •...... , 128
21.-VARIETIES: Sakalava .le[arriage Custom, page 22-T/ze Za hana, page 50-A 11:falagasy Ordeal, page 56-T/ze Voa votaka, page 64-Malag·asy Boats, page 74-T/ze Filao Tree, page 101-T/ze Cyclone of February last, page 120- Ants and Serpents, page 125-Eartliqua/.'e s/wcks, page 127 .
., "., The Editor does not make /zimseif responsible for every ind/vi'dual expressi"on of opinion on the part of those wlio contribtt!t: to the pages of the ANNUAL. THE ANTANANARIVO ANNUAL
AND MADAGASCAR MAGAZINE.
OUR SECOND NUMBER. HE general interest expressed in the first number of the T ANNUAL, and the many promises of help given from various quarters, have afforded gratifying assurance that the proposal to issue such a magazine was not premature or ill-timed. Not only from friends in Madagascar, but also from those in England, and at the Cape of Good Hope, and at Zanzibar, have we received encou ragement to proceed ; and there seeins no doubt that the discussion of the different subjects included in our programme will stimulate research, and prevent much that is. interesting from falling into oblivion. It may perhaps be thought by some that too large a proportion of our space in the. first and second numbers has been devoted to records of various journeys, and too.little to some of the other lines of inquiry suggested in the original proposal for this magazine. So much new information has however been recently obtained about previously unknown portions of the country, that it seemed desirable to preserve it in a permanent form. And we hope, all being well, to give in future numbers much that is new upon the traditions, legends, folk-lore, fables, etc., of the country. For the commencement of this English magazine has led to the proposal to publish a Malagasy Annual, or "lsan-kerin-taona," whose object is to awaken the attention of intelligent natives to these subjects, and to collect all such information in an annual publication. The particular
No. 2.-CHRISTMAS, 1876. 2 Our Second Numbe1'. points to which attention is drawn in the programme of this Mala gasy Annual are as follows :-Songs and Carols; Proverbs; Conun drums; Fables; Native Drugs and Charms; Natural History; Reminiscences of the old Missionaries ; Old Stories and Legends ; The Tangena Ordeal; Old Customs; The different Tribes and their Origin; Woods and Grasses, with their uses as Medicine or other wise ; and Accounts of Journeys into distant parts of the Island. Should this publication succeed, and we heartily wish it all success, we hope to gain much that is interesting and valuable from it to transfer to the pages of future numbers of this ANNUAL, in a form intelligible to English readers. . A book on "Malagasy Folk-lore" is also announced as in the press; and other plans are also on foot for collecting and printing the legends, fables, traditions, and superstitions of the inhabitants· of Imerina; so that we may confidently look for a considerable increase of our knowledge on all such subjects. It will be seen from the following pages that several journeys of considerable importance have been made during the year in hitherto little known parts of the island. Mr. Shaw and Mr. Riordan of the Betsileo mission have explored the eastern portion of the Ibara country; Mr. Street and the Editor have crossed the Tana.la country by a route never before traversed by Europeans or by Hovas, and have discovered that there are several large centres of popula tion along the south-eastern coast; Mr. Houlder has visited the north east coast, and gives us information about places round Antongil Bay, and also in the interior, that have never before been described or shewn on any map; and lastly, Bp. Kestell-Cornish and Mr. Batchelor have made a journey of considerable extent in the nor thern provinces of Madagascar. Of this last, we hope to give an account in our next number. We shall be particularly obliged to those of our friends who are interested in Natural Hii;tory and Botany by contributions of infor mation on these branches of research. They present such a wide field, and are both still so imperfectly explored, that almost every one may make additions which will have more or less of value. Again asking the kind co-operation of all Europeans resident in Madagascar to make the ANNUAL increasingly successful and valu able, we·present our friends with the Second Number. EDITOR, Tlie Antanana1'ivo Annttal, Oliristmas, 1876. 3
OVER SWAMP, MOOR, AND MOUNTAIN:
BEING THE JOURNAL OF A VISIT TO ANTONGODRAHOJA, AND HO;lfE BY AllfBATONDRAZAKA. ATTHEW Prior, in one of practicable, a wider scope for the M his poems, speaks of the old missionary enterprise o:f the City :fashioned maps that used to be congregations under his care. :familiar to readers in his day, when Tlmrsday,June29t!t. Started at 11 o'clock. The morning :fresh, bright, "Geographers, on pathless downs, Put elephants instead of towns." and bracing. Our party consist ed of Mr. Lord and myself, with It is not long since the map o:f twenty-four palanquin bearers and Madagascar might have been simi carriers of luggage. Leaving the larly filled up, so far as regards 'Great North Road' at Anjanaha any definite g·eographical know ry, we took the more direct, but ledge o:f the interior of the Island far more difficult route, by Tsara that could have been conveyed by tsaotra, thl'Oug·h the middle of the it. The travels of M. Grancliclier, big swamp west of N amehaua, right however, and more recently the OU to Imer:imandroso and Anta missionary journeys undertaken by nanatsara. The road is · a some Dr. Mullens, Mr. Pillans, the late what unfrequented one, and wewere Mr. Cameron, and other members many times reminded how little of the L. M. S. and F. F. M. A. either Christianity or civilisation missions have to a large extent re has as yet influenced the villages, moved this 1)l'evailing ignorance. even near the Capital, that happen East, west, north, and south, the to lie off the common track. Inside country has been visited, its promi the houses dirt and squalor still nent :features carefully noted, and reign unclisturbed by hint of change : the condition, habits, and manners while outside we saw scores of of its people described. ,vith all men and women standing waist the drawbacks incident to travel in deep in the swamp, clredging for Madagascar, and they are many, fish among the fetid mud, and with the temptations it presents to ama scarce a rag to cover them. At teur explorers are unquestionably one place, while we waited for a very attractive. It was not, how canoe, a group o:f boys and girls ever, the ambition to distinguish came up whose occupation, ,like ourselves in this way that led my that of Joseph' s brethren, consisted :friend Mr. Lorcl and myself to in tending cattle. But we found undertake the journey described in on questioning them that their the following pages. Theobj ect was ignorance of Joseph's God was purely missionary: simply to visit absolute and unrnitigaterl. With and encourag·e distant churches several chapels and schools within with whom the Wl.'iter has long been a mile of their homes, they seemed in correspouden~e, and to find, if never to have set foot in either. Over Swamp, Moor, and Moimtai'.n.
At 5 P.M. we reached Antanan ourselves at Anosibe, the first vil tsara, a small village of some 20 lage in the district called Anati-volo, houses, about 20 miles N. by E. of and the residence of its governor, the capital, and 5230 feet above Andi·iamaizina. It is situated by the sea. The day's journey had the side of a small lake at the foot been long and difficult. Our men of one of the high hills that shut in having come without food were the Anati-volo plain on the S., and weary, and we ourselves hungry, is 3290 feet above the sea level. faint, and cold. But I had pro The houses are built of vdlotara ( a mised my companion a comfortable species of small bamboo, from which night's rest in the chapel in which the district takes its n_ame) and I had myself slept last year : a thatched with long grass ; and promise alas! made in too simple ( although not to so great an extent faith as to the permanency of things as is usually found in these isolated here below. For, on reaching the and unprotected places) the village top of the lofty ridge on which is fortified with formidable barriers the village is situated, we found of prickly-pear. The population the chapel in ruins. It had been of this and all the Anati-volo vil blown down by the hurricane of lages consists, with the exception of last February ; so we had to pass a few Hova soldiers, of people cal the night in a small, dirty, one led il1anendy, a subdivision of the roomed house, nearly blinded and tribe called Ulo-Mainty or black suffocated by smoke, considerably folks. ·Ethnologically they bear devoured by fleas, a trifle over strong resemblance to the Sihanaka run by mice, and having fo1· com tribe farther north, and to the Be panions a small flock of sheep just zanozano and Betsimisaraka tribes separated from us by a thin rush nearer the east coast. From enquiry partition. On the evening of our at this and other villages along stay here we had an instance of our route, we ascertained inva the great extent to which the grass riably that these Olo-mainty have burnings are carried among the a tradition that their forefathers wild hills and moorlands of Mada were not the original occupants of gascar. The night being clear, and the country, but were removed into the moon in its fu·st quarter, we it by Andi·lanampoinimerina, so or counted nearly twenty large fixes 90 years ago. in different directions. Some of It is a note-worthy fact in the them, distinctly visible, were on physical geography of this place the lofty slopes of Ankiiratra, fifty that the descent from the high level miles away. of the great Imerina plateau (simi Friday, June 30th. Our journey lar to that at Angiivo to the E., and to-day was a rough and laborious at Ambaravarambato to the N. E.) one. Leaving Antanantsara at 8 takes place from the lofty hill to A.M. ; climbing innumerable hills the S. The Anati-volo plain shut and descending sometimes very in E., W., and S. by high hills, precipitously into as many deep extends northward, with alterna valleys ; crossing several small but tions of low and rising ground rapid streams, the mica in whose at a mean elevation of from 3000 to sandy bed glittered like gold, we 2300 feet above the sea, as far as at length, about 4 P.M., found Ambodiamontana, :five days' jour- Over Swamp, Moor, and Mountain. 5 ney away. Along the whole extent baring 38 children in attendance. of this large district the soil is of But we were sorry to find evidences sandy alluvium and red porous that our evangelist is not up to his clay, easily disintegrated by the work. As compared with their con action of wind and rain. In many dition last year the people had gone places on our journey we saw that backward rather than forward. whole hill-sides had been eaten Satu,·clay, J1ely lst. Our night at away by the tropical torrents, form Anosibe had been a busy one. We ing precipices of sometimes a thou had pitched our tent just outside of sand feet in depth, and gorges in the chapel, with a lake on one side whose shelter luxuriant forest-trees and a swamp on the other. Conse :find a congenial habitat, and in quently our visitors in the shape which frequently large herds of of immense armies of mosquitoes cattle are fenced off and protectecl required such unremitting attention from the winter cold. The tending from us all night that sleep was of cattle on a somewhat large scale, impossible. Hopingfor betterthings and the cultivation of rice, sugar however, we set out early ( after cane, and mdngahdzo (manioc) on a catechising the adults and chilchen somewhat small scale, form the at Anosibe) on our way to Mana chief occupations of the people. rints6a. Here also we have a The rice is stored in stacks like small congregation, the general state small haystacks, as we afterwards of which I found considerably in found also to be the custom among advance of what it was last year. the Sihanaka. Besides these, if Drunkenness, especially, had aba immense quantities of rushes (used ted. The eagerness of the people for building and thatching houses), to receive further instruction was and of volotara ( very useful for cheering and yet painful. One making the walls of houses), and young man had come from a great of a sharp-cutting grass called ba distance to ask us to teach him to rardta, and a long grass called vero, write. On being made at last to which covers thousands of acres comprehend that this could not be and grows sometimes from ten to accomplished in one lesson, he ap fifteen feet high,-if these be men peared sacliy disappointed. tioned, the ordinary list of products Leaving Manarintsoa at 2· 30 of the Anati-volo country will be P.M., our path skirted a small but exhausted; except indeed, that fe picturesque lake, abounding with vers of a severe type, an abundance wild-fowl; thence over high hills of rats, and mosquitoes in swarms and moors, and skirting dangerous that no man can number, may be precipices, until at five we reached added to the catalogue. the small gaJ.Tison-town of Andrao At Anosibe we have a congrega pasika. This is emphatically "a tion connected with the Ambatona city set on a hill," being on the kanga church in the Capital, which, summit of a steep conical hill about jointly with that at Ambohimanga, 3850 feet above the sea, and rising supports an evangelist who labours abruptly some 700 feet above the here. About 200 people are said plain. The sides of the hill are to meet for worship every Sabbath, deeply scored and weather-worn, of whom 30 are communicants. the rains having formed chasms in There is also a day-school num- the soft sandy soil several hundred 6 Over Swamp, Moor, ancl Mountain. feet in depth. At its base winds One Sakalava friend very reaclily the small stream called the Maro answered all our enquiries respect lava, which joins the Mananara a ing the condition of the people mile or so to the west. The sum among whom he lived, and assmed mit is crowned with trees and with us that drunkenness and immorality immense masses of prickly-pear, were quite unknown in their "Hap which, with a stockade fence, com py Valley." Unfortunately, how plete the :fortifications of the town ever, he himself gave us but too against the predatory designs of visible evidence of the prevalence any bands of cattle stealers or other of the former vice, ancl we more marauders who might be disposed than suspected he was not· altoge to attack it. As we have a small ther innocent of the latter. Intem but appreciative congregation here, perance is the bane of this and the and had come specially to set apart neighboming villages. While we a new evangelist to live and work were there an inquiry was going among them, our reception by the on about a poor fellow who had people was a very kind one. been killecl in a drunken brawl on Sunday, July 2nd. We had the the previous Thursday. But little pleasm·e of meeting about a hun attention is paid to religious ordi dred well dressed attentive people nances. The pretty little chapel in the little chapel, to whom I just outside the town we found preached from the words, "Ye -are filled with government stores and Oluist's," and about forty of whom guarded by soldiers. Early the received the Lord's Supper. In the next morning, however, all these afternoon Mr. Lord adchessed and were cleared away, and we spent catechised the children, about twen an hour or two in giving Christian ty-five in number. counsel to the peo1)le : painfully Monday, Jztly 31·d. Om com·se conscious the while how little per to-day lay across the low plain of manent good an occasional visit like Andraopasika, over the Mananara, oms coulcl
Cru.s. FREDK, Moss.
ITINERARY OF JOURNEY.
h. 'In, h. 'In, Antanantsara ..... , ...... 6· 00 Keliloha •...... •...... 4• 10 { Encamping place ...••... 4• 30 Mahitsitady...... 2· 10 { Anosibe ...... ,, 3· 50 ~ ~ Ampandrana .... , , • , . , , , 1• 40 1· 55 Manarintsoa ..... ,,...... 2· 00 [ Ambatoharanana•...... { Andraopasika ...... , . , . • 2 · 30 Antsampandrano . , . , .... 5· 46 4, 30 ~ Andranomiantra ..... , .. . 5• 45 E. ofAmboasaritsimitombo 3• 30 { Amparafaravola ..• , •... , • 4• 60 Tsarahafatra ...... 2· 56 { Ambakoreny ...... , , ... . 5• 15 8'20 ~ Ambatomainty . , , , . , , , • , 2• 30 Voambohitra ...... 3· 30 { Antsatrana...... • . . . . • 3· 30 Mahakary . , ... , , , . , .. , , . B• 00 7-00 { Antanibao ...... , , ...... 4• 30 12• 30 Ambodial,ll.ontana ...... 4• 10 • Ambatondrazaka ...... , , • 2· 00 ·{ To Luncheon-place ...... 3· 00 Marofoza •• , ••• ,., ...... , 3· 40 Mangantany ...... , 6• 00 -6~ Luncheon-place, ...... 4• 00 . Tanifotsy...... 3· 30 { Ambatolampy.... ,...... 3· 56 { Antongodrahoja...... 2' 30 T-"6'6 lFoo Mandanivatsy...... 1• 45 Tanifotsy ...... 3· 00 { Anjozorobe ...... 6· 46 { Bemavo ...... • ...... 4' 30 ~ 8'30 20 The .Antanana1·ivo .Annual, Gl11'i&tmas, 1876.
WORDS RESEMBLING MALAGASY IN THE SWAHILI LANGUAGE.
AVING been detained some days in Zanzibar, I have occupied H part of my time in looking through Dr. Steere's Hand-book of the Swahili Language, in order to find out any resemblances it might have to the Malaga3y. The language is widely used, and one able to speak it would be able, it is said, to make himself under stood throughout the greater part of Central Africa. The Arab traders all speak Swahili ; and, as might be expected, its vocabulary contains a large number of Arabic words. This makes it specially interesting to us, as it shows us how Arabic words are adopted and worked into an African language. A slight examination of the general character of the Swahili is sufficient to show that it belongs to an entirely different group of languages from the Malagasy. The peculiarities of the language ars of a character quite unlike those that perplex a student of Malagasy. The primitive words of the language too bear no resemblance to their Malagasy equivalents. The numerals ( except mmoja, which may be our monJa; mosi how ever is the common word for one, mmoja being used for same, a certain one, one, etc.), the names of the•members of the body, and of most common objects, are quite unlike our Malagasy words with the same meaning. I enclose a list of words in which I have noticed a resemblance between the Swahili and the Malagasy; and it is inter esting to notice that they are mainly such words as would naturally be introduced by Arab merchants visiting the ports on the west coast. The word here used for dhow seems to be our sambo (ship). Then the names of the dog, the goat, the ox, the ass, and the fowl, are clearly the same words as the Malagasy, but slightly changed. Macho is puzzling, as mata in Malay seems to be the equivalent of our maso; cf. mata-arree (=masoandro). Vata, sabuni, and divay, may have been introduced into both languages independently. It is instructive to find that angano (fable) is an introduced word, and to infer from this that the Arabs, with their strongly developed love of story-telling, have had some influence in stimulating the imagi- W01·d-s 1·esembling Malaga.sy in tlie Swahili Language. 21 nation of their more prosaic neighbours the Malagasy. Only one word in my list seems to have come from Madagascar, viz. malcalalao (ma is a plural prefix)=the Malagasy kalalao (cockroach). Dr. Steere told us that the Malagasy who settled here were formerly called by the natives tlie Makalalao, probably because they brought cockroaches with them. What will our native friends say to such a. designation P W. E. Cousrns.
Swahili. English. Malagasy,
Alhamisi Thursday Alakamisy bakuli bason bakoly bweta box vata (Y) (Fr. boite) chambo dhow sambo divai claret divay giza darkness ngizina (?) gora a piece of cloth gora habari news, message, &c. kabary (Ar. khabar) hariri silk hariry (fine cambric)? hodi a cry made by way haody of enquiry whether any one is within jifo ashes jofo (dust)? Juma Friday Zoma karata cards karatra karatasi paper taratasy kiso knife kiso ( provincial) kitambi a piece of.cloth kitamby kitungu onions tongolo (?) kivuli ghost kinoly (?) ko:fia cap kofia k'uku fowl akoho (?) macho (sing. is jiclio) eyes maso makalalao cockroaches kalalao mamba crocodile mamba maneno, neno word maneno (to sound) marahaba thank you* arahaba (salutation)? mbuzi goat osy mbwa dog am boa mchawi ,vitchcraft mosavy mizani scales mizana mmoja one monja (?) mofu a kind of cake mofo nanasi, pl. mananasi pine apple mananasy ngano fable angano * The word waa origma.Ily an Arabic form of congratufation, 22 Words resembling Malagasy in the Swahili Language.
Swahili. English. Malagasy. ngombe OX omby (ombe, aomby) nusu half ( a dollar) loso nyati buffalo astra (?) pingu fetters parapingo (?) punda ass ampondra reale dollar ariary (?) robo a quarter ( of a dollar) kirobo sabuni soap savony (Fr. savon) sandarusi gum-copal sandarosy aura picture soratra or sary (?) taandu centipede trambo (?) tafsiri interpretation tafasiry, conversation tango cucumber voatango. [(?). tambako tobacco Cf. the name Ambala- tambako tende dates antrendry tupa file tsofa (?) umande dew ando (?) wageni* stranger, foreigner vahiny (?) zomari clarionet anjomara
.. The prefix 1oa denotes persons or living beings, nnd mny be compnrcd with va in the Malagasy words Vazaha, Vazimba, vahiny, a.ml valwaka, Europeans in Swahili are Wasungu, The word Vazaha or Wazaha means a sharper.
SAK.ALA VA MARRIAGE CUSTOM. MET an elderly man in my district who among other interesting things I told me the following :- It is a custom among the Sakalava that when a young man pays his addresses to a lady whom he would fain make his wife, his courage and suitable qualifications are thus tested: "Placed at a certain distance from a clever caster of the spear, he is bidden to catch between his arm and side every spear thrown by the man opposite to him. If he displays fear, or fails to catch the spear, he is ignominiously rejected; but if there be no flinching and the spears are caught he is at once proclaimed an 'accepted lover.' " A similar custom I am told once prevailed amongst the Betsileo.
THOMAS BROCKWAY. Tlw Antananarivo Animal, Clil'istmas, 1876. 23
MALAGASY 'TONON-KIRA' AND HYMNOLOGY. HE Malagasy as a nation are passionately fond of music and singing, and some of'. their songs, as has been remarked by mostT travellers, are extremely plaintive. And yet, a most surprising thing, the purely native language contains no rhythmical compo sitions. The first missionaries, who resided here from 1820 to 1835, followed by Mr. Ellis, and latterly by Dr. Mullens, noticed the plaintiveness of their native songs. I have taken a very decided interest in the matter since I first landed in June, 1869, and I carefully noted down on the journey up-country one of their little melodies. Good old Mr. Griffiths, in his Gi·ammar of t!ie Malagasy Language, published in England in 1854, says in his chapter on Prosody (p. 234, § iii. Versification), "Versification is the poetical arrangement of a certain number of syllables according to their accent,"-the italics are his,-and he gives us specimens. But the very remarkable thing about his specimens is that no regard was paid to accent, the number of syllables in a line was all the old missionaries attempted. Look at the following, called Long Metre: 1 Tavim-bilany ny :l.ina, 2 Ny fetry ny mii.ty tsy hita; Tsy hita izay havakian' ; Hazo amoron-tevana, Fofo-nahandro ny aina, Tsy hita izay hianjerii.n', Tsy hita izii.y halevonan'. Na ho andro na ho ilina. 3 Tsy mpiry no ho tanora, Indray mitorak' hiany, Ny faty mpanii.zakii.zaka; Zanahary, Tompony ny ain'. That certainly is not rhythm. One of the most popular of Malagasy hymns commences as follows,-it is Short Metre and sung to 'Oranbrook' :- Avelao isika lzay te-ho tia Ny Mpanavotra antsika Hanarak' Azy. And, most singular to relate, all the hymns, nearly two hundred in number, that were written by the old missionaries and their converts are of this character. Yet when Mr. Griffiths translated the hymn I have quoted into English, he makes a creditable attempt to give both rhythm and rhyme) 24 Malagasy 'Tonon-kira' and Hymnology. Mr. Ellis, in his most excellent History of Madagascar, speaks of the wandering minstrels; and on page 275, vol. I., some "Mr. B." [probably Mr. E. BakerJ gives a translation of one of their songs, which in the translation is very rhythmical and correct, but alas, the original has neither rhythm nor rhyme ! Dr. Mullens again "translated" the favourite dismission hymn, written by the old missionaries, and sw;i.g with much fervour to 'Vespers' to this day. I put the first verse of each side by side:- The Original. 8. 7.4. 'Translation' by Dr. Mullens. H6d' izahay, Zanahary, Grant us, Saviour, royal blessings, Tahio tsara izahay ; Now that to our homes we go ; A.mpifalio ny k1bonay Fill our hearts and lives with gladness, Amy ny fitianao, Make us love divine to know. Ampifalio Gladden us with joys of heaven 'Zahay ety an-tany. In this desert world below. Dr. Mullens gives us an excellent dismission hymn, and in correct metre and rhyme. There is not much like it, however, in the original hymn. And yet how the Malagasy delighted to sing these hymns to such tunes as 'Cranbrook,' 'China,' 'Lydia,' etc. etc., with what innumerable twists and twirls, no one but those who have heard them can imagine ! Their native songs are sung to a kind of chant, one or two voices leading in the song, and the others joining in as a chorus at the end of each stanza. I have made a collection of them, and the only one where an approach to rhythm can be found is a little phildren's play-song. The children join hands, and the first two take up the strain, saying, "We bid you come, we bid you." Then they are answered by the whole body, "We'll not go there, we'll not go." The leaders again sing out, "And why [not come], and why [not]." The whole body then reply again, "It's neither rice nor saonjo" (an edible arum). The leaders cry out, and· lift up their arms with hands joined as m a country dance, "It's the cardinal bird's house." To which the whole troop of children cry out as they pass under, "It's a red house." Malagasy 'Tonon-kira' and Hymnology. 25 And these last two strains are repeated until all have passed under. I append music and words in the original.
Key F. 01· E. D.C. : s s :-.s : l'1 r :-.r : d d ·-·- s :- The leaders : Man a- sa re la- hy, man- as' e The rest : Tsy ho a- ny re la- hy, tsy ho an' e The leaders : Na- hoa- na re la- hy, na- hoan' e The rest: Tsy ho va- ry re la- hy, tsy saonj' e
The leaders : Trano~~rafody la- fy 11 The rest: Trana- me- Ina This little thing is very popular among the youngsters, and they spend hours ·upon hours over it. It is the most correct as to rhythm that I can find in the •Tonon-kira,_' although I have a pretty large collection in my possession. The hymns already giv~m are a fair specimen of what are to be found in the original hymn book; and it is a very singular thing that the old missionaries should not have attempted something better. Do not let it be thought however that I ,vish to reflect upon them. They did most wonderful things for Madagascar, in their fifteen years' residence. They committed the language to writing ; they taught the people some most useful arts and manufactures ; they made and printed two Dictionaries, one of 307 and the other of 421 pages ; they translated and printed the whole Bible from Genesis to Revelation, besides many other books. The first landed in October, 1820, and the last left in July, 1836. We can forgive them their neglect of rhythmical hymns. Yet these hymns were looked upon as treasures during the dark days of persecution; they proved a solace to many a weary and distressed disciple ; and when the missionaries again landed in 1862, these hymns were still remembered with singular pleasure by those who had passed through the fires. The missionaries were all ignorant of the language, and the old hymn book had to be taken up again. They were not slow to see its faults ; they tried to improve it; they even attempted a few years afterwards to suppress the book; but the old Christians would not consent ; and those of us who know their fondness for the book have got to sympathize with them in a very strange fashion; and although I have frequently groaned in spirit in being obliged to 'murder' the language in attempting to sing these irregular songs they love, I can feel for them; and when I hear proposals to 'put the thing away,' I am constrained to cry out, 'Hands off.' The prayers and tears and 26 Malagasy 'Tonon-kira' and Hymnology. groanings of God's people are associated with it, and it possesses a char~ that none of these 'new-fang.led doggerels' can ever possess. Put 1t away gently, and let 1t die an easy death, for it must inevitably go. I tried in 1871 to recast some of the old hymns, and to preserve as much as possible the expressions endeared to the people. I append a specimen to shew the new and the old. THE OLD. L.M. THE NEW. 8.7. ANKANESA, ry mpanota, 1 1\ /l ANKANESA, ry mpe.note., M Ory, jamba, sy mahantra, lll. Ory, jamba, very koa; Henoy J eso miantso hoe,. Hiane.o simban' ny ota, "Mankanes' aty amiko." Mankanes' aty tokoa. Ry tsy mendrik' hovonjene., ~ Feno antre., manan-kery, Misy 'zay miantr' anao; · · Sady tia mba hamonjy, Fifaliam-be homena, "lzay mlno tsy ho very," Famelan' ny helokao. Hoy ny teny ny Mpamonjy. 2 Mba henoy ny teny tsare. 'Zay lazainy aminao, 3 Rah' miandry hihatsara, Sao ho very ny anjara Hlanao izay manota, Soa tadiavinao. Tsy maintsy very anjara, Feno antra, manan-kery, Lava tsy mety miova. He ! mifona aminao ; Fa "ny mino tsy ho very," 4 'l's5' ny marin' no antsoin' Hoy Jesosy, Tomponao. ];laka izay ody aina, 3 Az' andrasan' ny ho tsara, Fa ny melolm asainy Fahalainana mba ario ; Handray ny famonjene.. Sao helohin' ny mpitsara, Mankanesa re anio. 5 Fe.ingane., ry olom-bery, He! miandry ny Mpamonjy, Allio no hamonjen' anao, Mba faingana hianao ; Raiso Izy, ny Mpamonjy, Dia tratr' antso sy tra-bonjy, Amy ny haverezan!t, Odi-aina azonao. By pbserving the accents it will be seen that 'the old' is practically a pi·oib composition, and it can be called Long Metre only because it has ·eight syllables in a line. 'The new' can be read as an ordinary 8.7., and it will be admitted that it is practically a new composition. I treated others in the same way ; but it was more trouble than to write new ones. The singing in those former days was congregational-it was hearty; and with all their faults, there was a robustness and fulness about 'Cranbrook' and 'Lydia,' etc., which we lose in these modern tunes. In the years immediately following the arrival of the missionaries a new spirit passed over the native style of singing. The people had heard barrel-organs, their bands played waltzes, quadrilles, etc.; and Malagasy 'Tonon-ldm' and Hymnology. 27 these with curious variations passed into the churches. Congrega tion vied with congregation as to who would get the newest and str;mgest songs. The spirit of the tune and hymn were not at all understood, and 'mampiady hira' (singing contests) were the order of the day. The people after a few years rushed in thousands into the chapels, and the singing ( except in some of the city churches immediately under their care) passed altogether out of the hands of the missionaries. The state of congregational singing in the vast majority of the churches was in a most deplorable state. The following paragraph, which I wrote to the Editor of The Tonic Sol-Fa Reporter in July, 1870, was a true picture of what was seen in most churches :- "I will give you a picture, and you · neighbour a poke in the ribs (literally), will see how we stand. At the and he takes up the 'music.' They bottom of the hill on the eastern put a shake on every note-a great side of the Capital there is a chapel achievement. In the centre of this which is under the care of Mr.-. little group is a native basket filled I have preached there frequently. The with earth, used as a spittoon ! and singers, nearly all slaves, sit under what with the passing of the snuff the pulpit. They are divided into box, spitting, knocking, and congra little parties of four and five. One tulating when done, the scene is party of five tenors sits close to me. most disheartening. I have only They beat a certain kind of time once been really cast down since I with the closed fist of one hand came, and that was when returning striking the open palm of the other, from this chapel for the first time. and you hear the clap ! clap ! all the I can mention three chapels in the way through. The time is arranged city where it is almost as bad, one to suit their 'taste,' and it is the where a young slave makes the most special duty of these five to see that frightful contortions to keep up the they do not all stop together, and so twirl or shake on each note." when one has :finished he gives his The missionaries were struggling hard against it, but what could a dozen men do with 300,000 people? I began my classes in 1869, the missionaries came. to my help; Messrs. Toy and W. E. Cousins wrote a few new hymns for us. I set Mr. Hartley's "Jeso Mpamonjy" to 'Hail to the brightness,' and in less than a month it tra velled far and wide, from the palace to the cottage, and has gladdened our hearts ever since. This, with Mr. Toy's "Rainay o masina" to 'Olivet,' and Mr. W. E. Cousins's "Rainay be fitia," from Mason's HalleluJali, gave a most effectual blow to the practices mentioned in the extract above. During my absence from the Capital in Betsileo the work was vigorously carried on. Other missionaries came to our help; our knowledge of the adaptability of the language to rhythmical hymns increased. On my return to the Capital we got new life; we published new hymns to new tunes month by month. Then came the opening of Ampamarinana Memorial Church in March, 187 4. The singing took us all by 28 Malagasy 'Tonon-kira' and Hymnology. surprise-it was most hearty and congregational. Every one stood up. This was another effectual blow to the practices mentioned above. We have gone on ever since, and I think, on the whole, in the right direction, until within the present year, and then com menced a backward movement. But more of this anon. It is only just to the L. M. S. missionaries to say that they were the first to write rhythmical hymns. It was an L. M. S. missionary (the late Rev. R. G. Hartley, M.A.) who first wrote in rhythm and rhyme. The L. M. S. missionaries were the first to contemplate and put to press a hymn book, in which every hymn was rhythmical (although a small Sunday School hymn book was brought ou.t by Mr. Kingdon, of the Friends' Press, prior to the publication of the L. M. S. book, and while ours was in the press, as was also the Norwegian hymn book). It was an L. M. S. missionary who. first taught the Malagasy the practice of making rhythmical hymns. The first Malagasy rhythmical hymn and poem were written, as a class exercise, by one of my pupils. The first Malagasy hymn and tune book (Tonic Sol-Fa) was published by the L. M. S. missionaries. The Tonic Sol-Fa method of singing was introduced and has been carried on solely by L. M. S. missionaries. And to shew the great impetus this has given to singing, and the great demand it has created for tunes, it may be remarked that another Tonic Sol-Fa hymn and tune book has since been published. The L. M. S. missionaries have not been alone in this; the F. F. M.A. mission aries have written a few hymns quite as popular, and Mr. Kingdon, their printer, has thrown himself heart and soul into the movement. I proceed to notice the various hymn books now in use in which there are rhythmical productions. A new edition of the L. M. S. book (the eighth, 20,000) was printed by the Religious Tract Society in 1869, in which were incorporated 24 rhythmical hymns by the later missionaries. In the early part of 1875, on the completion of the L. M. S. hymn and tune book in the Tonic Sol-Fa notation, in which all the hymns are rhythmical, the supplemental hymns ( one hundred) were published separately under my editorship; and from that time to this three editions of about 4,000 each have been sold; and now (November, 1876) a further supply is in type and will be speedily published to meet the constant demand. The old book would have been withdrawn from circulation two years ago, but for the fact that it would entail a serious pecuniary loss ; for in June, 1876, there were still nearly 10,000 in stock, in various styles of binding, of the 20,000 published by the Tract Society in 1869. And to show how great is the demand for these new hymns and tunes, it may be mentioned that of a leaflet published at the L. M. S. Malagasy 'Tonon-kim' and Hymnology. 29 press in 1874 containing two hymns, "A.lahady, andro tsara," and "Misy tany mahafaly," more than 6,000 copies were sold in less than two months. While our tune book was in the press, a want was felt for a small Sunday School hymn book, and the L. M. S. Publishing Committee, at my request, cheerfully gave their consent to some of the hymns being published in a cheap form. Mr. Kingdon compiled and printed the book, and I edited the first editions. There were twenty-two hymns, eight of which were mine, others were written by the L. M. S. missionaries and Mr. Sewell, and four were by natives. This book had a marvellous circulation for Madagascar ; if I am not mistaken, some 30,000 or more were printed and sold. The grave and lively were equally found there: there was one to "Oh, that will .be joyful," and another, a happy rendering of "Rock of ages" to 'Wells.' This book answered its purpose, and was a most decided success. In 1875, the Norwegians also got out a hymn book for their own use, all the hymns being written by their own missionaries, and sung to good old German chorales and tunes. In the early part of the present year another hymn and tune book in the Tonic Sol-Fa notation, containing 127 hymns was published unexpectedly, and the hymn book has I understand been sold by thousands. This book is made up of compositions by the L. M. S., F. F. M. A., and Norwegian missionaries; but sixty-four are written by natives. Thirty-five of the one hundred and twenty-seven had previously appeared in the L. M. S. book. The Norwegians also have since published a new edition of their book, which now contains eighty five hymns. The Roman Catholic Mission has a hymn book containing 260 hymns, not one of wliiclt is rliythmical; and their latest edition was kindly given me by Pere Casseque, on Nov. 6th, 1876, The S. P. G. missionaries have printed a few hymns; but in all, as in their latest copies kindly given to me by Archdeacon Chiswell at the end of October, I find that there also no regard is paid to rliytlt1n. In reviewing these books I need say nothing of those published by the Roman Catholic Mission and the S. P. G., as they can hardly be looked upon as likely to be permanent. The faults of the L. M. S. book are some of them patent to me, and as better hymns appear, I shall only be too pleased to let some of my own at least slip out. The book is unpretentious. The hymns are numbered from 182 to 281, in order to be a supplement to the old book. It has been bound up with the old book, but has been sold largely in a separate form. '.L'he tunes to which the hymns are appointed to be sung have been taken from The Congregational Psalmist, Tlte Weigh House Tune Book, T!te Plaistow Hymn and 30 Malagasy 'Tonon-kira' and Hymnology. Tune Book, Hymns Ancz'ent and Modern, Sankey' s, and one or two from The Revival Tune Book, as also a few from Mr. Curwen's ori ginal Standard Course exercises. From the musical stand-point, two objections have been urged against the book. One, that it contains too many 'classical' tunes, and is thus in a great part unsuitable for Malagasy singing; and another, that there are too many of the 'lively' kind, and is thus a pandering to the popular taste. The one objec tion may be put against the other, and it may be fairly claimed that it is a happy compromise. A good specimen of the 'severe classical' is the tune set to "When our heads are bowed with woe," from Hymns Ancient and Modem, and of which the hymn is a free transla tion. Good specimens of the popular style are the tunes set to "Oh, that will be joyful," and "What shall we render," from the Plaistow Hymn and Tune Book. As to the rhythm of the hymns themselves, there are several that are faulty. There are a few like this: in the hymn "Alahady, andro tsara," there are two lines in the first verse as follows : - "Nitsanganany ny Tompo, Andron' ny Mpanavotray." These I am altering in the fourth edition, now in the press, to "Nitsangananao, ry Tompo, Andronao, Mpanavotray." Some of the others will be altered in the same way. Another defect is pointed out, in that all the hymns do not rhyme. Well, certainly all hymns qi English, French, and German are made to rhyme, and no doubt it is well that we should more and more strive to obtain this. But my principle has been that rhyme is not an essential to a good hymn ; some of the glorious old Latin hymns are not written in rhyme. And even in the Norwegian book, where rhyme has been attempted in every hymn, they have been compelled to make identical rhymes. I would always sacrifice rhyme to good rhythm. It may be granted, however, that in the hymns where there is rhyme in some verses and not in others, the absence is a defect, and should be attended to. It has been further urged that the vowels, co, oe, and oa not being diphthongs, to treat them as one syllable is a fault. But this cannot be admitted, for in speaking, the Malagasy so frequently, indeed almost always, run them together so rapidly, as practically to make them one syllable, and in oe we have almost exactly the same sound as in our English word 'whey.' Further, the gentleman who urges the objection has no hesitation in using the i following the h, k, g, ng, and the next vowel as one syllable; and does the same in oi and oy, where they are not sounded as the 0,11 in English ( as in boy), but always as oz. So that from Malagasy 'Tonon-kira' and Hymnology. 31 his own stand-point it cannot be admitted that our practice is a defect. It is well, however, to hear these objections ; and all suggestions for improvement will doubtless be carefully considered by the L. M. S. Publishing Committee, who are responsible for all these things. The book, however, has demonstrated most clearly that not only are rhythmical hymns possible, but that rhyme also can be happily and easily used, and doubtless practice and a closer acquaintance with the language will enable us and the natives to overcome all difficul ties. I append two hymns, one by a missionary and the other by a native, where rhythm and rhyme are attempted, and I think creditably. The rhymes are written in italics. 234 7.6. 1 FAINGANA, ry mpanfalca, Ny be tsy hak' an-leery, Handray ny lovanao; Ny kely afa~po ; Faingana re, mba halca Tsy hisy 'zay ho very, Ny tany ho .Anao : Tsy hisy ny manfo. Avia, hampifaly 4 Mpanjaka sy Mpiaro Ny malahelo Jo, Mahery Hianao, Afaho ny mijaly Ny firenena maro Sy azon' ny manjo. Hitoky aminao; 2 Avia fa misento Ho avy lalan-dava Aty ny olonao; Izao rehetr' izao Ny fanjakana ento: Hitondr' harem-be-vava Fa Tompo Hianao; Ho ao an-tongotrao. Tsy hisy hitomany 5 Faingana, ry Mpamonjy, Eo anatrehanao ; Ry Tom po be fitia: Hiadana ny tany Ny olonao tra-bonfy Izay alehanao. Miantso hoe Avia. 3 Ny tendrombohitr' avo, Anao ny :fiderana, Ny lohasaha lcoa, Anao ny laza-be, Ho tonga ravoravo Anao ny fanjalcana Sy tretrik' avolcoa. Sy arahaba e ! 197 1 Ry Kapiteny ! be ny ady manfo, Efa ho reraka sy kivy ny Jo, Ka hatanjaho mba hatoky Anao; Tompo o, avia hamonjy ahy faao. 2 Ny fahavaloko aty mba reseo, Ka taomy aho mba handray rahateo Ny fiadian' avy ao aminao; Tompo o, tsinjovy aho, aza mandao. 3 Lasa tokoa ny fatahorako teo, Ka na hamely ahy aza ireo, Tsy mba manahy 'ntsony aho izao, Fa mamonjy sady tsy mandao Hianao. 4 Fa ny mpiady maharesy aty, No hampidirinao tokoa hoary, Maro no efa tonga ao aminao ; Tompo o, avia hitarik' ahy hankao. 32 Malagasy 'Tonon-kira' and Hymnology. I may notice that the quadruple rhymes in 234 are quite acciden tal; the identical rhymes should if possible be avoided, but I think the two hymns given prove clearly that the language can be used most happily in rhythmical hymns. In the Norwegian book both rhythm and rhyme have been attempt ed. The defects noticeable in their book are as follows : The hymns on the whole are far too long, and must prove wearisome at times. I notice one containing no less than fifteen verses of four lines each, another with seven verses of eight lines each, another of eleven verses of eight lines each, etc. There are identical rhymes in some places, in spite of all their care ; and there are many blemishes like the following, where an impossible combination of consonants is attempted :- "Maria no nipetrak' tao Niterak'ny Mpamonjinao ;" and, "Tsy ho dis' aleha." The phrase "Tarnin' 'zao tontol' izao" occurs frequently, where two syllables areleft out to make the rhythm run. In addition to this, the first syllable of a passive. verb is frequently left out. These, in addition to the many like the one I have pointed out in "A.laha dy" in our book, where ny is used incorrectly, are serious blem ishes, and I hope our friends will try to remedy them. They deserve all praise for what they have done; and their book being used only in their own churches, and immediately under their own control, they are able to insist upon a more severe and classical style than is possible with the L. M. S. missionaries. The third book is the one published in the early part of the year, and which is now used in many churches in connection with the L. M. S. and F. F. M.A. The book, as I have said, was most unexpectedly published and issued. It contains 127 hymns, numbered from 1 to 127. It has an accompanying tune book, .and contains thirty-five hymns common to itself and to that which had been published as the general hymn book. In every hymn rhythm has been aimed at, and a few of the new hymns are not without considerable merit. But I am unable to look upon the book with favour, and am sorry it was ever published in its present form. There was certainly no pressing need of another hymn book, seeing that the L. M. S. book was not a year old. The tune book which accompanies it is full of mistakes; and it is simply impossible to sing the hymns to the tunes as JJl'intecl, for the singers must in many matters know more than the editor of the book, and must be dependent upon other books for their knowledge of the tunes, or at least ignore the score as printed. This will apply even to the tunes that had previously been printed correctly in the L. M. S. Malagasy 'Tonon-kirrt' .and Hymnology. 33 tune book. In several places the hymn in the hymn book has been very materially altered from that which appears in the tune book. The book must have been produced in great haste. The rhythms are in numerous cases very bad, a decided contrast to the book in general use. Some of the hymns again were rejected by me when collecting for the L. M. S. book. Of rugged rhythms I may mention the following as examples, Alon-drano mankato Ka ho tong' any 'zahay. How is it possible to sing this correctly ? There are many others like it. I had tried to 'straighten up' this and some others before they were printed, at the request of the Malagasy composer, but gave up in despair. In another hymn the Malagasy word lizanareo occurs three times, and each time it must be sung liidnareo. We have the phrase "Hanaovanay izay soa," which accent is quite unallowable. The rules of grammar are ignored in many cases, and one must guess at the implied meaning. There are three kinds of type used in the hymn book : the words in small capitals are to be sung "loud," those in italics "soft," and the ordinary type is used for a medium sound. Now this, if well done, would have been most praiseworthy; but alas! it makes one sad to see the unwarrantable use made of these various types. The Lord is asked to guide the poor and needy ; small capitals are used ! and in similar strains He is asked to wash us from our sins ! Sinners are besought to repent; we have small cap,itals again in some places, and in others, italics. Mercy, again, in _another place is begged for; small capitals are employed. In italics, fathers and mothers are advised to nurture their children; but in the very same hymn capitals are used in asking Christ to save their chil dren. But the most unjustifiable use of various type is found in places like the following : In one hymn there occurs the sentence, "Come gladden the sorrowful in heart,'' and it is written, Co11rn GLADDEN tlie so1·1·oi~ful in heart; and in another the sentence, "Co11rn HOME, COME HOME, thou froubled in heart." Could anything be more lamentabl~ ? These are only selections from what OI!-e meets with throughout the book. Besides this the staccato is used in words of three and four sylla bles. This may be all very well in our short Anglo-Saxon words, but can never be allowable in congregational worship in words of four syllables. No attempt seems to have been made to adapt a tune to a hymn ; and accordingly we have the liveliest tunes to the most solemn hymns. We have, among others, the tune "Scots wha hae wi' 34 Malagrl8y 'Tonon-7.·ira' and Hymnology. Wallace bled" ( or, as it reads in the hymn book, "Scots wha Wallace bled!"); and the old English catch and common alehouse song, "Let the bumping toss go round," where sinners are pleading with God for His guidance in rough and devious paths ! Then we have "Rosalie the Prairie Flower," etc. etc. Why not give them "Tommy make way for your uncle,'' "Paddle your own Canoe," "Slap-Bang," etc. We are tending to this, and if words were to be printed to sueh tunes to-morrow, they would be all ovC?r the country in a month. Shall we tolerate such things ? Is it not the veriest pandering to a vicious taste ? It may be urged that there is no danger of this. I say there is, for the pernicious example already set has within the last two months led the Malagasy to print and use "Cheer, boys, cheer" to a hymn beseeching children to be reconciled to God! and no less than between thirty and forty additional hymns and tunes have been printed and introduced during the last ten weeks! of which, "Cheer, boys, cheer" is one, and this is another, as a specimen of some of the rhythms : Ry J eso, ry J eso, Mifuna aminao Miantra ny undrim\o; Izahay 'zao, ry Mpanjaka, Trotruy, fa usa Mitomoer' aty ; Sy mora reraka; J creo, jereo 'zahay ! Who can tell the metre ? And yet some of the young men who are at the bottom of this movement are capable of better things. They want guidance and effectual control. They are sorry for what they are doing when its evils are pointed out to them. Yet they urge that all these new tunes are driving out the old style of singing. Granted, but what are they putting in its place? Something quite as deplorable, and preventing the congregation from joining in the worship, besides introducing 'confusion worse confounded' in this perpetual addition to the books and papers from which the people are expected to sing. The thing which we should think most seriously about is the total destruction of congregational singing, and the return to the practice of eight or ten years ago, of a little choir of lads and lasses taking the place of the congregation in this part of Christian worship. One is reluctant to think that there are missionaries who encourage them; but if some one is not helping them, whence come these tunes? how are they printed? and by whose authority are they issued? Let us look into these things; it is a serious .. crisis in the history of Malagasy church music, and unless they are effectively checked, all the decentness and orderliness of our congregational singing will be destroyed. As far as I can learn, nearly all the missionaries are dissatisfied with these things. Why should we not be able to unite and put Malagasy 'Tonon-Mra' anc? Hymnology. 35 a stop to them ? Surely it will not be thought that the missionaries are asking too much when they wish that the control of the singing, as well as that of all other parts of public worship, should be left to them; will it not rather create surprise in the minds of all unprejudiced persons when it is stated that those who have nothing to do with the churches, are the ones who are forcing,-! use the word advisedly,-these new hymns and tunes upon us at the rate of between thirty and forty a quarter ! Should such a thing be? The matter is not a small one. We are incurring a serious responsibility if we, either by lukewarmness or inattention, allow our congregational singing thus to be put a stop to; for no congregation in the world can learn new hymns and tunes at the rate of ten a month. I earnestly invite the missionaries to come to the rescue. Let us return to one book, so that wherever we worship, we may be able, and all our people may be able, to sing with one accord. If we are united we can, I am persuaded, carry the natives with us. This new movement is in the hand of a few. The churches as a whole are not pleased with this constant introduction of new tunes. Let a committee of those competent to judge of a hymn and tune among ourselves be appointed a Directorate of the Service of Song ; let a few of the leading native pastors be associated with us, and by all means include in this body the most troublesome innovaters. Let it be understood that no hymn not in tlie book sliall be sung at our public services ; and if new hymns and tunes must be introduced, let it not be at a quicker rate than one or two per month; and do not let these even be introduced until they have passed this Directorate, and have received its sanction. I am fully persuaded that nothing less radical than this will be of any use to enable us to carry out the Biblical injunction, "Let all men praise the Lord; kings of the earth and all people, princes and all judges of the earth ; both young men and maidens, old men and children ; let them praise the name of the Lord.'' In secular rhythmical compositions we are making fair progress. Several nice poems have lately been published in the Friends' illustrated paper and in other publications, and we have some class singing exercises and moral songs that are proving very acceptable to those who are learning to sing. We may entertain great hopes for the future if we are wise now; and the language of Madagascar, which has been well called a poetical prose, with its soft vowels, its regular accents, and not one harsh consonant or closed syllable, will yet, in the hands of a native poet, produce some most melodious compositions. May God help us to hasten the day I J. RICHARDSON. 36 The Antananarii·o Ammal, OltriBtmaB, 1876 .
.A.MB.A.TONDRAZAKA: THE CAPITAL OF THE ANTSIHANAKA PROVINCE.
IFFICULT to · pronounce as has been dead for years, but the stone D it may be to some of our with which the name is connected Eng·lish readers, the name which is still in existence, and is found stands at the head of this paper is about two hundred yards to the that of the town where we are now south of our temporary dwelling. living. My purpose is to write a So much of it as is visible is of few lines about Ambatondrazaka oblong shape; it stands about one as it now is: not as it was in the foot out of the ground, and is clays of open idolatry, or as we surrounded by a circle of rough trust it will be when civilization masonry, the diameter of which is has conferred upon it some of its two feet eight inches. This stone benefits, and the Christian religion is respected by many of the people, has e:x:erted more of its refining and more than respected by some, and enlightening influences, but for evidence is not wanting that it concerning Ambafondrazaka as· we still 1·eceives anointings of grease find it-as my eyes have seen it for and oil ; and on .passing it only a twelve months past, and still see few days since I noticed that blood it to-day. (probably that of a fowl, offered by Ambatondrazaka is the capital some superstitious person who had of the Antsihanaka province, which made a vow) had very recently been is one of the principal divisions sprinkled over a considerable portion of Madagascar, and since the of it. Before Christianity exerted conquest of the tribe by the H6vas, its present influence upon some of it has been one of their important the external habits ·of the people, military stations. Concerning its I am told that bottles of native name, I may make one brief remark. rum were frequently poured over Ambatondrazaka, if turned into and round the stone to supply the English, really means "The Town wants of Razaka, who after death of the stone of Razaka." Razaka was supposed to retain the weak is a common enough name for a ness for intoxicating spirit which man in Madagascar, but concerning characterized him ( or her) while this particular Razaka I can gather living ; vows were also made, and no information whatever ; indeed fowls were frequently killed at the I am perplexed to decide whether spot. this Razaka was a man or a woman ; Ambatondrazaka is situated at some of the natives with whom I the extreme end of a peninsula ; have talked on the subject decla not a peninsula which would cor ring the former, and some, with respond to the definition most fre equal confidence, affirming that quently given of that geographical Razaka was a woman ! If such an term, but a peninsula formed by individual ever lived, he ( or she) land almost surrounded by rice- Ambatondrazalat. 37 fields and swamps. To get to it to show how the omamental and either from the north, east, or the attractive may be combined with west, you must travel for a consi~ the useful, so that the 'plan' of derable distance over these rice some long-forgotten native genius, fields or this marshy ground, where which has been adopted for years, zozd1·0 (papp.'us) and herana ( a tri is still followed. The houses are angular rush) grow abundantly, all rectangular in shape, the length and with tropical luxuriance. The running north and south, with one" traveller from the south has to pass door and one window on the side over hills of consiclerable height of the building which faces the the last day of his journey, and west ; occasionally a small opening enters Ambatondrazaka by a gentle which answers the purpose of a declivity, at the end of which the window is found on the eastern town is built, the houses and com side also. Eighteen feet by twelve pounds of the people in the lower may be taken as the full average part being almost on a level with size of a house in Ambatondrazaka ; , and contiguous to the rice-fields and the height of the walls varies from swamps. four feet to ten, the mean between The town may contain four hun the two however may be taken as dred houses, and a population of the average. Many of the doors are two thousand souls. 'Houses' I both low and narrow, and in the have called them, but, while a few prosecution of my work I fre are decent buildings, 'sheds,' 'huts,' quently have to enter doors the lintel 'hovels,' or 'shanties,' would be the of which is not more than four feet more correct term to apply to the from the ground, and which, for a great majority of them. The ini man nearly six feet high, requires quity of Sodom-"fulness of bread, considerable bodily humiliation, and and abundance of idleness,'' is the some care of the head. curse of this people; and their The interior of the houses is abominable laziness prevents their exceedingly primitive. There is seeking their own personal comfort, neither wooden floor, nor stone even though much of the material or brick pavement, but the ground with which they might build decent is left in its original condition, dwellings is close to their hands, covered wholly or partially with and grows in abundance. The native rush mats. As a rule there houses are built almost universally is no furniture-literally none. No of the zozoro ; two or three are of chairs, no stool, no table, no bed wood ; and a few are made of a stead, no d1·awers, none of the hun kind of small bamboo called bdra dred and one things you fiJ1d in rdta. Thatch, of herana, is the many a humble European home. roofing generally adopted, and, as I had almost wi·itten the word in other parts of Madagascar, is "nothing," but this would have found to answer remarkably well: been a departure from the truth, in a few exceptional cases the roofs for inside these houses there is dirt, are covered with the same mate and, what is dirtier still, soot! rials as compose the sides of the Instead of a :fireplace, which in houses, viz. the zozoro already civilized parts of the world most referred to. No modern architect people are, used to, the inhabitants has appeared among these people of Ambatondrazaka mark off a 38 A.mbatondrazaka. place about four feet square in the houses, ay, and light too; for as south-west corner of their dwellings we find in our temporary dwelling, where they make their faes and i.£ we shut both door and window, do their cooking ; stones answer we can see perfectly well to read the purpose of a trivet, and on when sitting inside the building! these the rude clay cooking vessels Itisamarkedfeature of native build are placed, the zozoro or herana or ing that they use no nails in the dried grass being used as fuel. Not erection of their houses ; but the a house has a chimney. If it can, frames are made to hold together the smoke gets out through any of by mortice and tenon rudely cut the numerous holes in the sides or with knives or chisels, and the roof of the building, but if it cannot roof is tied on with various kinds find an exit, it remains within, of vegetable fibres, or with the while both that which gets out and vines of certain large creepers, that which remains inside leaves found abundantly in the forest its offspring soot :flourishing luxu which lies about six miles to the riantly on the roof and sides of the east of the town. building. There is but one apartment A house once :finished is move in these houses, and in this the able property, and it is not native family-larger or smaller, uncommon for a proprietor who and visitors-few or many, live, may be leaving this part of the work, talk, laugh, eat, drink, and island, or who for other reasons sleep; here life co=ences, and wishes to dispose of his property, here ( often alas ! with no light on to sell the house as it stands, and the future) it mostly ends. The for the buyer to take it down, house is workroom, shop, sitting remove it, and set it up on his room, di·awing room, bed room, own plot of ground. The value dressing room, kitchen, pantry, varies from a few shillings to three cellar; really and truly 'multum or four pounds. It is not very in parvo.' The fowls, ducks, geese, long since that observing a man and dogs are frequently introduced putting up a house which had evi to the same family abode; while dently stood somewhere else before, fleas, and mosquitoes ( during the I asked the question, "How su=er months) are a nuisance much did you give for it ?" and calling for the exercise of the received the immediate reply, "One greatest patience. Whatever bad shilling and twopence !" qualities, however, these houses The rdva is the most prominent possess, they have the one redeeming part of the town of Ambatondra feature that the ventilation is per zaka, and as its western side abuts fect. The zozoro of which the sides on the main thoroughfare, must are composed are somewhat irre attract the attention of every person gular in shape, and the interstices passing through the town. A stock between them admit the air ; the ade of trunks of trees 5 ft. 6 in. roof do~s not fit close upon the high arranged in the form of a sides of the building, so here more rectangle, encloses, or rather makes air can enter ; and as the doors and the rova, which is entered by windows, even if made of wood, four wooden gates- one on each never correspond to their frames, side. Thirty feet within this outer abundance of ail: can enter the rectangle rises another stpckade, Ainbatondrazaka, 39 of larger timbers, and ten feet in with an upper story and a wood~ height, placed so as to follow the en floor, and is the only house shape of the outer one ; this too in Ambatondrazaka which can has four wooden gates, and a boast these marks of civilization. small rush house at each gate for The stockades of the ,·ova, and the the use of the mpidmbina, or guards, houses which it encloses, are erect whose principal duty, from my ed and kept in repair by the own personal observation, seems Sihanaka as part of the unpaid to be to salute the governor on government service they are called his exit and entrance with the upon to perform ; unless indeed words "Sapaotra anja !" and "Ka they pay a money 'consideration' reha anja !" a corruption, so far to some of the Hovas, upon which I am able to make out, of two the Hova undertakes the responsi military terms borrowed from the bility of finishing one or more of English, viz., "Support arms!" the houses acc01·ding to the agree and "Carry arms!" ment entered upon, and the Siha The space between the outer and naka are free to go to their homes, inner stockade is called the "tsivi and follow their peaceful occupa kinddlty," or 'that which men can tions. The habitable houses within not jump over,' and as the space is the rova at the time of my 30 ft. wide the name is appropriate wi·iting are 48 in ,number, and enough. Within the second stock are, with one exception, of the ade stand the houses of the Hova same materials, shape, and general garrison, arranged in seven rows, character as those in the town ; which follow the length of the rec but the regularity of their arrang·e tangle. In the north-east corner of ment, and their equality in size, the rectangle rises a third stockade, gives to the place an appearance of timbers six feet high, with one of civilization, order, and neatness gate on the south side. Immediately which contrasts favourably with inside of this, instead of a guard- the other parts of the town. ·house as at the other gates ah·eady Every house in Ambatondrazaka mentioned, there is a framework of is a detached residence, and, with ·wood, on which a drum is exalted the exception of those within the about 1Oft. above the ground, one rova, the whole of the houses are head of which has been broken in erected without any regard to order ever since I :fhst saw it, but which, or regularity: not in rows, streets, notwithstanding its broken voice, is squares, or crescents, or even in still occasionally used to announce lanes or alleys, but higgledy-pig the time for extinguishing fire gledy, anywhere. There .is but and closing the gates at night, one main thoroughfare in the and also to arouse the inhabitants place, running north and south in the morning, and declare that through the town, but the passag·es the rova gates may again be thrown between the houses allow one to g·o open. Within the third stockade all over the place in any direction is the lapa, or residence of the one pleases. At all seasons of the Hova commander, and the houses year, and on all days of the week, of a small portion of his slaves. this main thorouglifare is in a The commander's house is a plain filthy condition. Much of the re but substantial building of wood, fuse from the houses is cast forth 40 Ambatondrazaka. into it"; bullocks and pigs are regu town if the pigs were kept in con larly slain and quartered by the finement, I was met by the reply, road side, where too the beef and "If it were not for the pigs, Sir, pork are afterwards sold, being the place would be unbearable !" spread on a rush mat, the vendor Conspicuous, and interesting to squatting by the side ; bones could the missionary above all other build be gathered from the thoroughfare ings in the town, is the 7'rano by baskets full ; and the various fiangdnana- the place of meeting rubbish, if collected, would per for religious services. This cha haps satisfy the desires of some pel is a neat and substantial build who in civilized England advertise ing, of clay, having brick gables that "Rubbish may be shot here !" north and south, and a good veran Whether from the influence of our dah east and west. Its presence conversations with him, or from in the town is evidence of the sudden inspiration he had on the loyalty of the subjects of Queen subject, I cannot tell, but once Ranavalona, and of their readiness since our arrival the governor made to carry out any wish she may a laudable attempt to cleanse the express, or may even be supposed place of its filth. The drum was to have; but it cannot be looked sounded, and the populace gathered upon as a testimony to the love of to the spot where public announce the people for Christianity, or of its ments are made, when, under progress among them. Of Christian penalty of having to do the sweep ity the Sihanaka do not yet know ing around other people's houses sufficient to love it, and neither for a whole day, every householder has time been allowed, nor means was enjoined to sweep, or have used, for it to have made anything swept, the ground around the house beyond the smallest progress among he occupied. For two or three them. Whatever motives, how days people were everywhere busy ever, actuated the people in building sweeping and digg-ing holes into the chapel, we thank God that it which to cast the gathered rubbish, stands there, a testimony in favour and things really looked and smelt of Christianity; and when we see somewhat clean ; but alas! the law four or five huudred of the poor died in its birth, for no sweeping people gathered within its walls has been repeated, and none of every Sabbath, and sitting within the penalties of the law have been .hearing of the preaching which executed, so that filth is now every tells of Jesus Christ, we take cou where as plentiful as before the rage, and believe that faith will p,:omulgation of the said law. Pigs come by hearing; and that as in are kept by many of the Hova otherplaces, and among othertribes, portion of the inhabitants of Amba so here and among the Siha tondrazaka, and are allowed to roam naka the "gospel of Christ" will the town, and perform to a limit prove to be "the power of God ed extent the duty of scavengers. unto salvation to every one that Venturing one day to suggest that believeth." it would be an improvement to the JOSEPH PEARSE. . Tke Antanana1'ivo Annual, O!tristmas, 1876. 41
THE 'INFIX' IN MA.LAG ASY : A MALAY AN FEATURE.
N reading a Malagasy grammar, we shall find a good deal on pre.fixes I and suffixes, but not a word about infixes. If the reader however has any knowledge of languages in which infixes are more common, he will be somewhat suspicious when he comes to the intricate rule about "trans posed passives," stating that "these ·are formed by adding ni- or no- to a root, and then transposing the n and the first consonant of the root.">\< In this manner such words as Vaky is said to be made V inaky, broken Vidy ,, ,, ,, V inidy, bought Vono ,, ,, ,, Vonono, killed ; etc. How much simplei· and clearer it would be to say : The infix in or on is inserted after the first letter of roots beginning with a consonant. (Only these take the infix.) The rule referred to above is evidently made only to meet the want of the right term, infix. What I object to in this rule and in the whole phrase "transposed passives," instead of "passives formed by infixes," as they ought to be called, is: (1) That metathesis in other languages always depends on the nature of the letters to be transposed,-but that is not the case here. (2) That the rule objected to makes a very clear thing rather obscure. (3) That it presupposes the existence of a verbal prefix ni or na, with about the same meaning as voa (voafidy=finidy; voavono=vonono), which is not to be found in the language ; and if it is not found, it can not be transposed. The hypothesis of such an intricate metathesis would only then be j-~stified when there were prefixes in use that already as such would give the root the same turn of meaning· as these infixes ; but that is not the case. ]tly vaky (or, nivaky) and novonoina are quite different in meaning from vinal,y and vonono, and could not therefore by a simple metathesis be changed into that form. The fact is that we have before us not a metathesis of other forms for the same meaning, but an entirely new form, with a new meaning-the infix.
* See A Concise Int1•oductio1i to the Study of the Malagasy Language; by Rev, W, E. Cousins ; p. 25, 42 Tlte 'Infix' in Malagasy: a Malayan featiwe. l£ it was only in this verbal form that the infix occurrecl in Malagasy it might easily have been taken-as it has been up to this time-as a kind of metathesis of other forms ; but on investigation it will be seen that an infix om is found, to which no corresponding suffix or prefix, out of which it coulu be made by way of metathesis, exists at all. It is used in forming secondary roots, just as the many root-prefixes serving the same purpose. It is easily known, as some of the words in which it is used occur also in forms that have eliminated it, or leave it out in recluplica tions. I subjoin a short list of specimens of this kind of infixes. Generally speaking, the forms with the infix are more frequently used than those without it. Tany Tomany, weeping Hehy Homehy, laughing Toetra Tomoetra, state of a thing Verb : Mitoetra Mitomoetra, to stand, abide, stay The first verb is used mostly in the Indicative, the second in the Imperative mood. Heringerina = Homeringerina, returning in a regula1· order Hezaheza, standing up = Homezaheza, being stiff Hanina, food = Romana, to eat Rosy, spoiled = Honiosy, or homosihosy (here the om is left out in the reduplication) Kerakera, stiffness = Homerakera, crusty Lano, swimming = Lomano, swimming Sadoka, in confusion = Somadodoka, in a hurry (here th!3 root (do) is reduplicated too,. but neither the prefix sa, nor the termination ka, nor the infix om) Safotra, overflown = Somafatra, brimful Safo, spying = Somafo, the appearing of a clistant ob ject Saingisaingy, intruding· upon anybody = Somaing-isaingy, ashamecl Sary, likeness = Somary, like Saritalrn, confused = Somaritaka, precipitate, in a hurry Sisika, forced in = Samisika, splintered, shattered Soratra, writing, and cliffer- ent colours = Somoratra, speckled, stained Taratra, glaring = 'fomaratra, transparent Tacly, twisted, a rope = Tomacly, strong, robust Some more instances of the infix om may be found, ancl other infixes too ( especially the infix in) are occasionally met with ; but those given above are nwnerous enough to prove beyond doubt the use of infixes in Tlie 'Infix' in Malagasy : a Malayan jutture. 43 the Malagasy, which is all that is aimed at here. Sometimes there is a slight modification of sense connected with the addition of the infix (the infix seems sometimes to form a kind of participial adjective) ; in other instances the one form is more obsolete or more provincial than the other, or restricted to certain moods. In reduplications of the root the in£..x is generally not repeated ; but in some few words, as tomany, it is kept (tomanitomany, not, tomanita ny). The forms lianina and liomana point to, and can only be explai1red by the supposition of an obsolete root liana, * from which the p. participle hanina ( eaten, what is eaten, food), and the two secondary roots homana and hinana (in the verb mihinana=homana, to eat) are derived ;-the first by the infix om, the last by the infix in. (Of. forms such as liika and liinika, which both mean full.) These root-infixes (infixes used for the formation' of secondary roots) are.inserted after the fu,st consonant o:f the root to which they are added. In the heading I called this infix "a Malayan feature" in the Malagasy ; I will now proceed to prove the validity of this assertion. I do not, o:f course, pretend to know the whole sphere o:f languages on earth to such an extent as to be able to state positively that infixes never occur in any other language than the Malayan. But happily such a knowledge is not required here, as all questions conceming the affinities of the Mala gasy lie between but two possibilities : South and East African on the one side, and Malayo-Polynesian on the other. Now according to the authorities I have before me (Schreuder, Colenso, and especially Bleek) these infixes do not seem to be used at all in those African languages ; and as to the languages of the vast island-world in the east, it is neither used in the Australian, nor in the Melanesian, nor in the Polyne sian dialects, but only in the Malayan branch of this great class o:f languages. And here again, the infixes are especially frequent in the Tagali'an fainily, to which also the Malagasy seems to belong, as far as regards its Malayan component. This linguistic family has borrowed its name from the Tagala language in the island of Luzon ( one o:f the Philip pines), on which its characteristic :features seem to be most clearly stamp ed ; and it is now generally made to include the languages o:f most of the neighbouring islands, and also that of Madagascar. In the whole o:f the Malayan languages, but especially in the Tagala :family, we find infi:ves corresponding to those Malagasy ones I have spoken o:f above. Their form is also here itm and in, but their use seems to be wider and more
" N. JI. In cognate languages the root han or kan, to eat, occurs ; thus ; l\Ialay, makcin ; Tagala, ka,in ; .l:!'idschi, kr.t na; Battak, pahan ; etc. 44 The 'Infix' in Malagasy: a Malayan feature. varied than in the Malagasy, As far as I can conclude from the instances that have come under my notice, they are in Malayan made to serve the following purposes :
!.-DERIVATION OF SECONDARY VERBS.
1. From other verbs: (a) Neuter or hair-passive verbs from transitives (Javan., rayah, bereave; rinayah, to be bereft). (b) Verbs that express the making use of what is meant by the primary verb (Tagala, basa, to read; bumasa, to make use of reading).
2. From noiens: Javan., hurub, a flame; humurub, to flame.
II.-DERIVATION OF NoUNs, especially such as express a similarity to the nouns (kapatir, brother ; kinapatir, like a brother ; balinbin, a small round fruit ; binalinbin, a precious stone of the same shape) ; or the results of (tapay, to knead; tinapay, bread) or means for exercising the action of the verb from which they are derived (sipit, to grasp; sinipit, an anchor).
I shall stop here at present. If time serves, I may by and bye be able to take up other questions concerning the grammatical affinities of the Malagasy with the Malayan languages.-i.c This is, in my opinion, a far safer way of settling the question than a bare list of similar words from both languages, which, taken alone, means very little as a proof of their inter nal relation to one another. There are a good many Arabic words found in the Malagasy, as I have shown in another article in this ANNUAL ; but there is not the slightest affinity between these languages beyond what is found to exist between almost any two languages in the world. Even the predominant Anglo-Saxon character of the English lan guage might be doubtful enough if the question was to be settled merely by co1mtin,q from the lexicon the'Roman and the Anglo-Saxon elements of it ; but the grammar decides the question. L. DAHLE.
* N. B. I have chosen the infix first because of the illustrations it offers of Malagasy grammar. Tke Antananarivo .Animal, Gliristmas, 1876. 45
THE WESTERN IBARA, AND THEIR CUSTOMS.
N the present limited state of our knowledge of many of the tribes I peopling Madagascar, any information respecting them is acceptable. Up to the present time the Ibara, who occupy an extensive tract of country to the south and south-west of Betsileo, have been very little known. Mr. Shaw and Mr. Riordan have however this year visited the eastern portion of their territory, as described in this ANNUAL ; and the foll0wing particulars with regard to the western portion of the Ibara country and its inhabitants were given at a meeting held in Antananarivo, on Jan. 25th of this year, by one of the officers who commanded an expedition against the Sakalavas in 1873. "At Mod6ngy we began to meet with the Sakalavas, and it was at this place that Radama I. conquered all who opposed him, and reduced the country to a province of Imerina. This town of Modongy is on a lofty mountain standing in a plain ; it is precipitous on all sides, and at the north-west corner is the only entrance which is passable to get up into ithe town. At the very summit of the hill there is drinkable water sufficient for from twenty to fifty oxen ; and it flows freely down one side of the town during six months of the year. "This place was formerly a Sakalava town ; and one may easily see that, as those who formerly fought there say, it cost the lives of many of the soldiers and officers who went with Radama I. before the town was taken, for it was a place of much strength. For though there were only fifty Sakalavas in the town, and a thousand men should attack this Modongy, those fifty men at the top could easily kill ten men each, even though they should be conquered at last; because they can roll down stones and pieces of wood which may be just as fatal as musket balls, from the height of the town and the steepness of the paths going up to it. "But now the Sakalavas of the place acknowledge the Hova authority ; there is a Hova governor there, and the Hovas live together ancl mingle with the Sakalavas, so that as regards perhaps a third part of their notions these latter approach the Hovas. "When we proceeclecl westward towards the Bara, some of the Sakalavas said, 'This is what makes the Bara daring enough to fight with you people from Imerina ; they have heard that you have burnt your idols, so they say, The Imerina folks are so taken up with religion that they 46 Tlw Western Ibam, and tliefr Onstoms. won't fight any more.' After travelling westward three days we came to some Sakalavas who live peaceably; but their condition is far different from that of the people at Modongy, and the darkness of their minds was lamentable to behold, for they were in this state : these Sakalava do not care for money, but oxen and fowls they regard as their principal wealth ; their lambas are about six feet long, and they wear them bound round their chests ; their food is rice, bananas, dried bananas, and forest yams, etc. ; for they won't kill their oxen except at funerals or on some very important occasion, although they have plenty of them. Their houses are about nine feet long, and only about six wide, and the height only just so that a person can stand in them; and the doors are so narrow that one is obliged to wriggle in sideways, as well as to stoop. Not only so but they make their cattle-folds adjoining the house, so that the dung spreads all over the house, and it becomes almost unbearable in-doors. And their manner of living is as follows : their cooking pots are as black as soot, and they make their plates of the leaves of the traveller's tree. They do their hair in this way : they take white ashes and suet, and mix them together with their hands, and rolling their hair into knots plaster each knot with the mixture. For pillows they use two small round ones about as big as one's fist, and so support the part below their ears. "When we came up to the Sakalavas who were thoroughly friendly with us, we found that their customs were much the same as those aheady described, but their ideas are very lamentable. For since they eat cooked food as other human beings do, they cannot be said to be the same as the beasts, so we will briefly describe.. their condition. "There is a certain tree which they call kUy, but which is known in Imerina as mad'tlo (the tamarind tree). When this tree' is fully grown it spreads branching out for thirty feet, and by the side of the tree they build their houses. When it is noon-day, they live there by the trunk of the tree on account of the heat, and in the spring, even at night, they say, they only sleep by the trunk of the tree; but in the winter each- one goes into his own house. And we saw evidence of that, for there were the skeletons of two persons still undisturbed lying at the foot of the tree. The thig·h bones were apart, and the skulls fallen down into the lap, for the back-bone only stood bolt upright against the tree. Close to this kily tree there is a village of about fifty houses surrounding it, but they are all in ruins, and not a single timber remains standing. "Upon seeing this we asked of the Bara and Sakalava who went with us, •What is the reason of the village being deserted like this, and not a single inhabitant left?' They replied, 'You Imerina folks don't know our Tlie Western Ibara, and tlieii' Oit8toms. 47 Bara customs, for whenever any one dies in our towns or villages, we immediately leave the place and find some other residence ; for there are ghosts which would kill us, which we call l6lo, but you in Imerina call matdatda; so that though it is a place we like exceedingly, we leave it directly any one dies there.' "Before coming to this village we saw other things of a similar kind, for there is a certain tree they call bot6na, and in this tree there is soi110 part considered as specially belonging to God. So they put Oll it a small mat about a hand-breadth in width, and they take long dry grass and twist it together, ancl hanging an ox skull to the tree they colour the tree with lines of charcoal and white clay and some yellow substance resembling turmeric ; and then pray and render adoration before it. And many are the charms they place on the tree, fastening them to it, and every charm has a name peculiar to it. These are some of them : one is called 'Road stopper,' -another, 'Raising up at a distance,' and another, 'God's banner.' "We had service in our camp every Sunday while in the enemy's country, for they did not submit at that time ; and almost every Sunday we met together we preached about the nothinglless of idols, and we spoke of the merciful God of Heaven, and of His Son Jesus who suffered death for His love to mankind, and that therefore we should be kind to each other. And the Sakalavas who had given in their submission a long time before, and followed our camp, when they heard that, said, 'The religion which you Imerina people profess, ancl for which you burned your idols, is what encourages those Bara and Sakalava to oppose you, for they say, 'These Imerilla people have llO more power left, for they have burned their gods.' ' "At another town farther away still we saw what grieved us, and it was this : the state of their houses, and their living together with their cattle was very much like what has be0J1 already described. But for clothing they only wear a small stri11 of cloth fasteJ1ecl round the chest, and every one carries charms round his neck. These charms are small lJieces of wood, some being smeared with animal oil and others with castor-oil, and those belonging to rich people being ornamented with beads and anointed with suet fat. Together with these charms they carry a gun ancl one or two spears, for they do not trust one another, even husband and wife, or parent and child, as may be seen by what follows. For when they are going to wash their faces they carefully load their gun, and carrying it on the shoulder, grasp the spear in their hand and wash their face thus : One side of the face they wash first so that they may still see with one eye, washing with the hand on that side, the other hand holding the spear; when one side of the face is clean, then they wash 48 Tlte Western Iba1'a, and tlteir Customs.
the other in the same way ; and all this is through their distrust of each other; and they don't wash in their houses, but by the river side or by some stream. ''Their marriage customs are exceedingly strange, for they buy many slaves for wives ; some have seven wives, some eight, and those who have the fewest have at least three. And the chiefs and great people have as many as twenty wives apiece. And yet they appeared to us as people having the same bodies as ourselves, and having souls of which one might hope the best ; but their conduct is like the beasts, and melan choly to think of, so that we said, What can be clone to change these people from the filthy condition in which they now are, for their state is lamentable if they remain in their present darkness ? "And since we deemed that it was not right to take food or oxen from them by force, we did nothing of the kind, and so by the blessing of God for the whole fortnight no one dared take a thing from them in that way. So when they saw that, there ,yere two towns, each having a king of its own, which came and acknowledged themselves subjects of Queen Ranavalona. And the Bara from these two towns which gave in their allegiance have every one charms, both the men and the women, some of which they wear round theirnecks, sometheytieround their knees, and others are fa:5tened over their bodies. Their charms are of the following kind : some are small pieces of wood shaped like a little canoe; others are lemur's bones, both from the hands and feet; others are small wooden figures of men ; others are figures of women, and others of oxen, and others are small things of different kinds worn across the body. When we talked with them about these things, and asked them the meaning of these different charms, they told us as follows: This lemur's foot, they said, we call tsim6koti-a ( translated into our speech this means a 'charm against fatigue') ; and the meaning of this little canoe is that we shall not be upset, and if we swim we shall get across safely. And the little human figlll'es they call a charm for obtaining spoil and getting plenty of slaves ; and the figure of a woman is to aid in obtaining women; and as to the :figure of an ox, they say of it that those who possess it will get abundance of cattle. And the other small charms which are worn about the body and are called sdmpilahy, are charms against bullets. And to all these charms they fasten small pieces of wood, and say that the joining of these all together, with the charms, and the different figures, and the beads, as well as the anointing of them all, will bring to pass what they say about them as protectors. "When we went further on to other towns we still did not separate fro:Q'.l these Bara who had newly submitted, for they came to sell things T!te Western Ibara,. ancl their Customs. 49 at the markets and at the outside of the camp ; and on Sundays they came and met together with us for worship in our camp. And as they repeat edly heard the preaching, they said, What is this religion which leads the Imerina people not to enslave us any more and take us away by force? Ancl they were answered, Because Jesus Christ the Son of God, the Redeemer of men, has given the gospel to teach mankind to shew mercy. And so that report spread amongst all the Bara, and they saw plain evidence that it was true, since we did not enslave the people or take their property by force. So that many of the Bara in the small sun·ounding villages came to sell things at the market; and on Sundays they were eager to obtain places in the camp to hear the preaching ; and they even left their charms at home when they met with us for worship, for they did not venture to bring them ; at the same time on other days they each had them round their necks wherever they went, either at the market or at other places. "In another direction which we took we saw some villages with a great many trees growing around them, and the largest tree which grew near the gate had a figure of a woman fixed to it, and ornamented with charms. We asked the meaning of this, and were told, This tree is the tree of adulterous desires, for here those pray who want women or are about to marry. They also told us that there was a greater king than all the other chiefs, whom they call 'That king,' and whom all the Bara very much dread, as they say he possesses numerous charms. "After this we proceeded in another direction, and then came to a certain town; and there we observed the appearance of the country. It is one great green level, and the trees growing there, and the streams and the rivers, all make a beautiful pictm·e; but all the water thereabouts is thick and bad tasted, except that in the larger rivers, but still if it· be filtered it becomes drinkable. In this neighbom·hood also there are trees which bear fruit as big as a siny (the native water-pot, about a foot in diameter), and the trees themselves are of a great height, some of them as much as 150 feet high. And the fan-palm grows there in a surprising manner. They are exceedingly plentiful in the green plain, growing, in regular groves, ancl very beautiful to behold. But though these trees themselves are most beautiful, there 'is something connected with them which is to be much lamented and must be described. For there at the foot of these fan-palms many of the Bara lie in wait, through their distrust and jealousy of each other; and when they see any one coming di·iving oxen, th!;ly fu·e at them, although they be Bara as well, and when the owners run away tlu·ough fright, they all seize upon the cattle. And one of the reasons of that is, their having many wives, as already mentioned 50 The Western Ibai·a, and their Oustoms. and these numerous wives of theirs are in league with their :fathers, and so gaining colll'age from their charms, and being helped by their companions, it comes about that they go on robbing and plundering people's property. "And at last, when the country was quieted, we had a meeting :for worship one Sunday, and while we were still at service, there were some people among us who through their desire of getting wealth went and took eleven people prisoners at the :foot of Isaly, and concealed them in the camp. But when the people they had taken were discovered they were ordered to be retlll'ned to their friends and homes. So that the report of that spread amongst the Bara, and it became a saying with them, 'What a good thing this 'praying' is, :for the Imerina people are not be:fooled by it so that they ca.n't :fight, but it is a shewing of mercy ; so let us go as :fast as we can and become subjects of Queen Ranavalona.' And so they all came to us and gave in their allegiance, and that is what brought Itsik6ra, son of Andrianany, and his companions here to-day.''
Translated by the EDITOR from the Report of tlie Isan-Enim-Bolana ( Congregational Union Meeting), January, 1876.
THE ZAHANA. HE Zahana referred to by Mr. Wills in the ANNUAL :for 1875 (p. 123) T is the bignonia ai·ticulata. Several of the Bignoniacere are timber trees, and like the zahana are valuable :for the hardness and dul'ability o:f their wood. The Bignoniacere ai:e generally :found in the hotter parts of Asia, Africa, and America; and with their trumpet-shaped :flowers are said to :form conspicuous objects in their native :forests. The :flowers of the zahana are comparatively small, but when seen growing freely in the country, as at Andramisina, :for instance, and at M. Laborde's country residence at Mantasoa, they are very pretty, though from their light colour they can scarcely be said to form conspicuous objects in the landscape. There is an old superstition regarding this tree, which is still believed in by many, to the effect that any one planting it in his grounds will meet with an early, if not sudden, death. Another of the Bignoniacere growing in the :forests, and used for similar pui·poses as the zahana, is the hitsiki tsika. I imagine this to be the bignonia Telfaria referred to in Mr. Ellis's History of Madagascar (Vol. I. p. 38). Its :flower is similar to that of the zahana, and like it, its fruit is edible. R. ToY. Tlie Antananarivo Annual, Olwistmas, 1876. 51
MADAGASCAR TWO CENTURIES AGO.
PROPOSAL TO JlfAKE IT A BRITISH "PLANTATION." VERY one who knows any cidental references to the far-off E thing of our elder literature island continent, from the days of knows that among other of his Olli' great sea-kings, the Frobish remarkable-and it is very remark ers and Drakes and Raleighs, on able-poetry, Sir William Da ward. But by far the most taking of venant has a considerable poem these old and practically unknown named "Madagascar," which, in books, larger and lesser, is one that deed, he transfigures with the having just turned up in our library, splendour of an imaginative faculty it seems worth while briefly bring that in its kind is not easily to be ing before our readers. The follow matched. Elsewhere there are in- ing is its title-page :- MADAGASCAR, The Richest And most Frvitefvll Island In the World. Wherein The Temperature of the Clyrnate, the Nature of the Inhabitants, the Commodities of the Countrie, and the facility and benefit of a Planta tion by our People there are compendiously and truely described. Dedicated To the Honourable Iohn Bond, Governour of the Island, whose proceeding is Authorized for this Expedition, both by the King and Parliament. By Vv alter Hamond. London: Printed for Nicholas Bourne, and are to bee sold at his Shop, at the South Entrance of the Royall Exchange. 1643. [4°] Sooth to say, this title-page- less, there are things in it that, like those small shops that are looking back from 1875 to 164:3, all window and all the stock put are of interest over and above into the window-excites a higher the inevitable speculations started expectation than the book itself on the possibility of an English (or booklet, as Charles Lamb "Plantation," had it been made would have dubbed it, after Ro- as stout-hearted, sagacious, though bert Illll'ton) fulfils. Neverthe- perhaps over-sanguine, Walter Ha- 52 Madagascar Two Oenturies Ago. mond advocated. We know what and closes with a modest statement came of "Plantations" earlier and of the writer's claims in his account. contemporaneous in Virginia and "I here present you with the Maryland, and the ice-ribbed and Island you aims at, drawn in a bleak,-aired New England States. little tablet; the cloath coarse and We can only muse over the the colours poote and ill laid, "might have been" magnificent but it may chalenge the better jewel in England's regalia had reception in regard it was taken Madagascar in 1643 been added to to the life by me, an eye the empire. witnesse, in whom the memory Turning to the old pages, the of that fruitfull and pleasant coun Epistle-dedicatory has the ring of try so far prevailes that it makes Raleigh and dear quaint Hakluyt me ambitious to forsake my native himself. "Great actions," it com [land] and wait upon you thither mences, "are not enterprised by vul if you will please to admit me." gar spirits, without eminent ver Our light at this late day is dim, tue man seldom riseth above pri and I have failed to learn any vate interests. In this designe you thing concerning either John Bond [Honourable John Bond, Governom· or Walter Hamond, as, indeed, I and Captaine-Generall of Madagas have failed to get at positive infor carJ have given the world a tes mation on the evident appointment timony of what latitude your of Bond as "Governour and Cap thoughts are, how [ they are J not taine-Generall" of the Island. It to be circumscribed within the seems singular that a Fact so large common narrow limits. The Ro should have passed out of human mans in their glorious age (which memories ; and that Ellis and other remaines an envy to all succeeding) historians of Madagascar should employed their most famed generals (apparently) have missed Hamond's in discovery of remotest islands, and "eye-witnesse" narrative and ap our owns had the honour to be inva peal, for the narrative is only the ded by the greatest Cresar ; and basis of an urgent, persuasive, when he made his attempt here, impassioned appeal to Englishmen the Indies can afford no people more to "go in and possess the land ;" divided in itselfe than we were ; as witness these his closing words : more weake in fortresses on land ''This virgin island of Madagascar or ships at sea; but Time hath cloth here by me friendly and loving reformed us to the excellency we ly invite our Nation to take some now so much glory in. The noble compassion of her nakedenesse, nesse of the example serves you her poverty, and her simplicity, both for encouragement ; and I am cer corporall and spirituall, and doth taine the largenesse and fertility earnestly and affectionately even of the Island of Madagascar pro beg of us to redeeme her out of miseth you a far more rich returne ; her miserable thraldome under the and it may be possible something tyranny of Satan, to be united with of his honour." us into the fellowship of the sons The epistle-dedicatory goes on of God by our union in Chl·ist J e to denounce opposition and envies sus." William Crashaw, father of and jealousies in relation to the the poet Richard Crashaw, in his gallant enterp1·ise of a "Plantation,,, magnificent missionary sermon for Madagascar Two Centuries A.go. 53
the "Virginia Company," speaks gained the priviledge to be chief with a heart breaking in the inten masters of the element. -Otll' fore sity of its longing to have the gospel fathers in their discoveries left us carried to the "dark places of the a noble envie of their fortunate earth ;" and there are other noble attempts. And Captaine Bond (to missionary sermons of two hundred whom I dedicate this weak descrip and two hunched and fifty years tion of the island, as I am confident ago that ought to be more recog the island shortly will itselfe) is nised than they have been, as poten · now following their glorious tracke, tial in helping to the ultimate and may arrive to be an equall outburst of national enthusiasm and wonder to after-history. For if consecration in favour of Christian we value the riches of the land he missions everywhere. vValter Ha is bound for, either naturall, or mond was a blunt, bluff, outspoken to be gained by industry, it assures seaman-so far as is to be gathered the Adventurer the most plentifull yet in his heart, as in numerous return, being furnisht with such others, there was, besides the love of commodities as no other Plantation adventure and commercial enter ever afforded. If we regard the prise, a very distinct apprehension, wholesomeness of the ayre and the if not comprehension, that here pleasure of the soyle, it furnisheth was a wide-open door whereby En the Planters health and delight. And glishmen ought to enter in for if we look on the nature of the peo the salvation of perishing heathen ple we are to deal with, they, how and the glory of Christ's name. ever not civilized into our manners, This comes out ever and anon unmis retains the :fu,st incorrupt innocence takably in this and kindi·ed early of man. An earth like that of books. Eden, pleasant without artifice and Looking next at the Addi·ess to plentiful without labour; a people the Reader, there is genuinely approaching in some degree neere English praise of Englishmen, and Adam, naked without guilt, and a piquantly quaint testimony to the innocent, not by a forc't vertue, resoul'Ces of Madagascar and the but by ignorance of evill ; and the character of its inhabitants; e.g., creatures as humble and servicea "Nature imprisons the natives of om· ble to man as they were before his country within the seas, but Art-re transgression. But what particu vengeth the injill'y, and by the inven larlypersuades us to this honourable tion of shipping makes us free of expedition, Nature hath engrafted . the whole world, andjoynesourisland in their soules a strange affection to the remotest continent. The sun toward our nation, and by -their doth neither set nor rise but where · submisse entertaining us, seemes we are admitted or make OUl'selves to prophecie the easinesse of that free denizens ; and farthest nations victory we are even com-ted to. acknowledge us either with vene But we intend not to betray them ration or terror. And however the to servitude, though conquest lyes scornefull folly of om· neighbours open to us. Religion and the reproacheth us with the name arts wee shall instruct them [inJ of Islanders, yet have we enlarged will be sufficient gaine to them for our victories on the maine land, and whatsoever riches their country by being imm.tll'ed with the water, shall afford us. But how happy 54 Madagascar Two Oentttries Ago. soever our fortune may be, they men have degenerated or there have will share at least with us, and been climatic changes, for to-day perhaps preceed us. For what it were perilous so to lie all night will be our wealth, will in no way on the bare earth of the sea-coast. impoverish them, and what will Speaking next of trees, there is enable us at our returne cannot named "ebony, both white and make their treasUl'e one graine the black," and "tamarinds, whereof lighter .... In a word, as it was there are abundance of that growth, said of Thebes, so may I trulier that we· saw'd some of them say of this island, that the sun, into planks that carried foure foot in !l,ll his progress, doth not behold diameter." Here is one shrewd a richer and sweeter country." observation: "One thing I observed The "True Description" proper, that not one tree but bore fruit, I do not mean very largely to though unknown to us ; yet the quote from. Its geography and munkeys were our tasters, for if topography are superseded by they did eate of them we durst fuller knowledge. Yet may a few boldly adventure." Nor is this grains of gold be gathered. It other less interesting : "I may not appears that in the Bay of Augus forget that admirable tree which tine, on the west side of the we named the flesh-tree, whereon island, English ships bound for In I would have all those that desire dia were used from 1608 to "put in," to try their blades, and to glut both outward and homeward, to their eyes with the effusion of take in their wood and water and humane blood, to be exercised ; other provisions, and to refresh for it is so like to materiall flesh, and cure their sick. In this bay, that if you strike at it and wound "in Anno 1630, in the Charles and it with the sword, it sheweth like Jonah [ odd combination], Captaine an incision made in flesh, and Weddell co=ander, on the first bleedeth forth a crimson sap like of July" Walter Hamond arrived, very blood ; we supposed the san and they all remained ''till the guis draconis, whereof they brought beginning of October following, us a great quantity, to be made which time," we read, was "spent of the juice of this tree." What in coasting along the country and ever could this flesh-tree be? in observing the customes and qua Oranges and lemons, and pepper lities of the people." "For the and cloves, and nutmegs, and many season when we arrived there, it others are enumerated as found was," the narrative continues, "in '"up the country." Then, "their the depth of Winter, the sun being cattell here," we are told; "I in the tropidr of Cancer; at which meane their oxen, and kine, are time we found the trees and plants the goodliest and largest of size in their full verdUl'e, all loaden with that the world affords, and as fat, greene fruit of severall kinds, the their oxen having a great bunch aire so temperate and wholesome of flesh on the top of their shoul that although OUl' people as they der, as a camell hath on his back." did oftentimes sleepe on the bare Very fine testimony is borne to the earth, yet in all the time of our stay honesty and faithfulness of the there ( as divers can justi:fie) we people in their bartering with cattle never had any man sick." Either for beads and other trifles, as thus : Madagascar Two Centuries .Ago. 55 "All which Cattell they brought ing of some two or three beads." them downe to us every day in Tliere are many bits of manners whole droves, so that we were and-customs painting that might be compelled to buy more than we quoted, as thus: "Every man for could spend, whic!t we committed the most part weares about his to them to keepe, who at our depar neck his razor, pick - tooth, and ture did faithfully restore them to mullets to pluck out the haire (for us aga,in." And this testimony is you must note they weare no repeated and emphasised. More beards), also his sticks to kindle specifically take this : "Concerning fire, all which I have to show." the quality and disposition of the There are glimpses of wars and people, they are generally of a contentions, "chiefly for watering very loving and affable condition, places." One king paid the Charles for in the three moneths that we and Jonah a visit, and it is thus de lived amongst them we had as scribed :-"At our first comming a much freedome, and lived as secure shore, when they beheld us set up ly, as if the country had beene our tents, and had planted a cou our owne, and if at any time our ple of fowlers, they imagined that people by wandering abroad had we came to inhabit there, where lost their way, they would carefully upon their king, Andrapela, with bring them to us in safety without his company, to the number of an offering them the least injury. hund;red, came to our captaine They are just in all their dealings, submissively laying their launces whereof we had good experience. at his feet, and kissed them, offer For example, during the time of ing himself and his people unto our abode amongst them, they his subjection, praying him to re bringing downe daily such an abun ceive them, their wives, children, dance of cattell, which being sold and cattell under his protection, to us for small prices, we bought and to defend them from their every day more than we could enemies, which the captaine accep spend, to the number of an hundred tecl. He [ AndrapelaJ told us of head of cattel, which we committed the mortall wars they had with the to one of their owne people to keep Massagores, their next borders ; for us, not greatly caring whether but before we departed, we left we had them againe or no ; yet at them good friends." One natu our comming away, when we had rally queries how the captain and cleared ourselves of the shore, and Master Hamond communicated all our men and provisions were ,vith his majesty King Andrapela. aboard, our grazier brought downe One wonders, too, if Andrapela to the marine all our cattell to a would have agreed with the breadth hoofe and did help us to get them of the interpretation put on his signs aboard; and i·n all 01w trayding witli and symbols. There was humour them we never sustained so muclt as in King Andrapela, which took the losse of one bead. For theft they pleasant form, thus: "Upon a time, punish it with death, the father I know not upon policy or neces having that power over his own sity-they came to our captaine with children; for there we saw the father a lamentable cry that the Mas lance his owne child, a maiden of sagores were come downe upon some ten yeeres of age, for steal- them and had drove away their 66 Madagascar Two Oentiwies A.go. cattell, and that unlesse we came with a great deale of reverence. speedily to rescue them they should They showed us their books, which be either all slaine · or captured. were made of parchment or sun Whereupon in half an houre's dried sheep-skins. Their charac-. time wee had at least two hundred ters were like the Egyptian hiero of our men in armes with our drum glyphicks, some like a fish, a tree, and colours flying, to look out for a flower, a beast, and the like, this supposed enemy. Having which would read to us in a con marched thus a mile or two into fused manner, being, as told us, a the woods, they brought us at length prayer to God. We showed them unto a place where the king one of our books, which, when had provided three or four fat sheep they had well viewed and turned and other things to feast us, and over, they delivered us back again, this was all the enemy we found." requesting us to read therein, With one other extract concern whereupon they gave good atten ing their religion we may end our tion; yet they understood us no gleanings from this old forgotten more than we did them." And eke book : "For their religion, as far Master Hamond, no less. as we could trace them, we con The martyr - church of Mada ceived them (if of any) to be Ma gascar is a grander and purer hometans, which they have gotten outcome of England's Christia by their affinity and near neigh nity than would have been any bourhood to the Moores. That mere "plantation" after the mo filthy sect, like a contagious lepro del of others of Jacobean and sie, hath generally infected almost Charles's days. May He who holds au those eastern and southerne the "seven stars" in His right parts of the world; for we observed hand keep clear and high the lights them to be circumcised. Their of the golden candlestick which priests came often to us, and were He has placed there! present sometimes at our devotions, ALEX. B. GROSART. where they behaved themselves Blackburn. The Leisui·e Houi•, l\Iar. 27, J 876,
A MALAGASY ORDEAL. TRIBE in the,. southern part of Madagascar, called the Tatsimo, A have, or had, a practice of the following kind to test the guilt of persons suspected of any crime : water having been previously boiled in a cooking pot or a siny, a piece of quartz, which is called vato velona, or 'living stone,' was dropped into the vessel. The accused person had to take this stone out of the boiling water, and if innocent, it was believed he could do so without injury or blistering the skin. Pieces of quartz, it may be remarked, were used in many of the old ceremonies, and seem to have been regarded with some superstitious reverence, as the name given to the stone would also imply. ED. Tlie Antananarivo Annual, Clwistmas, 1876. 51
THE GHOSTS OF AMBONDROMBE LAID. T has often been a matter of speculation whether or not Ambon I drombe, or Iaratsa (not Iratsy) as the Betsileo call it, has any thing peculiar in its formation, which may have given some foun dation for the reported lowing of cattle, crowing of cocks, firing of cannon, drilling of soldiers, ek, said to be heard by the people living near. In order to solve, if possible, this problem, and finding myself near it on one of my itinerating journeys, I made a slight detour to visit this famous and much-dreaded spot. Having arrived early in the afternoon at the foot, I had a little daylight to examine that side of the hill as far as I could without ascending, and to choose the direction I would take next day. On the following morning, after vainly attempting to bribe some Betsileo to accompany me and bring hatchets to cut a path to the top, I started with such of my bearers as were willing to follow me, and after three hours' hard work, cutting away the under-growth and creepers growing every where, we reached the summit. I found that Iaratsa consists not of one bold, rocky, bare hill, as it appears at a distance, but of a large group of hills, some six or seven in number, with very deep gulleys between them. These gorges have a general north and south direction. The highest hill is that on the east, and each one to the west decreases in height. The northern end of the gorges or valleys is' open, but at the south three hills or one large hill with three tops,-I could not tell which,- . blocks up the southern end except at the south-west corner, which is open to the west. This peculiar arrangement of an isolated block of hills is, I think, the first cause of the strange sounds which are the origin of the superstitious fears connected with this place. The eastern hill is one of the highest, if not the highest, in Betsileo, and the wind, generally easterly, meeting this obstruction, rushes with furious force round the north end, and over the top into the three longitudinal valleys, out of which there is no outlet except the narrow mouth at the south-west end. In this way a species of natural trumpet is formed. And certainly while there I noticed that when there was scarcely a breath of wind in my camping-ground, there was often the roar as of a furious tempest going on above us. The hills are more thickly covered with forest than any other part I have seen in Madagascar, but I could discover nothing else, such as caves, etc., that by an echo could have given rise to the weird tales as told by the Rev. W. E. Cousins last year, and so fully belie~ed in by the Betsileo. I quite think from what I heard that the wmd is the great ghost raiser of Ambondrombe. GEORGE A. SHAW. 58 The Antananarivo Annual, Cliristmas, 1876.
A VISIT TO AMBOHIMANGA IN THE TANALA COUNTRY.
T had been often in my heart to small brawling streams ; then by I visit the Tanala country, but clear deep pools overshadowed by stress of work at Ambositra and in trees, such as trout love in the good its district, with other circumstances old land we still call "home." The over which I had no control, delayed abundance of orchids suspended this visit until August this year. from the trees told of glorious The Betsileo District Committee wealth of floral beauty here in the of the L. M. S. had deputed the SUllllller season, but now there was Rev. W. Deans Cowan and myself scarcely a flower. One beautiful to visit the Tanala, and to start, terrestrial orchid I found in full the one from Fianarantsoa, the bloom, and caught sight of the other from Ambositra, in order that pretty modest lobelia with its sweet the relative distances from these sheen of light blue ; but what most two places might be correctly ascer struck me of floral beauty was a tained, as well as the condition of splendid specimen of the natural the roads from the two places better order Labiatce, the finest I ever saw. known. I leftAmbositraona bitterly The flowers were large, of a deep cold morning, August Bth, wrapped blue colour, with all the charac up as one might be supposed to be teristics of the order; the leaves on a voyage of discovery to the heart-shaped, green above and North Pole, a cold cliiving· rain purple below. I secured a few roots, making the j oumey in the exposed but the bleak cold region about us_ .filari:fdna very uncomfortable, as well here will not suit it, and it was only as endearing every chance gleam of brought home to die. sunshine which came and as rapidly By the evening of the first day departed, as if ashamed of the mise-. I was at Amb6himit6mbo, a good rable clay. One scarcely cares to sized village on the crown of a high tell how cold it can be in this ex hill. A very comfortable and clean posed treeless country around Am house of one room is set apart here bositra. for visitors ; and as to describe it is As the afternoon wore on the to describe every house in the forest was reached, and at once village, let it be done. It is a simple every thing was changed. The construction of bamboo, fixed upon contrast was in every way remark short piles driven into the ground, able and deeply interesting. The about 14ft. by lOft.,having,Ithink, cold and sterile-looking slopes the distinction of being the largest were exchanged for dense forest, house in the village. I have been tluough which a narrow path, under the impression hitherto that scarcely wide enoug·h for two bear these houses were fixed upon piles, ers abreast, led us by the side of a as in the Betsimisaraka country, to lake-like ex1)anse of water; then by allow the torrents of rain to flow A Visit to Amboliimanga in t!te Tanala Ooientry. 59 off freely d1uing the rainy season ; in sight of a pretty town on a spur but I now think this is not the of a h-igh mountain, and here I primary reason, as when a better stayed for the day, and held my style of house is affected, as at first service in the Tanala country. Ambohimanga, stout uprights of Ivohimanitra is the name of this the almost imperishable wood called pretty village ; it has considerable ndto are di·iven into the ground, clearings around, and it is said to and to these the planks forming the be a cold and healthy neighbour sides of the house are nailed, the hood. It is also distinctly affirmed floor of the house in such cases that there is no fever here, a proof being on a level with, or lower than, of this being that the Hova teacher, the outside ground. So I suppose than whom no one scarcely coulcl that the perishable nature of the more dread the tazo, removes from strips of bamboo used for walls is the Ambohimanga with his school principal cause of their being raised during the rainy season. The above ground. Both kinds of houses houses are built upon terraces, and have their advantages, but except the one I occupied was brought up ing that the bamboo house will to a level with the terrace above by sway in every breeze and tremble the extremely tall poles upon which at every footstep, it is I think for it was fixed reaching from the cleanlinessandcoolness, and "sweet terrace below. There is a large ness and light," to be preferred to chapel here, and a considerable the stronger structure. These frail congregation can be gathered, espe houses are generally very clean, and cially in the rainy season. But the as we peeped into them, or stopped most beautiful part of the journey to eat our rice and fowl in one, or was. to come, that between I vohima spread our bed at night and slept in nitra and Ambohimanga. It was them, we could but wish that the a great descent, and the climate houses of the Betsileo, where so increasingly tropical. Great part often the missionary in his journeys of the country had evidently been has to stay, were as "sweet and cleared for cultivation for years past, clean." and the forest left in clumps of trees Pleasant too was the discovery of beautiful foliage. The graceful that these simple forest people have, bamboo abounded everywhere, and what the Betsileo lack, a friendly ever and anon the river, wh-ich here word of salutation. 'Finaritra,' flows on and past Ambohimanga pronounced by them, 'Filahatra' until it joins the Mananjara, had (may you be happy), was pleasant to be forded. In this more open to hear, the response being a simple country the first tombs were seen, e. The old Tanala folk invariably but only two, it not being the 1)l·ac change the n into the l sound when tice of the Tanala to erect such speaking. structures as so constantly meet The second day's journey was one's gaze travelling in the Betsileo one of four hours only, but through country. Tho dead amongst the dense forest. Of course the narrow Tanala are carried to the dense path was wet, as it seems next to forest and buried amid the gloom impossible, travel at what season of an almost impenetrable shade, you may through Malagasy forests, where the stranger's foot may never to find di·y paths. We at last came tread. 60 A Visit to A.mboliimanga in tlie Tanala Country. The two tombs seen were respec bamboo in black and brown of tively those destined as the last this house brings back to one's resting-places of the Tanala princess memory the pretty gable-ends of Iovana and the Lieut.-Governor. houses in and around Chester. Here and there along the road and Great hospitality was shewn us ; nearthevillages small square houses and it was this hospitality which on high poles are seen. These are brought out some of the primitive the h6raka, or trdno-drnbo, i.e. rice and patriarchal habits of the people. houses, where the season's store is As pigs seem unknown about Am laid up ; the rice not being buried bohimanga, a fact which adds not in pits, as in the Betsileo and in a little to the pleasantness of the Imerina. The traveller's-tree ap town, meat is rarely eaten by the peared here, telling of a hot climate. people; and it is only when Iovana At 11 ·40 I was at the foot of the or some great man kills an ox that hill on which the forest capital is the people get beef. One of the built, and sending on word of my finest oxen from among the prin approach, waited a few minutes. cess's herds was brought up, with Presently we entered the town, how much noise and shouting I need and were met by soma of the great not say, and when killed nearly men, who preceded us to the rdva, the whole carcase brought and laid or enclosed space around the royal at our door. The situation was residence. Here a great throng embarrassing, as no entreaties awaited our coming, the most availed to get the pastors and teach conspicuous for numbers and noise ers to take it away for themselves, being the school children, who sang leaving us the small quantity we far more lustily than sweetly. I needed; and it was only after taking had scarcely had a most hearty an enormous quantity and consign reception from Iovana and her ing it to the care of our own men court when my friend Mr. Cowan that any was taken by others. At arrived, having travelled from Fia planting time the Tanala kill oxen narantsoa, to have a like hearty (as the Betsileo formerly did, reception given him. Excluding only at reaping time); but what is stoppages I had travelled from killed, with a considerable quan Ambositra to Ambohimanga in a tity of tdaka (native rum), is laid little less than sixteen hours ; Mr. upon altars in the fields as an Cowan being a little longer in time offering to the spirits of their ances from And.raina, the fast Tanala tors. As a liking for this fiery rum town in his route, which town is is not an · attribute of departed a day's journey from ·Fianarantsoa. spirits, so far as I can learn, I The road from Ambositra would presume the offering is but a form, seem also to be easier for journey and the consumption by the offerers ing-; and no inconvenience from the reality. rivers, only two of any note being These altar-stones upon which the crossed, and these forded easily. offerings are made are a curiosity, One of the largest houses in the and I have seen them nowhere town was put at our disposal, and else in Madagascar. One outside a very picturesque-looking house the forest was a perfect altar, upon adjoining was kitchen and bearers' which no tool had ever been lifted, house. The interlacing of the and was about two and a half A Visit to Ambohimanga in the Tanala Country, 61 feet high. Three stones (the tripod) at W althamstow. Dr. Livingstone were fixed firmly in the ground, said he never failed of getting a and a large flat one covered these ; congregation if he carried with him the whole finding a back piece in tobacco and a magic-lantern. Of a vrlto-tsdngana (large upright stone the attractive power of the former firmly fixed in the ground). Let I cannot speak, but the latter me now say I give no science in was a success indeed; and I, hope this paper. I hope my worthy never to go to Ambohimanga with friend Mr. Cowan may also write, out it. We first had a l)rivate for by mutual arrangement the exhibition at the lapa, where it was major part of the teaching, etc. heartily enjoyed and the comic devolved upon me, and he collected slides appreciated. But scenes specimens of the fauna of the from the New Testament are most country and took observations. For interesting I think, and help to this purpose he frequently left me, give a reality to what they have going to long distances around previously read of. An exhibition Ambohimanga. in the chapel was equally successful, There is no dense forest in the and drew amazingly. I was extreme immediate neighbourhood of this ly pleased with the first Sunday place, as the system of cultivation service. I have now been in seve pursued, viz. that of destroying ral government towns in which the forest by fire and planting in I have conducted services, from the ashes, helps to clear the country. Fenoarivo north to Imahazony The habits of the people are and Ikalamavony south and west, very simple. Rice is their one staple but never where a service was so food ; of crockery they are gene simply appropriate as this at Am rally innocent, a large-leaved plant bohimanga. I have been where it growing freely around them furnish was not considered etiquette to go ing them with plates and dishes. to church before the governor, and Long bamboos are used for fetching have consequently waited for hin1, water from the adjoining river, when, preceded by sword and spear and also for storing it within doors. bearers, and treated to , military It was a pretty sight watching from honours as we passed along, we a distance this water fetching. Girls have 1Jassed thrnugh a crowd of are generally the water carriers, the recently subjugated race to and one could see them from afar, worship the Divine Being, too much and hear their merry shouts, as regarded by the people as the Hova nearing the river, they would throw God. But here it was very differ down their extemporised buckets ent. At home with her own people and dash into the stream, seeming there was no Jisplay of pomp and as much at home in the water as honour on the part of the Anchi ducks. ambavy ; all went at the time suit But what did we do there ? Most able, and by the time Iovana, of us look at these visits from a view accompanied by her married daug·h to us almost all absorbing, viz. ters, arrived there were nearly 600 from the missionary point, so I assembled. I will not describe the will hasten on. First however let chapel, but only say that I, who me say that I took an excellent have had to build mission house magic-lantern, the gift of friends and model chapel at Ambositra, 62 A Visit to A.mboliimanga in tlie Tanala Country. and at my wits' end sometimes for few men known as preachers. The wood, was nearly in danger of co- two pastors are intelligent men ; veting as I gazed at the timber how they learned to read evidences employed in building this forest what men in earnest, even Mala church. Nothing special character- gasy, will do. One of them seems ised the service ; perhaps I was to have been taught years ago to less annoyed by people going in read writing, and to write a little, and out than when at home. by a Frenchman at Mananjara; What shall I say of the school ? and afterwards meeting with print A lover of compulsory education ed books compared the letters in would here see his system carried the lesson-book with the written out to perfection; whether he would characters ah·eady known, and mas approve is another question. There tered well all the difficulties, teach is but one school in all Iovana's ing his companion. I may add that territory, and from distant towns, I found Iovana reading also, but several days' journey from her under difficulties, as her spectacles capital, are chilchen ordered up to wanted one glass, and the frame learn. Bringing a bag of rice, too was broken. My stock at Am, they come, for so many must attend bositra has been drawn upon, to from every district ; and when the her delight, to meet her need. I food is exhausted, back they go mention this for the gratification for more. It is a weary affair for of the friends at home who sent the chilchen, and I am afraid by the glasses. no means tends to heighten a love One other incident in regard to for learning ; and what is more Iovana, and I must hasten to close. singular, the teacher, who is a I was teaching in the chapel one Hova sent by the Palace Ohmch afternoon surrounded by the preach in Antananarivo, having a great · ers, when sheaPIJeared in our midst, horror of the fever which appears and coming close to me said, "I beg at Ambohimanga cllll"ing the rains, permission to be absent." I was removes to Ivohimanitra during somewhat startled, as she was not eight months of the year, and takes one of my pupils. But planting the children with him. I presume time was near, and she was leaving this school in the forest with its 210 the town with a number of her children is about as unique as any people to be present at the forest in this country. This . school was burning or land clearing. Such the scene of my labour every clay, being the custom I could do no other and I was very 1Jleasecl with the than graciously grant her "leave quickness of the children to learn. of absence" from her own capital The painful fact met me here as at for a few days. But she was soon almost everywhere where there is back, and would not leave again, no English missionary, that even she said, while we remained. It in the case of those who can read, may be observed that the major scarcely any thing is apprehended part of our efforts in the direction and realized of the great truths the of teaching were confined to Am Bible teaches. I did all I could to bohimanga, and for this reason : meet this difficulty by Bible classes other churches exist but in name. at my house for the more advanced, 11 Both Mr. Cowan and I came to the and by special instruction for thel l,conclusion-and all we hearcl con- A Visit to .A.mboliimanga in the Tanala Country. 63 firmed it, that excepting Andraina, cussed and. ultimately agreed to ; the nearest Tanala church to Fia but up to this date, October 20th, narantsoa, and sometimes supplied but little or nothing has been done with preachers from that town, by them. A resident missionary is there are rarely services on Sunday, their deep need, and could one be and no schools excepting at Ambo found he would have a hearty wel himanga. I presume that the come. A house is guaranteed for services are continued at Ambohi him for residence during the cold manga when the teacher migrates (dry) season at Ambohimanga, and to Ivohimanitra; but as a whole, help promised towards building the religious condition of the Tanala one for him at Ivohimanitra. is ori.e calculated to sadden at A different course was taken present, while there is so much g·oing home; a much longer route, of good as to excite hopefulness for occupying three clays through a the futUTe. The total population country abounding with morasses, under the rule of Iovana is, as far through which it must be difficult as we could ascertain, nearly or impossible to w1:1;cle after heavy correctly stated in Dr. Mullens's rains. Many bad places were book.* spanned by trunks of trees ; others, The migration of the people from fifty or sixty yards in width, had to town to their plantations, and the be got through as best we, or ra anxiety of the teacher to get away ther, our bearers, could. Some spots from the capital, as he sadly feared on the banks of the Maintim'tndi·o the approachingfever, togetherwith were of great beauty, reminding pressing exigencies of home work, one of park scenery at home ; obliged us to start for home on but another neighbourhood will be Aug. 21st, amid a vast amount of long remembered for the difficulty leave taking, and kind attentions of its ascent. We had left the tribe and presents. We had made strenu called Taiva, and were entering that ous efforts to get some pupils to of the Zafimaniry, when we had accompany us, that they might get the mountain on which Ivohitrambo a good education and return to bless is perched to climb. A sharp storm their people ; but the love of home added to our difficulties, but the was too strong for them, and top of the rock on which part of neither boy nor gfrl would leave. the village is built was reacped at This somewhat disappointed us, last, and we experienced change of but we must fake the blessing to climate, change of residence, and a them again as early as possible. great change in the habits of the ,v e indicated a plan by which four people.t The Zafimaniry are ,the of their best men could be beneficial great woocl-cutters, and in appear to their countrymen, and engaged ance, mode of dressing hair, cloth to aid in supporting them if they ing, and house, resemble the Betsi would go out and settle in distant leo. They are by no means so villages. The plan was much dis- clean as the Taiva, either personally
" It shoulcl however be remembered that lovaim is only one amongst a number of Tanala chieftains, and that the northernmost only of the forest tiibes acknowledge her as their superior. See South-wst Madayasca1·, pp. 69, 72,·-ED. t See South-east Madagascar; pp. 70, 71.-En. 64 ,4 Visit to .A1t1,b~himanga in the Tanala Country. or in their dwellings, and the air a feeling of freedom and plea suspicious fearfulness ( expressed surable excitement after the close by a word obsolete in Imerina ness and shady side of forest life. maody) so prevalent among the That same evening saw us both Betsileo was very apparent. With safely at Ambositra. all our efforts only a very small Of the good work done by Mr. congregation could be got together Cowan in administering medicine, to hear the word of God, and we of his untiring energy in journeying left them rather disappointed than to get good views of the country and otherwise. A somewhat difficult take observations, of the absolute road and heavy work for the bearers freedom with which I was left to brought us after two hours or so to work at that most dear to me, I the open country, where, notwith must say nothing ; I can only hope standing its bare and bleak appear that he will speak for himself. ance, there came with its keener T. BROCKWAY.
THE VOAVOTAKA.
R. Grainge, in the account of his visit to Mojanga, published in the M ANNUAL for 1875 (pp. 12-35), mentions the v6av6taka as being new to him, but "common in other parts near the coast." It grows very extensively in different parts of the country, but always, I believe, in sandy places, and near the shore. It is well known to travellers from the Capital to Tamatave; and the soft pulp of its fruit is frequently eaten, though only in small quantities, by the maromita, when passing through the district where it is found in a ripe state. I have heard it called 'apple-pie' by the Europeans on the coast, from its resemblance to this article of diet. The tree belongs to the Strycfmos family of plants, natural order, Loganiacera, and I imagine is the same as, or at all events very closely allied to, the 8. mtx-vomica, or ratsbane, which abounds in sanely places on the Malabar and Coromandel coasts and Ceylon, as this does in the same kind of soil on the Malagasy coasts. Though the seeds are extremely poisonous, the pulp may be eaten with safety. I am not aware that the natives here understand the seeds to be poisonous, but they take care not to swallow them when eating the pulp in which they are imbedclecl. The following is a description of the true S. nux-vomica : "It attains the size of a tree, but is short, crooked, and sometimes twelve feet in circumference, and flowering in the rainy season. The fruit is about the size and appearance of the orange, with a coriaceous reddish integument inclosing a mucilaginous pulp. This pulp may be eaten, but the seeds are poisonous." This is a fair description of the voavotaka also, and I have no doubt whatever of its being identical with the S. nux-vomica; thoug·h both the fruit and the tree appear to attain to a somewhat larger size here than in India and Ceylon. R. Toy. The Antrrnanarivo .A.nnital, Christmas, 1876. 6!5
CARVING .A.ND SCULPTURE, .A.ND BURIAL MEMORIALS AMONGST THE BETSILEO.
O those who have paid attention to the indigenous art developed amongst the uncivilized races of mankind, and are acquainted withT the elaborate and varied ornamentation used by the Malayo Polynesian tribes, there is something very surprising in the almost total abRence of ornamental art amongst the Hovas and some of the other peoples inhabiting Madagascar. If we look at any illustrated book describing the inhabitants of the South Sea Islands, we shall find that every group, and sometimes every solitary island, has each its peculiar style of ornament, special to itself, and easily distinguishable from that of other groups or islands. Their canoes and paddles, clubs and spears, houses and beds, dishes and spoons, pipes and snuff-boxes, are all ornamented, sometimes most elaborately and beautifully ; and this extends to their own persons, in the practice of tattooing, and in the patterns woven into the cloth or matting of their dresses, or stamped upon the bark cloth they procure from various trees. But we see hardly anything of all this in Imerina. It is true that many of the large stone tombs built of late years have some architectural pretentious, and decora tive carving is employed on them, but the details are copied from drawings of European buildings, and can in no respect be considered as examples of indigenous art. I was therefore much interested in my recent journey to the south of Madagascar in company with Mr. Louis Street to diseover that amongst the Betsileo there is a decided and special style of ornament, which is used in their houses, their tombs, and many of their household utensils, as spoons, gourds, dishes, etc. ; and that a kind of tattooing is very common amongst them, in which some of the same ornamental details are al!Jo introduced. I had occasionally heard from missionaries who had lived in or visited the Betsileo country that there was a good deal of decorative carving in the southern province; and in the ANNUAL of last year (pp. 74, 75) Mr. Richardson made a slight reference to this in his paper on "Remarkable Burial Customs amongst the Betsi leo." But no one, as far as I am aware, has yet described the character of this ornament, or the different varieties of tombs and burial memorials seen in the Betsileo country ; and although my observations were only those made on a rapid journey through the 66 Carving and Scitlptiwe amongst the Betsileo. country on our way to the south-east coast, they may perhaps have some interest, and may lead those who are resident in Betsileo to give the subject that thorough investigation which it deserves. I first noticed something new in the tombs in the tract of country between Isandrandahy and Ambositra. Within two or three hours' journey from the latter place I observed that the upright stones placed near graves were not the rough undressed blocks or slabs common in Imerina, but were finely dressed and squared, and ornamented with carving. On the evening of one of the days of our stay at Ambositra, I walked out with Mr. Brockway to the top of the rising ground on the western slope of which the village is principally built. Here there is an old arnontana tree, and a memorial to one of the early kings of the Betsileo. It is a piece of timber seven or eight inches square and about ten feet high, having pieces of wood projecting from a little below the top so as to form a kind of stage. Each face of the timber is elaborately carved with different patterns arranged ih squares. Some of these are concentric circles, a large one in the centre with smaller ones filling up the angles ; others have a circle with a · number of little bosses in. them ; others have a kind of leaf ornament ; and in others parallel lines are arranged in different directions. The narrow spaces dividing these squares from each other have in some cases an ornament like the Norman chevron or zigzag, and in others something similar to the Greek wave-like scroll. The whole erection with its ornamentation bears a strong resemblance to the old runic stones, or the memorial crosses in Ireland and parts of the Scottish Highlands. The north face of this memorial post is quite sharp and fresh, but the others are worn by the weather, and the carving is filled up with lichen. I was greatly interested with this carving, as being almost the first specimen I had seen of indigenous Malagasy art; and I greatly regrett«;ld having no appliances with me for taking a 'rubbing' or a 'squeeze.' Not very far from this memorial there were some others, consisting of two pairs of posts, each with a lintel, like a gateway, except that the opening was filled up by a large flat upright stone. These posts were carved much in the same style as the single one just described, but were not so massive, and were more weathered. The tops of the posts were carved into a shape somewhat resembling a vase. I then remembered that on Sunday morning we had passed a newly set up memorial stone carved in three large squares, with much the same kind of ornament as these posts had in wood. On our journey from Ambositra to Fianarantsoa, at about two hours' distance from the former place, we passed a tomb by the road-side with a carved wooden post similar to those at Ambositra. Carving and Sculpfore amongst tlie Betsileo. 67 I got down and examined it; some of the carving was similar to what I had already seen, but there were other graceful forms which were new, and some of the compartments were like the English Union-jack. But it was on the following day, when passing. over the elevated line of road between Zoma N andihizana and .A.mbo hinam boarina, that I was most astonished and delighted by the profusion with which these carved memorials were scattered· all along the road-side, as well as in all directions over the tract of country visible on either hand. Leaving an elevated valley, if one can so describe it, a long, nearly level hollow on high ground, with hills on either side not a mile apart, and gently curving round to the south-west,-we came out at last to an uninterrupted view, and in sight of a rounded green hill, about a quarter of a mile to the west of the road. This place is called Ikangara, and has a few houses and a chapel on the top. But between it and the road there was a large number of tombs and memorial posts, so we got down and went to inspect them. They were well worth a visit, as in a small space there were grouped together many different kinds of tombs and monuments, and wood carving in great variety. Within a short distance were some forty or fifty tombs, and on examining them there appeared to be the following kinds:- (I) The largest tombs,-there were two of them,-were of small flat stones, built in a square of some twenty to twenty-five feet, and about five feet high. But around them was a railing of carved posts and rails, those at each corner with the vase-shaped top already described ; these were connected by a transverse rail, and this again was supported on each of the four sides by upright posts which finished under the rail. .All the upright timbers were carved in patterns like those seen at .A.mbositra and on the road the previous day. (2) Another kind of tomb was formed by a square structure of small flat stones, four or five feet high, and perhaps a dozen feet square; but on the top was a square enclosure of four carved posts with the vase-shaped heads, connected by lintels, and with an intermediate upright. This structure was about four feet square, by seven or eight feet high, and in the centre was a single carved post. (3) .A third kind of monument was a massive block of granite, from eight to ten feet high, and from eighteen inches to two feet square, with carved posts at the four corners and touching them. On the top these were connected by carved cross pieces, and upon these the skulls of the bullocks killed at the funeral of the person the monument commemorated were placed. Many of these horned skulls remained in their places, 68 Carving and Scu1JJtiwe amongst the Betsileo. ( 4) Another kind of memorial was a massive square post of wood, about twenty feet high, and fifteen inches square, carved on all four sides from top to bottom. There were four or five of these enormous posts here. In one case there was a pair of them, as if to form a kind of gateway ; two or three were split nearly all down their length by the action of the sun and weather. (5) Still another kind was an oblong block of dressed granite, with an iron hooping round the top, in which were fixec!' a dozen or more pairs of slender fron horns. There were two of this kind of monument at this place, and we afterwards saw others on the road. (6) Besides the foregoing there were numeroua specimens of the smaller carved post such as we had already seen at A.mbositra, with the vase-shaped head and a small open staging near the top, on which were fixed upright sharp-pointed pieces of wood. These were for placing the ox skulls upon. Many of these memorials were sorely weathered and defaced, and others were falling, or had fallen and were rotting away. But there was a great variety of carving, and the patterns almost endless, and many of them were well worth preserving and carefully copying. On the road-side, before we turned from the main path to look at lkangara, were a number of the more simple tombs, of a kind that seem peculiar to the Betsileo. They consist of a plain square, almost a cube, of thin undressed stones laid very evenly. In some instances these had upright slabs at the corners and centres of the sides, so that they were not unlike Hova tombs, but the majority were of small stones only, laid horizontally. From the number of handsome tombs and memorials near this little town we judged that it must have been an important place in former days. We stayed some considerable time examining this ancient cemetery, and then proceeded on our way. The mist cleared off; the sun shone out brightly, and it turned out a most delightful day. Our road lay along the top of a long ridge, with a valley on the west and an extensive plain on the east, with numerous hills, and old fortifications o:n their tops. Over the plain were dotted small villages and numberless green vdlas,-the homesteads of the Betsileo, enclosed in a circular and impenetrable fence of thorny mimosa (tsi-ajak' omby}. About a quarter of an hour after leaving lkangara we came to an old fortification running along the crest of the ridge, and called lanjanona-kely; a low stone rampart extended for a hundred yards or more along the hill, and there were many tombs. Indeed we were struck by the number of tombs and carved monuments on the road-side all the way to Ambo hinamboarina. The most common form is the plain square tomb of Carving and Scttlptiwe amongst the Betsiteo. 69 thin small undressed stones, and the upright vatoldhy or block of granite, from eighteen inches to two feet. square, and eight to ten feet high. While the tsdngam-bato in Imerina are all of rough undressed slabs of blue rock, these in Betsileo are of fine grained hard white granite, in massive blocks, and dressed to a beautifully smooth face. They are often in couples, and in one instance, there were two stones, with an elaborately carved post between them. But the combinations of the different kinds of memorial were very numerous : there was something new every few yards ; and all over the plain, near every little cluster of houses, we could see these white memorial stones. South of the Matsiatra river and nearer Fianarantsoa, I noticed that there were very few of the upright square memorial stones compared with what we saw the previous day, and that there were no carved wood pillars at all. .All the tombs, which hereabouts were very numerous, were the plain square or cube of undressed flat stones. The majority of these I was surprised to find were hollow, many having trees, lid.sina, .fdno, and others growing out of the middle, which has a circular opening, and overshadowing the whole tomb, a sight never seen in Imerina. From this it appears that the chamber in which the corpses are deposited does not project at all above the ground, as it does in Hova tombs; and I afterwards as certained that this chamber is excavated at a considerable depth beneath the square pile of stones, which is therefore not a grave, but only marks the place of one far below the surface. I noticed also that there was in most cases a long low mound ·of earth extending from one side of the tomb to a distance of from thirty or forty to eighty feet and upwards. This it appears marks the line of a long tunnelled passage gradually descending from the surface to the deeply sunk burial chamber . .All through the country south of the 'desert' near I votovorona we were struck by the tattooing on the chest, neck, and arms of many of the people. In some cases there were figures of oxen, and in many an ornament like a floriated Greek cross; while the women have a 'kind of tattooed collar, which looks like deep lace work or vandyking. I regretted that our journey being made chiefly for the purpose . of seeing districts further south than Betsileo we were unable to visit some of the larger old Betsileo towns, such as Ifanjakana, Nandihizana, Ikalamavony, and others, where I am told there is a great deal of the peculiar carving to be seen, not only in the tombs, but also in the dwelling houses aud furniture. '\Ve did however !lee two specimen~ of this native art as used in building : first, just 70 Oariing and Sculptttre amongst tlie Betsileo. before entering the Tana.la country, and again, immediately on leaving the forest on our return home. The first example was at a village of 40 houses called I valokianja, about two hours south-east of Imahazony. Here we went into one of the houses in the village for our lunch ; it was the largest house there, but was not so large as our tent (11 feet square), and the walls were only 5ft. 6in. high. The door was a small square aperture lft. lOin. wide by 2ft. 4in. high, and its threshold 2ft. 9in. from the ground. Close to it, at the end of the house, was another door or window, and opposite were two small openings about a foot and a half square. The hearth was opposite the door, and the bed-place in what is the window corner in Hova houses. In this house was the first example I had seen of decorative carving in Malagasy houses; the external faces of the main posts being carved with a simple but effective ornament of squares and diagonals. There was also other ornamentation much resembling the English Union-jack. The gables were filled in with a neat platted work of split bamboo. The majority of the houses in this and must of the Betsileo villages are only about ten or eleven feet long by eight or nine feet wide, and the walls from three to five feet high. The other example we saw of carving used for house ornamentation was at a small cluster of half a dozen houses called Ifandriana, some three hours before reaching Isandrandahy on the way from Ambo himanga in the Tanala. The three centre posts of the timber house in which we stayed were all covered with carving of much the same character as that used in the memorial posts already described, but it was not quite so well executed. The nearly square window shutters bad each a circular ornament carved upon them, much like the conventional representations of the sun, with rays proceeding from a centre. One of the most perfect examples of the carved memorial post we saw the same day, in the morning, at the picturesquely situated village of Ivohitrambo. This place is perched like an eagle's nest on the summit of a lofty cone of rock, on the edge of the interior plateau, and overlooking the great forest, the country of the Tanala tribes, above which it towers about 2500 feet. This memorial was close to the village, and was very perfect, the carving very sharp, and the stage near the top, consisting of several pieces of wood crossing one another, in good preservation, with about thirty ox skulls and horns still in their places. I made a hasty sketch of one face of the post and its carving, which is reproduced in the accompanying lithograph, and will give a better idea of what these memorials are like, and the style of carving, than any mere verbal Oa,·,i:ing and Sculptttre amongst the Betsileo. 71 description could do.* It may be added, that in many cases figures of oxen and men are carved in some of the panels or compartments of these memorial posts, but the ornament is chiefly conventional. Before leaving the subject of Betsileo art it may be remarked that gourds, fifes, tobacco boxes (a piece of finely-polished reed or bamboo), and other articles are often very tastefully ornamented with patterns incised on the smooth yellow surface, the lines being then filled in with black. These patterns consist of lines, zigzags, scrolls, and diaper grounds, often very artistically arranged. As already remarked, our visit to the Betsileo was too short to allow of a thorough examination of these interesting examples of indigenous art. And not thinking of meeting with such specimens of carving I had not prepared myself beforehand with any appliances for taking drawings or rubbings from them. But I trust that this brief notice may induce our brethren in the south who are constantly seeing these objects to carefully examine and describe and copy the most characteristic examples. Indeed I have a promise from my friend Mr. Shaw that he will give special attention to this matter. Hardly anything but photography and the autotype process could adequately reproduce the many varieties of elaborate carving that are to be found ; but still much might be done by a few careful measurements and sketches. Many of the finest specimens of carving in the memorial posts are being fast obliterated by the action of the weather ; and if not secured within a few years the patterns carved upon them will soon be past recovery. And it is highly probable that the influence of foreigners will soon lead to the discontinuance of this primitive style both of memorial and of ornament. As examples of indigenous art it is therefore highly desirable that they should be copied as soon as possible.t Apart from their intrinsic interest these carvings may prove of value in shewing links of connection between the Betsileo and some of the Malayan races, and thus prove an aid to understanding more of the ethnology of the tribes living in Madagascar. The difference between the construction of tombs by the Betsileo, and those made by the Havas, should also be described; and I hope that .this subject will be treated as part of a paper on the Betsileo generally, which Mr. Shaw has kindly promised to furnish me with for the next number of the .ANNUAL. EDITOR.
* Through a,n unforeseen occurrence, we are unfortunately preve~ted from giving the illustration we hoped to have presented with this paper. It must be reserved for a future numbcr.-ED. t Perhaps it might be practicable to secure a few examples of the best carved pieces of timber themselves, a.nd have them carofnlly deposited in some place of safety for reference and preservation, The Antananarivo .A.nnurtl, Christmas, 1876.
DR. MULLENS AND THE POPULATION OF ANTANANARIVO.
R. Mullens's general estimate had no documents or data for D of the average number of verifying his conjectures as to the persons to a house in Madagascar correctness of what he saw, his is about five, but in the case of estimate of what he did not .vee Mojanga he gives it as over seven. cannot count for much more than He gives no data, however, from a mere guess. which this average is derived. It His remarks about the area of will be noticed, too, that he writes Antananarivo are misleading. He in round nmp.bers generally, but concludes that the houses of makes an exception in the case of Antananarivo would cover about Mojanga, where he says (p. 315, "one square mile." Had he Twelve Months in 1l1adagascar), The remembered Mr. Cameron's plan number of houses amounts to 1327. of Antananarivo, published in This is accounted for by the fact the late Mr. Ellis's .iliadagascar that the governor of Mojanga is Revisited, and which is based upon his authority for the number of actual sui·vey, he would not, I houses; and I cannot see why Dr. think, have fallen into that error. Mullens should accept this state I ask my readers to adopt the me:Q.t of the exact number of houses, simple expedient that I adopted but reject the governor's estimate in testing Dr. M.'s opinion, and of the population, which I am told they will see for themselves that by the Rev. C. Jukes, who accom Antananarivo (the inhabited parts) panied Dr. Mullens on his visit to covers more than one square mile Mojanga, he states to be about on Mr. Cameron's plan; and when 13,000. Taking it at 13,000 we we remember how the hill is ter have an average each house of 9!-; raced on every side, it will be readily and this, I think, is much more admitted that the houses of Anta likely to be correct than the average nanarivo cover much more space generally adopted by Dr. Mullens. than Dr. Mullens thinks. I took a I am inclined to cliffer from the piece of paper, and cut it to the doctor as to the total population size of a square mile according to of Madagascar. I think he places Mr. Cameron's scalf!; I then tried it at far too low a figure ; and to cover Antananarivo by cutting while he correctly urges that all up this slip of paper, but by econo whu have before himself estimated mizing every little bit I had still to the population have simply been leave some inhabited parts unco "guessing," I ur~e that he should. vered, and, of course I left out of include himself among the nmnber count the open spaces, simply who have guessed. If we look at trying to cover the parts shewn as Dr. Mullens's route, as laid down having houses upon them. by himself, and remember that he This sU1·vey must have been Dr. Mullens and tlie Population of .Antananarivo. 73 made by Mr. Cameron more than positive evidence to the contrary ten years ago, and, as Dr. Mullens I would accept Dr. Mullens's esti says, Antananarivo has spread mate. considerably since that time (vide On Thursday, Sept. 30th, 1875, p. 48, and other places in Dr. M.'s a day when there was no govern second chapter). Then look how ment business in the Capital, and thinly populated some parts were when many persons would be in at the time of the survey. To the country digging their rice take one part only, the south of grounds, etc., I took occasion to Imahamasina plain, at the foot of ask my students the question, the hill Amb6hijanahary, where ''How many persons were there in l\Ir. Cameron places one small the house in which you slept last cluster of houses, I have this after night?" I wrote down one hundred noon (Oct. 24, 1876) counted nearly replies, and out of these hundred 300 houses. Other parts have houses I obtained an average of also greatly increased. St per house. Among these youths The estimate of population made and young men there are slaves and by Dr. Davidson, and which Dr. freemen, married and single, rich Mullens accepts, was made some and poor, those still living with where about the time of Mr. Came father a,nd mother, and those having ron's survey, and Dr. Davidson a house of their own. tells me that about 19,000 houses I fmther asked, ''"\Vhat is the were counted. This will g·ive about ordinary number who sleep in four to a house, and allows for no one house when you are at home, increase since that time. Dr. David and you have no visitors?'' and from son made no calculation as to the one hundred replies I got an number of persons in a house, and average of 9t per house. The lowest it is upon this numbering of the was two, the highest 30. I was h01tses by Dr. D. ten years ago, assured by many that there are that Dr. l\L bases his opinion that frequently over 40 persons sleeping Antananarivo contains between in a house if there is government seventy and oig·hty thousand souls. business being transacted. To test I dissent from this opinion for this I asked those to stand up who the following reasons :--,-During my had over 30 at such times, and out residence in Fianarantsoa I had of 60 in the room nine rose. All occasion one morning to go to a the rest said they had frequently house before the occupiers had over 20 in their houses, and a few arisen. I knocked at the door, and had over 40 at such times. before I could enter no less then To test my average I waited upon twenty-three men ai1d women came two of the city pastors and said, out ; the house was of one story ''I and another V azaha do not with a garret, and was about 12ft. agree as to the average number of square ! I expressed my astonish persons who usually sleep in one ment at so great a number coming house ; what do you think is the out of one house, but I was assured number ?" One saicl that from that there was nothing wonderful three to fifteen was the number in in it. From that time I have been ordinary houses, "but in large houses led to uote the ovei·crowding of there are many more." The other :Malagasy houses, and had I not said, "From nine to twelve is the 74 ·Dr. Mullens and the Population of .Antananarivo. average." In their houses the them counted, and taking eight night before th~re were nine and only as the average, so as not to fifteen respectively. over estimate, we get 19,000x8= To get another estimate I went 152,000 ; and after five and a half to my general school at Andohalo, years' residence in Antananarivo, and out of 146 houses I obtained and two more years in Fianaran the following results. I wrote the tsoa, I am decidedly of opinion answer in columns. that Antananarivo has a population Column Houses Average of 150,000 souls. I think it pos 1 24 10 sible that there are over 200,000, 2 30 9-;- judging from the great increase in 3 29 8} the number of houses built since I 4 31 9t first saw Antananarivo in 1869. 5 32 7! Until I see good reasons for There were 146 houses, 1316 changing my opinion, I must hold slept in them, giving au average to the estimate I have made that of nine. Thus, I say that allowing the population of the capital of for no increase in the number of Madagascar is over 150,000 souls. houses since Dr. Davidson had J. RICHARDSON,
MALAGASY BOATS. T is well known that the canoes in general use on the rivers of I Madagascar, whether in the interior or on the coast, are made of a single piece of timber, and although they are often 40 feet long, and as much as four or five feet beam and depth, they are hollowed out from the trunk of a single tree. Ou the coast however the people make built boats; and on my journey in the south-east provinces I was much interested to see one of them for the first time. 'When staying at Ambahy, a small custom-house station, I had to go over to service on the Sunday to the other side of the river, and had to sail in a boat of this kind, which is here called sdry. I examined with interest the construction of the craft; it was about thirty feet long by eight feet beam, and easily carried fifty people. The planks, about eight inches broad, were tied, not nailed together, by twisted cord of anivona fibre, one of the toughest known vegetable substances, the holes being plugged with hard wood. The seat boards came right through the sides so as to stiffen the whole, for there were no ribs or framework. The seams were caulked with strips of bamboo, loops of which also formed the rowlocks for the large oars of European shape. The ends of the boat curved upwards cousidorably ; and from its whole appearance it seemed likely to stand a heavy sea without danger. These boats are made for going to the shipping, for no canoe could live in the surf constantly rolling along these shores. ED. The Antanana1·1vo Annual, Christmas, 1876. 75
THE INFLUENCE OF THE ARABS ON THE MALAGASY LANGUAGE:
AS A TEST OF THEIR CONTRIBUTION TO llfALAGASY CIVILIZATION AND SUPERSTITION.
NY one who has read a Malagasy kabai·y (public speech) of the right A stamp cannot but have noticed that the speaker does not venture upon a discussion of the subject on which he is to speak, before he has properly nanala-tsiny, i.e. made an elaborate excuse for the liberty he is going to take in addressing such an assembly. As I am now-without having been at all able to give the time and care to the subject which I hoped to do when I promised to wi·ite on it-going to offer some remarks on two different foreign languages, written in a third, equally foreign to me, I feel very much inclined to follow the custom of the country where I live ; and I will in fact at least so far imitate it as to ask the reader who may feel himself unpleasantly touched by some. of my English con structions, etc., kindly to keep in mind that he has before him a foreigner, from whom he is not to expect an Englishman's English. It is very curious indeed how inclined people always have been to bring Madagascar into some close connection with the Arabs, especially as to the customs and language of its inhabitants. As early as in the 13th century Marco Polo, who was probably the first European who got to know for certain the existence of an island of the name of Madagascar, states that "its inhabitants follow the laws and customs of Muhamed." In after times this and similar statements were often repeated, and even as late as in 1812 the venerable Dr. Vanclerkemp wrote: "The Madagas car tongue it appears is a corruption of the Arabic." There are two circumstances especially that seem to have misled many as to the supposed relationship of the Malagasy and the Arabic lan guages, viz. the Arabic characters with which the Malagasy was originally written (Dr. Vanderkemp states also that he had before him an Arabic catechism; manuscripts in Arabic from the south-east coast have been brought home to Europe ; and even in Imerina some six or seven persons could wi·ite their language in Arabic before the arrival of the missionaries in 1820, which caused the introduction of the Roman alpha bet), and the early commercial connections between Arabia and l\faclagas car, from which many inferred the probability, and some even the reality, of the Arabic language having been introduced into this country. And it must be admitted that the last argument seems to go far to make it probable that the original Malagasy language had been, if not super seded by the Arabic, at least to a great extent blended with A.J:abic words. 76 Tlie Influence of tlie Arabs on tlie Malagasy Language. The influence of the Arabs here is very ancient. As early as in the eighth century they began trading on the east coast of Africa down to Mozambique. And their connection with these regions was not only a commercial one. Through long and vehement struggles in Arabia itself, several tribes, chiefly Emosaids, were driven away from their native country, and compelled to emigrate to east Africa and other distant parts of the globe. It is in itself very natmal that having once proceeded as far as Mozambique they should venture to cross the Channel and come over to Madagascar; and the Arabic historian Masudi (lOth century) tells us that they went over to the island Cambalu, which seems to be at any rate either Madagascar or one of the Comoro Islands. It is from this time too, or somewhat later, we have the tradition of the two bro thers-Arabian or Persian princes-who came to the south-east coast of Madagascar and settled there, together with their companions and dependents, probably the very first germ of the history of the origin of the .A.ntaimours and Zafu·aminis in the same parts of Madagascar, tribes whose original connection with Arabic emigrants is pretty sure, although they seem now to have mingled with the other Malagasy to such an extent as to leave but few traces of their origin. (The statements of the different ancient Arabic writers as to the east African coast, as Masudi, 'The Chronicles of Kiloa,' Edrisi, Abul-Hassan, J akut, Ben-Said, and others, have been mentioned, and the conclusions to be di·awn from them as to early Arabic influence in Madagascar are shewn in the fu·st vol. of my recently publishecl Norwegian work, Madagascar, Land and People (Madagaskars Land og Folk, I Del; Christiania, 1876).
But the influence of the Arabs on the Malagasy generally from this part of the country (the south-east coast) is very small, and scarcely goes beyond some few astrological and chronological terms. The more recent influence of .AJ:abic on the language here does not come from that part of the country, but from the north-west coast, where the Arabs for a century at least, and probably longer, have settled as traders, and made Mojanga their chief place. From here they have introduced several useful things amongst the people, and along with the things, sometimes also their Arabic names. They have besides constantly communicated and cooperatecl with their friends and countrymen on the east African coast and the Comoro Islands. These are the Arabs who are generally known uncler · the name of Talaotra, i.e. those from beyond the ocean. (Alaotra means amongst the Sakalavas, ocean, sea, and is possibly the Arabic Al-lutat,=lutam, and telatam,-the dashing of the waves, the ocean.) Concluding from the historical relations between the Arabs and this country pointed out above one might easily suppose that the Arabic in fluence on the languag·e would be much more prominent than it really is ; and that is the very way in which many have been misled as to this matter. As will be seen by the instances I shall give, the introduced words are comparatively very few, and therefore far more significant by their quality than by their quantity. A good many of them besides are The Influence of tlie Arabs on the Malagasy Language. 77 very difficult to recognize, as on their way along the coast of Africa and over the Comoro Islands they have been subjected to many changes and variations as to their form. Before I proceed to point out the chief Arabic words I have noticed in the Malagasy, I beg to remark that I do not intend to treat them simply, or even chiefly, as Arabic contributions to the Malagasy language, but far more as h:iistwo1·tliy ltistorical documents ef tlie Arabic contribution to 111alagasy civilization and rnperstition. It is in this' respect they have their chief interest, and I will therefore try to classify and arrange them accordingly. I .-CHRONOLOGICAL, AsTROLOGICAL, AND COGNATE TERMS. Probably the very first Arabic words a European is likely to notice in Malagasy are the names of tlte days of tlte week, which even the slightest acquaintance with Arabic will make one recognize immediately, and they have therefore also been known as Arabic long ago. The names of the days run thus : Englislt. Mala,qasy. 1Wodern Arabic. Ancient Arabic. Sunday A.lahady El-ah ad A.1-ahadu Monday A.latsinainy El-etnen A.1-itznani Tuesday Talata El-t'late A.tz-tzalatzatu Wednesday A.larobia El-arba'e A.1-arba'atu Thursday A.lakamisy El-chamis Al-chamisu Friday Zoma El-dsum'a A.1-dschum'atu Saturday Asabotsy Es-sabt As-sabtu It will be seen at the first glance that the form of the Ambic words has been changed a good deal, although it is less in these names of the days than in most of the Arabic words also found in Malagasy. Prof. Fleischer of Leipzig, than whom there is no more competent authority on questions of this kind, thinks that these changes may partly be traced back to Himyaritic influence/' and have not been solely occasioned by the pronunciation of the introduced words by the natives here. The Arabic names of the first five days of the week are the numerals from one to :five, the four first of them being cardinals used as ordinals, and the filth an ordinal. The sixth is called Dschuma', i.e. 'congregation day,' because the Friday has always been the holy day with the Arabs since Muhamed on that day entered the Ka'aba in Mecca, and destroyea all the idolatrous images there. The name of the seventh day is the same word as the Hebrew Sabbatli, now introduced into the languages of most Christian nations. As the numerals are essentially the same in all Semitic languages, the reader who knows Hebrew will easily recognize the numerals here by removing the Ambic article from the Malagasy · forms : A.lahady=Heb. echad ; A.latsinainy=Heb. shenaim; Talata= Heh. sheloshah, the slt being hardened into t, as it is in the cones-
* Especially he thinks that this is the case with the sound of ts instead of t in the word Alabotsy (for Al-butu). 78 The Influence of the Arabs on the Malagasy Lang1tage. ponding Chaldee fonn, thelatha; Alarobia=Heb. arba'a; and Alakami sy=Heb. chamishah. Strange enough, the Malagasy have left out the Arabic article in two of the names (Talata and Zoma), but kept it in the rest. The next branch of this class of introduced Arabic words is the names of the months. They too are easily seen to be Arabic by their form, but to identify them with the corresponding Arabic words is·more difficult, and, in fact, puzzled me a good deal before I got to the bottom of the matter. The difficulty was this : I knew the Arabic names both of the lunar and of the solar months (the names of the latter are mostly like the Chaldean names, used in the later books of the Bible and also by Rabbinic writers too); and I also saw that the Malagasy names of the months were Arabic, and I found the meaning of the most of them, but they differed entirely from the Arabic names of the months. Why did not the Arabs, when introducing Arabic names here for the months of the year, introduce the very names which they themselves use ? Through a learned friend I had the question put before Prof. Fleischer, who, being well versed in .Ai·abic astronomy, saw at once that the words in question were the Arabic names of the Constellations in the Zodiac. But how was it that the Arabs here transferred these names to the months ? I should not have had any difficulty with the fast question if I had at the time known what seems to help us very much to answer the second: I mean the information Flacourt (quoted by Ellis in his Hist01·y of Madagascar) gives us. He states that the people on the south-east coast, where he lived, knew the names of the constellations of the Zodiac, and used them in connection with divination. He also gives a list of those names, ·which proves that they were the very same as those now used in the interior of the island as names of the months. I subjoin a list, giving firnt the names of the Malagasy months now used here in the interior ; then the names of the constellations in the Zodiac as Flacourt found them in the neighbourhood of Fort Dauphin more then two centuries ago; and lastly, the true Arabic form with which they are to be identi fied:- Names of the Names of the Con months in p1·esent stellations of the Arabic identifications use in the interioi· Zodiac, according of these words. provinces. to Flacoui·t. 1 Alahamady Alahamali Al-hamalu=Aries of the Zodiac. (It seems to be the same word as the German Hammel, a wether. The more common word in Arabic for a ram generally is kebsh. The change of l into d is very common in Malagasy.) 2 Adaoro Azoro Atz - tzauru= Taurus. (Tzauru, in some Arabic - speaking provinces pronounced tauru, and in others taro, is=the Heh. shor, Chai. thor, The Influence of the A.1·abs on the Malagasy Language, 79
2 Adaoro Azoro (cont.) Syr. thauro. The Semitic word is identical with the Sanskrit sthuras, Gr. tauros, and Lat. taurus; Slav. and old Umbric, turo;Scandin. Tyr; whilst in the Goth. stius, the old Germ. Stior, and the mod. Germ. Stier rEng. steer], the more original lndo-Germanic form reappears.) 3 Adizaoza Alizozo Al-dsehauza'u = Gemini 4 Asorotany '.Asorata As-saratanu = Cance,· 5 Alahasaty Alaasade Al-asadu = Leo majo1· 6 Asombola Asomboulo As-sunbulu = ,Spica in Virgo, which it represents here. 7 Adimizana Alimiza Al-mizanu = Libra (=Heb. moz' naim) 8 Alakarabo Alacarabo Al-aqrabu = Scorpio ( =Heb. a' qrab) 9 Alakaosy Alacossi Al-qausu = arcus and Sagittarius (=Heb. goshet, and gashat) 10 Adijady Alizadi Al-dsehadiu = Capricornus, hoedus (Heb. gedi, a kid) 11 Adalo Adalo Ad-dalvu = Aquarius (properly =si tula, water-bucket) 12 Alohotsy Alohotsi Al-hutu = Pisces As these Arabic words had their proper meaning amongst the people on the south-east coast, while that is not the case in the interior, I suppose they have originally been introduced there by the Arab emi grants, together with some knowledge of astrology, fatalism, and divination. As their descendants and proselytes went up to the interior and began to divulge the more practical part of their doctrine, they soon found that they could not teach for instance their vzntana system (the destiny, especially as depending on lucky and unlucky days) without giving the people some idea of lucky and unlucky days. But the compilation of those days was to them so closely conilected with the names of the constellations of the Zodiac, that they found they could not dispense with them. And as nobody knew anything about stars and constellations here in the interior, and the teachers themselves probably did not find themselves qualified to teach it, they thought it more easy to keep the names, but to transfer them to the lunar months, since the moon's appearance and course everybody here knew, and still knows. So it was, I think, that we here got month-names, which have no meaning as such, and cannot, in fact, have been introduced here at first hand by the Arabs themselves. I mentioned above that I thought the vintana-the doctrine and the practice of divination-may also have been introduced here by the Arabs. The word vintana itself seems to be Arabic, and so does the sikzdy or divination. Vintana is the destiny, especially as depending on time. To be born under a bad vintana is to be born on an unlucky day. 80 The Influence qf tlie Arabs on tlte Malagasy Lang1tage.
Now the Arabic evan, plur. evinat, means time, especially time viewed as fit or unfit for what is to take place in it, or seasonable. This comes very near to the Malagasy vintana.* I would not however have ventured to draw any conclusion merely from this- similarity of the two words, if the whole of the vintana doctrine-which it would be foreign to our object here to try to explain more minutely-did not depend so entirely on the computation of the lucky and unlucky days, which again proves so closely connected with the astrological nomenclature given above, the Arabic origin of which is evident. Although it was a miserable fate to be born on an unlucky day, it could to a certain extent be remedied or counter-charmed by the sikidy. Sikidy, or, on the coast, sikily, has generally been translated 'divina,tion' ; but its meaning is a wider one, including also the whole practice of pointing out powerf.ul counter-charms against almost every kind of evil, but especially those originating from a bad vintana or from witchcraft, the two supposed sources of nearly all misfortune in Madagascar. Now taking the form sikily, it looks pretty like the Arabic sichr; r is here frequently changed into l, and l into d. In fact the word siclll' could not well appear here in any other form than either sikiry, or one of the two other forms actually now in use. The Arabic word is also pretty wide, including almost anything of a magic character, as charms, incantations, etc., and even legerdemain and jugglers' tricks of any kind. It seems to be akin to the Chal. zelmru and the Syr. zakuro, a sooth sayer, an enchanter ; probably also to the Gr. zakoros, a priest. One of the most important businesses of the mpisikidy was to give people ddy, charms or medicines against different kinds of evil. This word, I think, is the Arabic adwia, medicines (plur. of davau or daua). A certain kind of ody was called moliara; I dare not say I am sure that this is the Arabic mehera, medical skill; but I think it probable. At any rate the word is not originally a Malagasy one. The same applies to mosavy, evil doing, especially bewitchment. It seems to be from the Arabic root sa'a, malefecit, from which are derived suva suv (=Heb. sltaw), mesava, etc.=evil and evil doing. ' I cannot here enter into the particulars of the sikidy, but out of the three different tables of names that are necessary in the practise of it, the first one, containing 16 names, appears to be entirely Arabic, whilst in the two others Arabic names are mixed up with Malagasy ones. I have not yet however had time to examine the subject thoroughly, and even the words I have identified I could not well explain without going into the whole of the sikidy system, a task I must leave for the future. We will return to the months. On the coast they have other names for the months, and even somewhat different names in different districts, and sometimes the same names are used in a different order. Such confusion does not take place in the interior, where the order of the months is exactly the same as the natural order of the corresponding con-
* The fatum itself is in Arabic called manijat ; the portion allotted by it, qisma, and the predestination to it; taqdir. The Influence ojtlie Arabs on the Malagasy Language. 81 stellations of the Zodiac, counted from west to east, . beginning with Alahamady (=Aries) and ending with Alohotsy (=Pisces). Amongst those names of months which are in use in the provinces, several seem to be partly Arabic too. Many ofthem begin with the sylla ble A.sm·: e.g. Asaramanitra,* Asaramanta, Asarabe, Asaramaimbo, Asa ramaizina. This asar, or, as it is pronounced, assar, is evidently the Arab as-salir, the month. It is well known that the Malagasy here in the interior use the A.i·abic names taken from the constellations of the Zodiac, not only as names of the month, but also as names for the single days in each month, using four of those names for three successive days each, and the rest for two, always in the same order in which the constellation from which the names are taken follow one another in the Zodiac. Consequently two and sometimes three days in each month got the same name, and were then only distinguished from one another by epithets, as the firs~ and last, or-if three-as the jii·st, middle, and last of that name. For instance: in Alahamady, the first tlu-ee days were all called Alahamady, -and only distinguished by the epithets just pointed out. But in the south, according to Flacolll't, they had separate names for all the days, besides these names common to two or three of them. Looking into his list of these names I soon detected that they were the Arabic names of some conspicuous stars belonging to that constellation from which the name they have in common is taken. I have not yet been able to identify all of them, but I think that if I had access to one of those old star-cata logues where the ancient A.i·abic names of stars are given I might find them. I subjoin a list of the whole, giving in parentheses the identifi cations I have made. For want of Greek type I must give the names of the stars by writing in Roman characters the full names of the Greek letters by which they are generally indicated. Ooniinon names of the Days of the Sepai·ate names according to .Month. Flacom·t • If we take for instance A.laliamady, the 1-3rd days are all called J b t . f Asoratin ( =As-sheratain, i.e. Alahamady (=Ai·ies), u smg1 Y l beta and ga=a A.i·ietis), Alaboutin (=Al-botein, i.e. delta A.rietis), A.zouriza. 4, 5th days are called Adao Adobora ( =Aldebaran, ,i.e. ro (=Taurus), " alpha Tauri), Alahacha. 6, 7th days are called Adi Alahena (=ga=a Gemini), zaoza (:::::Gemini), " Azera. 8-lOth days are called A.nasura ( =As-surtan (?) i.e. Asorotany (=Cancer), " alpha Cane.), Atarafy, Ali zaba ( =Alezaban=alpha Cane.).
* This one is eveu in Imerina, used a,s a na,me for the Fandroana month (,Ua.hamady). 82 The Influence of the Ambs on the Malagasy Langieage.
Common na,mes of the Da,ys of the Sepa,mte na,mes acc01•ding to Month. Flacoui·t. 11, 12th days are called) b t , { Hazouboura ( =Az-zubra, i.e. Alahasaty(=Leomajor). J u smg1 Y omikron Leon.), Assarafa. 13, 14th days are called, Alaauna, Azimacha (=Azi- Asombola(=SpicainVir- " mech, i.e. alpha Virginis). gine, here= Virgo), 15-17th days are called Adi Aloucoufourout, * Azoubana mizana (=Libra), " ( =Az-zaben, i.e. alpha Li brro ), Alichilli. 18-20th days are called Ala Acalabili, Asaula ( =As-shau karabo (=Scorpio), " la, i.e. lambda Scorp.). 20, 21st days are called Ala Anaimou, Alibalado. kaosy (=Sagittarius), " 22-24th days are called Adi Sodazabe ( =Sa' d-dhabih= jady (=Oapricornus), " alpha Oapr. ), Sadaboulaga, Sadazoudi (=Sa'd-sheddi, i.e. delta Oapr.). 25, 26th days are calledAdalo Sadachabia ( =Sadachbia, i.e. ( =Aquarius), " gamma Aqu. ), Fara alimou cadimou. 27, 28th days are called Alo Fara alimoncarou, Baten Alo hotsy (=Pisces), " hotsi, the belly of the fish; what star in Pisces is here meant is not clea1· to me.
I have given all the forms, although I cannot identify them with the corresponding Arabic star names ; probably some of my readers posses sing a more complete star-catalogue may clear up what is left. The above will be sufficient to shew in what direction researches are to be under- taken. ·
If I had at my disposal a pretty complete history of astronomy ( as for instance Delambre's well-known works on that subject), and could find out at what time the Arabs began giving constellations and stars their special names, I might from these facts also be able to draw some conclusions as to the time when the Arabic influence began to work its way here, and, along with it, when the introduction of these terms took place,-at least as to the terminus ante quem it could not have taken place. As it is, I only know that about the end of the .8th century the Arabs already began studying astronomy and translating Greek works on that subject, and consequently they can scarcely have introduced their astrology here earlier than the 9th century; probably it took place much later.
* Alakaforo-as it is now written-is still kept even here in the interior. The original '.tneaning of the worrl seems to be the impious one, but its astronomical use I do not know. Tlie Influence of tlie .Arabs on t!te Malagasy Language. 83
2.-TERMS OF SALUTATION. I have only noticed the well-known oriental salam (here, .rnlama ), which is however not much in use as a salutation in the interior, but is used on the west coast. In Imerina it is kept more to its original meaning of peace, safety, tranquillity, health. Far more common is arahaba, salute, welcome, and the words derived from it : miarahaba, to salute, bid one welcome, and fiarahabana, saluta tion. The root is evidently the Arabic rahaba, to be wide and spacious, like the corresponding form rachab in Hebrew. "Mirhaban bika," i.e. amplitudinem tibi (scil., det Deus), is the most solemn form of salutation amongst the Arabs, especially when meeting a friend after long absence. 3.-DRESS .AND BED. The Arabs seem to have introduced the use of dress here. The word for putting on a chess is in Malagasy mitdfy (to dress), the root of which is a probably the Arabic ataj, akin to Heb. ataj, to cover with clothes, or, as reflexive verb, to wrap one's self in a cloth, which is exactly what the Malagasy do when they put on their native garment called lamba. This seems to be the Ambic lebas ( the Malagasy like to insert an m before a b wherever they can, and the finals may easily have been dropped), a garment akin to the Heh. lebitsli. 'As to the separate pieces of the dress, or the different kind o;f clothes, it does not seem that many of them have been introduced by the Arabs. Besides, the identification of them is very difficult, as they are changed a good deal as to their form, and sometimes also have got a different mean ing from that originally attached to them. Thus, for instance, hariry here means white cotton cloth, while the corresponding Arabic word harir means silk. Probably there is a piece of history involved in the change, as it is likely enough that the Arabic traders who introduced it here recommended it by calling it silk. Akdty is certainly Arabic too. It is either al-ketten, linen, or more likely al-qotn, cotton, two words of cognate roots, the last of them being origi nally the very same as the English 'cotton,' and the first probably akin to the Greek kithon and the Heb. kethoneth, which also originally meant linen, yarn and web, then a kind of under g·arment or tunic made of that stuff. The Malagasy sdga ( strong unbleached calico) seems also to be the A.J:abic dschuk, of about the same meaning. The Arabs have also introduced here a kind of coarse silk and 'silk yarn, here called sily, probably the Arabic silk, i:e. thread, wire, generally, and especially silk thread. A kind of white calico is called hamina, which is the Arabic kam, calico. There are several other stuffs brought here by the Arabs in more recent times, as sa./1dry, barasaty, dabodny, kiokidny, tsiampunga, malabary, and others; but their names are not much in use yet, and will scarcely ever be more widely known, as the period of Arabic influence is over, and is superseded by that of Europeans. The lamba, mentioned above, was the chief article of dress in former times, and is still so out in the country; but in Antananarivo the wealthy 84 Tlie Influence of tlie .Arabs on tlie Malagasy Language.
at least do not now 'mitafy lamba,' but 'miakanJo,' i.e. put on an akdnJo (European dress). It is strange that although it is by European influence they have been induced to begin using this dress, the name seems to be Arabic. AkdnJo appears to be al-kisva or al-kisa, i.e. a vestment (root kasa, to pl.\t on a dress, akin to the Heb. kasah, to cover). As to single pieces of the dress, liamdma, a turban, is at any rate the Ara bic amama ( ancient Arabic imamatun; in modern, the forms emame, umama, and amama are all in use), a turban; but it does not seem to have been much in use here. As to kojia, a cap, one might take it to be the Arabic esqu.fta, a nightcap; but as the word seems to be of more modern origin and is little known in the country, I think it is more likely to be the French coiffe, wbich is, after all, probably the same word. Sadil,a (a cloth wrapped round the thighs)-of which saldka is only a varied form-is the Arabic dikl,e, with the very common Malagasy prefix sa added to it, a word that has essentially the same meaning. How far ldbaka, shirt, is the Arabic lebab, garment, or el-obctia (plur. obi), a kind of jacket, I dare not say. Kirdro, shoes, and kdpa, sandals, too I cannot find, although it is pretty sure they must have been intro duced here first by the Arabs. Sdly, a shawl, is the Arabic shale. Fd1·afdra, root Jam, a bed, is probably the Arabic/arsh of the same meaning; and kidoro, a mattress, the Arabic turrali, a mattress, with the Malagasy pre:B.x ki. More dubious is bddof6tsy, a blanket ;-it may be the last part of the Arabic huram abiad, a blanket with the addition of fotsy, white, which is exactly the translation of it. 4.-MoNEY. Neither the Africans nor the Malays who populated this island seem to have had any idea of money, which is of course exactly what was to be expected. But, on the other hand, money was in use here before Euro peans brought it. On investigation, I have found that all the names of the larger units of money are Arabic, while the smaller ones seem to be Malagasy, at least partly. All money here less than_ a dollar is 'cut money,' i.e. a dollar cut up in small pieces, which are then weighed when used as payment, just as the custom was amongst the Jews of old, and still is in some parts of the Orient. . . A dollar (five-franc-piece) is here calledfardntsa or dridry, the last name being the most common and of the widest meaning, including both the coin of a dollar ancl a dollar's worth of cut-money, while the fu:st one is only used of the five-franc-piece . itself; from which circumstance I conclude that it has originated in the word francs, stamped on that coin, a name that has been introduced into modern Arabic too, probably in the same way. Ariary is without doubt the Spanish real, which the Arabs, who have adopted it, have made ar-riyal or ar-rial, adding their article. This last form must in Malagasy Tlie Injlieence of tlie .A,·abs on tlie Malagasy Language. 85 be wi·itten ariala or arialy ; but as this looked so very like a reduplication of the Malagasy root ary, and l here is so frequently changed into. r, it was made ariary.% The half of a dollar is called loso. The Arabic nusj, a half, is in careless pronunciation often contracted to nits, and on the east African coast it occurs in the form noso as the name of half a dollar, which makes it all but certain that the Malagasy loso is the same word, although the change of l into n is not very often met with here. A quarter of a dollar is called kirobo, which is evidently .the Arabic rdba, a quarter, with the addition of the Malagasy prefix ki. The sil,djy, sixpence, I am not able to find in Arabic (if it is not the Spanish and Italian saods or saudi, also introduced into Arabic), although it does not seem to be an originally Malagasy word. The names of the smaller units appear to be native words. The word for money is vdla, which is I think the Arabic folus, money, especially small money. Takalo, change, may be akin to the Arab mitzqal, weighed money, from tzaqala (often pronounced tal,ala), and shaqala=Heb. sliaqal, to weigh (Syr. and Arab. tha.kal), but it is not quite certain. But the Arabic mizdmm, a weight, is at any rl!,te re presented in the Malagasy mizana, money scales,-a word that reappears in a month name too: Adimizana=Al-mizana, corresponding to Libra in the Zodiac, as I have already shown.
5.-MusICAL INSTRUMENTS. The word miozika itself may be the Arabic musiqa, music, but as it does not seem to be an old word here, it is more likely that it is the English music, introduced here when Raclama I. got a band of military musicians from Mauritius. But the names of nearly all the musical instruments in use here before the arrival of Europeans are certainly Arabic. Only the drum ( amp6nga, or in olcl times, hdzolahy ), and the native guitar (valilia), and probably also the lokdnga,-a very simple stringed instrument,-are most likely originally Malagasy. Anjomdra (clarinet) is clearly the Arabic az-zamara, a kind of clarinet. Sobaba, a flute, is the Ambic shubaba, a flute. Bogzna, a bugle, is provincial and seldom heard; it seems to be the Ai·abic bouq, of the same meaning. Probably from the same root and nearly of the same meaning is also the provincial Malagasy bokdra. I(itsdntsona ( a corruption of this is l,ipdntso1:a ), a cymbal, is the Arabic tsands!t, a cymbal, with the prefix ki. Sddina, a kind of pipe, is on the coast called antsddy and antsdly, which last form brings it very near to the Ai·abic al-tsolu ( =Al-metsolu) a pipe. As antsody and antsoly are evidently the same as· sodina, they prove its Ai·abic origin by keeping the an, a form in which the Arabic article often occurs in words introduced into the Malagasy.
* N.B. The French dollar or five-franc-piece is among the Arabs often called Ar-rial Fra.nzu, i.e. the French dollar. This ma.y be the origin of the two numes/amntsa and ariai·y in Malagasy. 86 Tlie Influence of tlie Arabs on tlie Malaga.sy Language.
Shells were much in use here as musical instruments under the name of kdrana, kdrany, akdra or ankdra, ankarana or akdrana=Arabic al-kira na=chelys. Several species of it are named, as antse,1a, ankdra (= akdra), anJdrnbona, and angardha ( =angarda ), which all seem to be Arabic, as they begin with a syllable (an-) which here usually represents the Arabic article.
6.-TERMS REFERRING TO BOOKS AND WRITING. I mentioned above that the A.i·abs introduced Wl.'iting here. But as the knowledge they diffused did not go far, the marks it has left on the language are few. Amongst these is tdratdsy, which is used both of paper and books; although in the last meaning it is al.ready partly, and will soon be entirely, superseded by bdky, the English 'book,' now getting into use. It is still universally kept for paper, which is also its original meaning, as it is evidently the A.i·abic qartas, paper, which is also in use on the East African coast. Either this word itself is origi nally the Greek and Latin charta, or a derivative of the same root as the Hebrew cheret, a writing stylus (the root in Semitic is charat, cliaratz, garat, etc., and probably akin to the Greek chara.~so, German krazen, and English scratch andgmte, etc.); it is difficult to decide and does not concern us much here. 8dratra, writing, is also Ai·abic. It occurs in Malay too in the form surat and sulat; but there too it is the introduced Arabic surat, which does not exactly mean writing, but a row, series, line,-then a chapter of the Koran. That this word, and not the more correct kitdb, was used for writing both here and amongst the Malays is most likely owing to the fact that the first and probably the only written book the Arabs brought was certainly the Koran with its 'surut' (chapters). Ldko, sealing-wax, is the A.i·abic litkk ( akin to the Latin and English lac, and the Danish and Norwegian Zak, which means sealing-wax). In Malagasy l6ko is also used in the sense of dye and paint, which reminds one of the A.i·abic lokl.e or lekke, stain, blot. Sary, picture, image, map, is, I think, the A.i·abic tsura or zura, form, image, drawing; from which also the Malagasy sdra, form, figure, seems to be derived.
7.-MISCELLANEOUS WORDS, PROBABLY THE SAME IN MALAGASY AND llitABIC, SO]l[E OF THEM ALSO AJCTN TO lNDo-EUROPEAN WORDS OR ROOTS. In the last case, of coUl'se, this similarity does not prove that such words are of Arabic origin, or introduced here by the Ai·abs. I should like to carry the classification further, but for want of time, I must abstain from it, and content myself with adding a list of such Arabic words as I have occasionally met with in Malagasy, making some observations on a few of them, as I go on. The words I have ah·eady given under the different heads above I do not repeat here. The Influence of the Arabs on tlie Malagasy Language. 87
Malagasy. A 1•abic, etc. Aba and baba, father. (Does Ar. (or amongst children, baba) ab, pl. aba; not occur in the interior.) Chal. abba; in the Zulu-country, baba ; Turkish, baba; Malay pa and bapa. In Indo-European the same root ba or pa (= to preserve) is sometimes doubled (Gr. pappas=papa) or changed into fa or va. Adding d or t it gives birth to the forms pater, father, Fader (Norw.), Vater (Germ.), padar (Persian), etc. Abily, a servant, a slave (a Ar. abid and ibJd (=Heb. ebed), a servant, a term also used in connec slave. tion with the sikidy). Ada, father, and withakindof Ar. vadda, to love; cf. the Eng. dad and reduplication dada; the last daddy ; Hindoo, dada, in the same sense. form only is in use in Ime It is probably an onomatopoieticon. rina. Ady, hostility, war. Ar. adava, hostility (root ada, to go beyond one's boundaries, to invade). Aina, life, soul; root ai; Ar. haia; Heb. chaiah, life. Cf. Gr. ao, to verb, miaina, to live, to breathe, which seAms to be the chief breathe. meaning in all these words, and in many others of the same group. Alaovalo, for ever, everlast Ar. Al-aualu, the first, the beginning. It ing.· According to Mala seems to have been introduced as an gasy etymology it would intended designation of the eternity a parte mean "take eight," which ante, but then, by a misunderstanding would give no sense. by the natives, referred to the eternity a parte post, of which it is now exclusively used. This would be only the very reverse of the very common (until recently) misuse of mandrakizay for eternity a parte ante (as in the phrase: 'Hatramy ny man drakizay ka hatramy ny mandrakizay'), although it can properly only be referred to eternity a parte post. Ambiasy, a diviner, a sooth Ar. anbia, pl. of nabi (= Heb. nabi) prophet. sayer, sage, etc. In the different provinces the form is varied into ambiasa, amasy, omasy, and moasy. The form omasy has led some to think that it was a contraction of olo-masina, a holy person. But the truth is, I think, that the variation of form tends to prove that the word is a foreign one, like ambiroa, which has almost the same variation. 88 The Influence of the .Arabs on· the Malagasy Language.
Malagasy. Arabic, etc. Ambiroa, amiroy, arimoy, A:r. ar-ruh, or; as it must be pronounced in ombiroa, a spirit. the Malagasy language, airoha, alaroa or aliroa. It is impossible to find any pro bable etymology for this word in Mala gasy ; and the varying forms of it point to foreign origin too . .Ando, dew. Ar. an-naad, dew. Angarnenavava, a camel. Ar. al-gamel (or genial); or, with the original soft sound of the g, al-dschemala. This al-gamel was the more easily turned into angamenavava, as this both was a well known native word, and seemed suitable enough as a name for such a ghostly creature as the camel no doubt appeared to be to the natives. (Angame navava means a red-mouthed ghost, and is the native name for a lampyris or glow worm.) Angano, a tale, often inclu Ar. al-gina (pl. al-gani) a song, a ditty. ding a song or ditty. .draka, spirits, brandy (not Ar. araq, brandy. U; may be th'3 Fr. ctrack as used in the interior). well, which is essentially the same word. Asa, work, labour. Heb. asah, work, labour (probably an acci dental similarity). Bdrabdra, hoarse-voiced. Ar. barbm·, to grumble, to mutter. Cf. Gr. barbaros, a barbarian, which has originally the same meaning. Balcoly, a bowl, a cup; often Ar. bouqaZ, a tankard, probably the kind of used for crockery in gene- crockery·the Arabs first introduced here. ral. Daka, kicking. A:r. daqqa, to strike, pound, knock. (Probably only accidental similarity.) :rJina, a fine. Ar. dafoct, debt. Dia, purity, brightness. Ar. zalw, luxit, splenduit; Heb. and Cha!. ziv, Dia, light (?) obsolete; dia splendour; Sansk. root div and dio, luxit, volana, moonlight. splenduit, from which is the Lat. divus and deus as well as Jupiter (Javis) and the Gr. Zeus (Dfos), dialos=deelos and delos, bright. Also the Angels. ti:v ; Goth. tius (cf. the Eng. Tuesday); old Norweg. tyr (pl. tivar, gods), and old Germ. Zio is the same word. Dinta, leech. =? Ar. ditt, leech. (More common is alaqa, a leech.) Dorfo, for ever, often redu Ar. dauro, house, circle, period; like the Heb. plicated : Doria doria, for dor, which has originally the same mean ever and ever. ing, but is also used for eternity, especially when repeated (dor-dor, or dor-va-dor). Douy and odovy, an enemy; Ar. aduva, enemy (from ada, to overrun); a term used mostly in the addva and adavdn, hostility. sikidy, but occurring also in old sayings elsewhere. Tlie Influence of tlie .Ambs on tlie Malagasy Language. 89 Malagasy. Ambic, etc. Fara, children, (a collective) Ar. /ark, pulus (= furdr). Cf. the Heh. progeny. par, a calf, a young bull; Germ. /arr. Cf. also the Heb. bar, son, and the whole group of words from the same root (as parah=barah; Sansk. bhri [Zend, bara]; Gr. phero; Lat. /ero=Eng. bear, etc.). Feo, voice, sound; reduplica Ar. fa'a, blow, breath; and/uh, jih, fah, fom, ted and contracted it be all=Heb. peh, mouth. Cf. Gr. - phemi, comes to breathe, and spoken phasko, and Lat. /ari. words; mifafa, to bespeak, mifofofofo, to blow. Gadra, a fetter. Ax. qaid, a fetter, especially=compes, which agrees well with the Malagasy use of gadra. The root is qad, compedibus constrinxit. Cf. Heh. gid, a sinew. Gararalca, and gororoana, Ar. gargara, gargle. Cf. Gr. gargareion; Lat. gurgling. giwges; and the Sansk. root gar, to devour, and gargaras, a whirl, whirlpool. Of such onomatopoietica several may be found, but they are generally very similar. in many languages. Gidro, a lemur. Ar. qird, an ape. Hakiho, elbow. Ar. ulcis, elbow. Ima, mother. Ar. immu,; (=ummandomm; Heb.em),mother. Jrery, alone, solitary. Heb. ariri, alone, solitary (probably an acci- dental similarity). Jamora, portmanteau. ? Ar. jamadan, portmanteau. (Cf. joraba, a bag.) Jamolca, old name for omby, Ar. jamous, buffalo. o:ii:, cattle. Jiro, the Malagasy lamp. Ar. sfradsh, a hand-lamp. Kabary, a public speech, an Ar. kabcw, news, and notification; kabara, official notification. indicavit, renunciavit. Kalo, a song, a sound. Ar. qaul, utterance, speech, a saying. Kary, a cat, especially a black Ar. chirra, a cat (obsolete). one. Karama, wages. =? Ar. garama, obligation, debt. Kiala=kiacly, a charm for Ar. kayal, a ghost, a phantom, a fantastic protecting and keeping off shadow. evils. Kibo, belly. Ar. qiba, echinus, ventriculus (=Heh. qebah). Kisoa, pig. Ax. lcinzir, pig. This might however be the Fr. cochon, a pig. Kotra, cartouch. =? Ar. 9.artas, cartouch. La, a root expressing nega Ar. l_a; Chal. la; Heh. lo, not. tion (as in mcmcla, deny). La, leh, rah, are roots that Ar. raha, go away; Heh. arctch, go, travel, signify movement: going, and perhaps=barnch (Ar. and Heb.), to streaming, flowing, etc. ; run away, fly. Cf. the Sansk. rah to aleha, going; lalana, road go, and ric, to proceed, wrig, to go away. (Malay, lala, to go, to Cf. also the Gr. rheo, to flow (Sansk. pass;~Jav. lalana, to travel); sru), and the Lat. riuns, and the Eng. 90 The Influence of the .Ambs on the Malagasy Language.
Malagasy. Arabic, etc. ria, flowing; iraltina, being river; Sclav. reka=river. Cf, also the sent. Cf. words as r'iaka, Chald. rehat, to run. stream ; and rlatra, rlfatra, rldana, which all mean to run away. Maty, die, and dead. The Ar. matha; Heb. muth; Syr. mith; Copt. form fdty is treated as the mou (=maut); Eth. mith. How far the root of it, probably because Indo-European root mri is a cognate one of a misunderstood analogy. is doubtful. In Pali as well as in the Still cf. what is said below Malay it occurs in the form mati, and I about the possibility of fa, have found it in more than a dozen Poly fader, fata, being the pri nesian dialects, varying in form, as mati, mary form of this root. mate (very frequent), make, emath, emi:th, etc. If E. Meyer (Wurzelworterbuch, s. v.) is right in making Jada andfata the original root of the Semitic matha, we may :find it in Africa as well (Zulu, fa, to die). Marary, sick (a root, rary, Ar, marda and marid, sick ( a d is in Malagasy from which it could be easily interchanged with an l, and this derived). again with r). _ Ngidy, bi_tterness. Chal. gida, absinthium (wormwood, and figuratively, bitterness). (Also accidental, I think.) Ngoso, an oath. Ar. qasen, an oath. Ondry, prov. aondry, =? Ar. ad-dan, sheep. Osy, goat. Ar. anze (= maz); Heb. ez; Syr. ezo, goat. Parasy, a flea. Heb. paroslt; Ar. borgitz or bargatz. (The root par, far, fal, is probably the very same that we have both in the Lat. pulex and the Eng. flea.) Pilipily, pepper; obsolete Ar. fulful, pepper. now, as the poavitra (Fr. poivre) has superseded it. Rojo, a kind of rice. Ar, rozz, rice. Saoka, chin. Ar. dzalcon, chin. Sandry, arm. Ar. zend, arm (especially the bone of the fore arm). Sambo, ship. ? Ar. shovan, a fleet (pl. of shauna, a ship, especially a man-of-war). Sara, a fare, toll. Ar. adschara, to pay wages, to pay a fare. Scthala, alike, equal. =? Ar. sahala, plain, level. Sola, bald. Ar. tsola, a bald part. Sora, form, figure, used most Ar. tsottra, form, figure. This tsoiira has given ly on the west, almost like birth both to sary and sora. sary in Imerina. Solika, oil. Ar. (Himyarith) saleth, oil. Tm·ehy, countenance, appear ? Heb. mareh, sight, aspect. ance ; almost a synonym with the sora above. Trosa, debt. Ar. qarz (cf. the change of q into tin taratasy= Ar. q_artas), debt. The Injlitence of the .Arabs on the Malagasy Language. 91 Malagasy. A 1•abic, etc. Tsofa, a saw. Ar. saif or sef, a sword. Vazo, a beloved one, and a ? Ar. vadoda, to love; vadadu, vuddu, love. love-song, a carol. Vary, rice. Ar. bor or bur, a kind of wheat. Cf. Heb. bar, corn, and the cognate Sansk. root bhar, to bear (fruit) akin to the Heb. para, to bear fruit (peri, fruit). Cf. also the Gr. pyros (wheat) and the Lat. far, farina, frumentum, fei·tilis, etc, which seem to be of the same root; so also the Welsh bara (barley), bread. Vorika, bewitched. Ar. raqa, to enchant, bewitch; raqe, enchanter.
Many more Arabic words might no doubt be found in the Malagasy, especially in the provinces ; but I have not time to look for them at present. Several of those I have given may be doubtful too. Perhaps I may at another time find an opportunity for supplementing this list. Finally, I have to ask the reader's forbearance as to my transliteration of the Arabic words, as I am quite unaccustomed to write them with Roman characters, and dare not, therefore even hope to have done it in an unobjectionable manner. The Nunnation, or Thanwin, as the Arabs call it (i.e. the termination nun of Arabic nouns in the nominative case) has generally been left out, especially in words regarded as modern Arabic. I wish that some one would in a similar manner treat of the intro duced English and French words in the Malagasy. This would, of course, be a comparatively easy task, as it concerns languages we all are to some extent familiar with, but the work might nevertheless prove both 1n teresting and useful, especially as a preliminary for the Malagasy-English Dictionary now preparing. L. DAHLE. 92 Tlie .Antananarivo .Annual, Oliristmas, 1876,
TANALA CUSTOMS, SUPERSTITIONS, AND BELIEFS. rTrrn following information has been obtained by Dr. A. Davidson from some of the Tanala people belonging to Iv6hitrosa, a village situated in a deep valley at the head of the Miititanana river, and at the edge of the high table-land of south-eastern Betsileo. For further particulars of the place and people of Ivohitrosa, see the Editor's pamphlet entitled Soutli-East 1l1adagasca,·, pp. 11-19. Dr. Davidson has put the information into the Hova dialect, and this again has been kindly translated into English by the Rev. J. Richardson.] . VOHITROSA is about five days' journey from the town of Ambohipeno, which is not many miles from the mouth Iof the Matitanana river. The people are of the same race as the Ik6ngo, who are further north, and those of I v6hibe, to the south. The princes (andri'ana) at Ivohibe come from the tribe called Zafimanelo ; but those of I vohitrosa and Ikongo are of the race called Zafira.mbo. They are subdivided very much into classes and ranks, and it is said that [ the ancestors of] these princes came from across the ocean, they were not natives of Madagascar. · These are the names and classes of those princes who came from across the seas:- Ffr * I find that this fact has been already given on p. :36 from another source ; I had not then seen the MS. of this paper, but it is a confil·mation of the trnth of this statement. ED. Tanala Customs, Superstitions, and Beliefs. 95 and thrice cuts his hair and throws it to God ( atsipiny amin' An driamanitra ), and calls out to the Creator three times, saying, "Listen, 0 Creator! if this person is really guilty, let him be as an ox who butts an ant-hill; let not his guilt be visited upon the many ; let not his guilt rest upon the town ; let it not harm his wife, but himself alone ; if he did it, let him die, and let him be purged and be sick ! If he is innocent, let him be well in presence of the many, let him mix with the many before God, and let him become grey in the kingdom of the prince and his councillors.'' Should the person be guilty, it is said that he at once begins to tremble, to be purged, and to vomit ; and some of them, although they may not die as they sit there [ do not escape, for J the lightning, it is said, soon strikes their houses. If his judges see that he trem bles, but they wish to spare his life, they sprinkle water upon him, and pray thus, "It is a cheat, 0 God, for he has done wrong, he is guilty, we beg for his heart, his life, his eyes, his mouth, his feet, the soles of his feet, the palms of his hands, the hair of his head, and all the parts of his body." Those parts that are not thus freed are looked upon as bad. Should the person be innocent he is sprinked with ranombolafotsy*' to make him well. (3) Tangem-body. The person suspected of wrong-doing is taken to a river in which there are many crocodiles ( voay ). The people are assembled there. A man stands behind the accused, and strikes the water thrice, addressing the crocodiles as follows : "Listen, ye crocodiles, the head (mouth) of this water goes up (opposes the current), the source of this water goes down; the upper part is like the Creator [has the power of the Creator], and the water itself is like you crocodiles. He is given up by the king's land, and if he has done wrong, let the current come up, let the current go down, and eat him up. If he be innocent, let him be well and happy (!io tsara lw soa), luck to (his) children, the many and the king. The king does not deliver him up without cause, nor does he kill for nothing, it is your command, ye crocodiles, that kills him, for it is not mine, says the king. I did not take him in the act of doing wrong, for he is only suspected and so accused." He is then made to swim across the river and back again, and if"he successfully accomplish this, and is not hurt by the crocodiles, then his accusers are fined four oxen ; the swimmer gets two, the king one, and the councillors one. Thieves and secret murderers and adulterers who are not caught in the act, but simply accused, are subjected to the foregoing ordeal; but murderers caught in the act are killed on the spot, and thieves * Water in which silver rings have been allowed to stand. 96 Tanala Oustoms, Sir,perstitions, and Beliqfs. ere made to pay twice the value of the theft, which fine goes to the king and his councillors. · BURIAL, ETC. The corpse of a Hova of importance is kept for a month. His head is shewn (aselw) for three days, he is covered with a red cloth (ldmba mena), some silver is put in his mouth, and rings upon his hands, but none are put on his feet, that being reserved for the kings. When this is done he is put in his coffin, and a month is passed in watching. Suet is burnt by the watchers, to keep· down the stench. When the corpse is taken out for burial, some men carry it in front, while some others keep shooting guns before them, and the women follow behind, and the king behind them. In the rear of the procession there are other men with guns who answer the fire of those in front. On the firing of the guns, the corpse bearers scream out, and this is kept up until they arrive at the grave. A man then stands up and cries out, saying, "This is what you get, but you must not follow after his progeny, his grandchildren, his brothers; this is the one you have got." The guns are again fired, but no one screams. A piece of the cloth is cut, and some one is ordered to cut the left side of the bottom of the bier, and it is thrown away near the grave. The corpse of a king is buried on the day of his death ; his death is not published abroad, some guns are broken and put along with the corpse. An image (of the king) is then made ; it is covered with cloth, and hung up in the east corner [ of the house]. The heads of his wife and children are shaved. After six weeks, this image is thrown into the river, and the same customs are followed on this occasion as described above on the burial of a Hova. Every ox in the kingdom that bellows [then] is killed for the benefit of those who are burying the image .. , .•....•...... , .....•...... , .... The corpse is buried in a wooden house in the forest ; the coffin is made of 'nato' wood [ a tree, the bark of which makes a red dye J. The lid is roof-shaped, and two horns are placed straddle-wise on each side. When this bier rots, a new one is made (ai·dfitrn), and a new cloth is substituted; and all the kings of one dynasty are buried in one house, but each has his own coffin. They put no fat on the grave as was the custom formerly in lrnerina. They think the dead visit them in their dreams, and before a person dies they say that one of their ancestors comes from the dead to fetch him. If the people are in tents, and some person of importance dies, the king makes a speech before the time of his funeral ; and after the departure of the king, a person is sent from the king's house who speaks as follows :-"The word (entso) is yonder, the Tanalct Customs, Supe1'stition.s, and Belief~. 97 word (entso) is the king's. If any fight, or twist and turn [to break or hurt] hands, or break each other's heads, or knock out each other's teeth, or pluck out each other's hair, or hate each other, or violate each other's wives, or say, 'I will shew my guilt here, for the master is dead, that all may see it,' then that person or persons is bewitching the dead, says the king." The grave is in the forest, and is made like a room, whose sides and top are stones, and in which is a door by which to enter in at any future burial. When the corpse has been buried, and the king has ordered the son of the dead to take the father's place, this son with his wife comes from his own house, and some women and men follow behind ; the women sing, and the men fire off their guns six times. The son, his wife, the procession, and those carrying their goods go three times round the house of the dead before entering to take possession. The son then kills some oxen, the meat is divided into lots, and then cooked for the whole company to eat. Then the king in the presence of the people makes a proclamation to the son who is thus taking his father's place, saying, "Behold, you are taking your father's place, and do all that your father has done before you, and do good to his wife, his children, his younger brothers, his relations ; let your government of the people be well, alter not, change not, for you will carry the word of the king and the people .••••••... eat and be full, eat all that people eat, love the relations of the dead, love his children, Joi· if tlie king must die, mucli mo1'e tlie people,* for it is the Creator who makes us die. Respect the old people, for it was the command of God that killed your father." THEIR DIFFERENT Krnns OF Gons. The greatest is called Zana hary ; Andrianaboabo is next ; and the third, son of the second, is called Andrianinginingina; then comes Bodfsy, son of Zanahary; then Andriamanitra, brother of Zanahary. Bodisy is said to be the man-slayer on the earth, and Andrianinginingina the giver of life; these two are sworn foes. Andriamanitra, Zanahary,_ and Andrianaboabo are the supreme judges in the tangena ordeals, and they discriminate between the innocent and the guilty. They are also said to see in the darkness as well as in the light. All these gods (who all go under the name of Zanahary) are each thought to have a golden bed (trano vola, lit. 'money bed') in which they dwell, but no one knows the name of these beds. They are said to be above the heavens that we see. * Tamy ny mpanjaka ny faty ,·omand1·01·0. "Reha Ilahidama sy Andrianampoinimerina aza maty, ma.inka fa ny olona." This is said to be the meaning of the phrase. 98 Tanala Cu~to1n.s, Superstitions, and Beliefs. The sun and the moon are said to go over one side of the heavens, and there is a hole at each side, like a gateway. They come out of one of these holes when the bolt has been withdrawn [by Zanahary], they traverse .the heavens that all the earth may see them, and enter the other hole on the west. When they have entered at the west, they climb up above the heavens, and come out again from the hole on theeast. The wind is said to be the breath of life (fofon-aina) of the dead going up to heaven, since because they cannot forsake the earth they blow about here. They call the stars '1:asict.' The Pleiades, which in Imerina are called 'the little ones fighting over the rice-mortar,' are called by the Tanala 'casia fighting over the rice-mortar.' The belt of Orion, which in Imerina is called 'three to a 1·efy' (two yards), is called by the Tanala 'two to a refy.' THE KINGS OF lKONGO. The following are the -different kings who have reigned at Ikongo : Andriamamohitrarivo, Andriamanelirafy, Andriantsimamala, Andriamandaoarivo, Andriamanitra, Andria norona, Imahery, Imarovahoaka, Imanambondro. Sunmm DEATH. Folamdnta (broken unripe) is the name they give to sudden death, and such deaths are ascribed to witchcraft. Should they be unable to find the person who has bewitched the dead, nothing further is done. The doctor or diviner, however, is fetched, and he consults his oracle according to his custom. When this is done, he gets some black sand, and he makes the grains of sand exceedingly small that some may have a mark. He gathers up those he has not broken up, and puts them with those that are marked, wrapping them up and placing them on the head of the corpse; he then speaks, saying, "He who is caught carrying a cloth (kitamby or lamba) within a month is mine.'' They think that the black sand placed on the head of the corpse will make the person who bewitched him to go about naked. Should such an one be seen or be caught performing witchcraft during the month he is killed. THE DOCTORS OR D1vINERS. Any one may exercise this craft, whether prince, Hova, slave, man, or woman, if they can shew themselves acquainted with (mahay) the customs. Some of the diviners work the oracle (misikidy) and others look at the \ittle stars (ana-kintana) that are said be visible about three o'clock in the morning in the eastern sky, and from which they foretell any calamity that may be hanging over any person or town. They also know from them who will die and who will live; and before the time of their death comes they are able to give them something · Tanala Customs, Superstitions, aud Beliefs. 99 to ward it off and make them live longer. These 'star-gazers' are the chiefs of the diviners. Some others look into a glass, or a white plate, and they say they see there what will make people ill, and give medi cine to ward off the calamity. Some of them divine by means of good and bad birds, according to their notes, or the way they take in flying, and they profess to know whether they bring good or evil. They look upon the kite as being a bird of much evil omen. Should its dung fall upon the head of any one, he is watched as one sure to die ; the people mourn for him, and kill oxen to ward off the impending death. Some of them do their cures by giving medicine. The diviners in the Taimoro district are said to have a large book, and on looking into this book they are able to foretell what will kill any one and what will ward off death. Others, again, are said to be able to forward a too slow confinement; some throw a small empty basket (tanty) above the house, and if that is useless, they rub a pumpkin up and down on the stomach, and others wet a cane and rub it all over the body of of the woman. GHOSTS. The 'ameroy,' or 'amboroa,' or '.faliasivy' (the ninth). The ghost or spirit of the dead is called 'the ninth,' but 'amei·oy' can be used of the spirit of the living, as in the case of those who do not flourish upon their food [ thin persons]. The 'matoatoa' and 'the ninth' are one and the same. Ghosts sometimes appear (to persons) in dreams, and counsel their relations. Sometimes they beg for oxen with long humps (trafo), and at other times they beg for white rice. If they beg for oxen, an ox is taken outside the house, and water is thrown over it. The people. then cry out to the Creator (Zanaliary) three times with a long O (miko), saying, "Yours, god, is finished, and we will kill an ox to 'the ninth'." The ox is then killed ; the entrails, dung, blood, etc. are buried, so as not to be eaten by dogs. When the meat is cooked, they proceed to cook rice. When that also is ready, it is put upon a winnowing-pan. Then some one cries out (miko) three times to the Creator, saying, "We beg for his heart, we beg for (his) children and the women, that which will benefit our children, and our fathers, and the mass of the people, from you, 0 gods. Come before us to do us good and benefit us, that the danger may not come, that the locusts may not come, that loss may not come, that the hail may not come, that the wind may not come, etc. etc. ; let the rice ripen, let the manioc ripen, ~he sweet-potatoes; that (our) enemies may not come, that we may dwell at ease in the land with you, gods." When that is done, they rest a little, and then send the gods home; and this is how they do it :. they say "Go home to your golden beds, ye gods, to do us good here, to benefit us here." The food is then turned over three times. 100 Tanala Oustoms, Sitperstitions, and Beliefs. They then invite 'the ninth' to eat, and this is how they do it : "Behold yours, for you have been seen in a dream, to do us good and benefit us; follow us not, (follow not) our children, our wives; eat of the ox with a long hump." They then send 'the ninth' home, they utter the name of its tomb, but they do not sent it away to the golden bed. THE F ANDROANA ( the Annual feast), called Tsiangeha, or Tsiangai ka. ('The houses close together do not invite one another to eat,' is the meaning of the name.) The people do not bathe, as in Imerina, but there is an unlucky month called Faosa. No one works in that month, no one changes his place of abode, or goes about. If any one happens to be in the fields when the month comes in, there he remains. Al most all children born in that month are buried alive in the distant forest; but should the father and mother determine to let one live they must fetch the diviner. The diviner makes'up an offering to avert evil. The child is placed in a winnowing-pan, be gets some aridndro (an herb), and some grass, and a worn-out spade, some voafive (an herb), an axe, and somefantsikala (an herb), etc. These he fastens to the father's spear, which he places in the ground. He takes a little of each of the above-mentioned herbs, etc., and.puts the com pound into the water in the winnowing-pan in which the child is placed. The child is then bathed in this water. When the bath is ended, the diviner speaks as follows: "The worn-out spade to the grandchild; may it (the child) not despoil its father, may it not despoil its mother, may it not despoil the children; let it be good." This puts an end to the child's evil days, and the father gets the spear to put away all evil. The child then joins its father and mother; its evil days are averted, and the water and the other things are buried, for they account them evil. MERMAIDS (A.ndriambdvinlno). This is the name given to some one who lives in the water. She is said to be white, and her hair is green and long. It is only in deep water, in which there are many long weeds, that she is to be seen; she possesses water-cattle with long hair; and these oxen also live in the water. The people think there is land below the land in which they live, but they do not profess to know any thing about it. THE CovENANT BETWEEN THE Gons AND MEN. When God made men in the beginning He asked them "Which would you like best, the dead moon, or a dead banana tree." The people consulted together and chose the dead banana, and this, it is said, is why they made choice of it: When the moon dies, they said, the heavens and the earth die, and it is the same moon that appears again [ each month J. And so the people chose to be like the dead banana. Tanala Customs, Superstitions, and Beliefs. 101 The God therefore said, "I will plant you as bananas, and let it not trouble you whether I fetch you ripe or unripe ; and, again, even those in your wombs I may fetch.'' The people agreed to that. They think it better to die, if their children succeed them, than to die and live again. In translat1ng the above I have tried to keep as near as possible to the original, but I did not always find it easy, and I have sometimes put the original words in brackets where two meanings could be put to a word, or where the English is obscure ; and have put in square brackets the words I have occasionally introduced. J. RICHARDSON. THE FILAO TREE. R. Mullens, in his description of his journey along the coast from D Tamatave, on his visit to Madagascar in 1873-4, speaks of "sloping banks crowned with fir trees" (p. 31 ), giving· the idea that the common fir tree grows freely in Maclagascar, which is certainly not the case. Some years ago an attempt was made to introduce the fir, but it turned out a complete failure, and I am not aware that a single fir tree is to be found in the country. From the preceding page in the Doctor's book, it is clear that he is referring to the filao tree, which he calls "a fir tree closely resembling the casuarina," and which, he says, grows well in Bengal, where it is known as the 'Sumatra fir.' The truth is, however, that thefilao not merely resembles, but undoubtedly is, the casuarina,_ or beef-wood tree, and is called in the Malagasy Dictionary the camm·ina equisetifolia, which I believe is perfectly correct. Its general resemblance to the fir is quite sufficient to account for its being popularly called in Bengal the Sumatra fir. Its wood, however, is very different from the fu, and is placed by botanists in the natural order Amentacem. The Casuarina are generally considered as peculiar to Australia, part of Asia, and the Polynesian islands. The filao, however, is undoubtedly indige nous to Madagascar, and :flourishes in various parts of the country, though always, I believe, within extremely short distances from the sea-shore. R. Tov. 102 Tlie Antananarivo Annual, Oh,ristmas, 1876. ROUGH SKETCHES OF A JOURNEY TO THE IBARA. HE country of the Ibara has chiefs have a titular supremacy T hitherto been a matter of spe over several others, yet they appear culation merely, both to the mission seldom or never to be appealed to ary and the traveller. Many in case of a quarrel; and to quote guesses have been made in the from the speech of one of the princi endeavour to determine the popula pal chiefs in the eastern Ibara: tion, and even its position on the ' 'Om· gun and our spear are our best maps of the country proves court of justice.* These distur that no accurate knowledge had bances in the eastern portion of the been obtained in reference to this province are easily quelled on the extensive province. The fact of appearance of a few Hova soldiers the people being only nominally sent from Fianarants6a; but in the subject to the Hova power, and western (and probably the most very little communication existing populous) province, the Hova armies between the Bara people and the have met with a stout resistance. provinces to the north of them, The London Missionary Society has contributed to render them, not has for the last five years spoken only an unknown people, but also of Ambohimanclroso as a good a feared race. Added to this, the station from which to work the country has the character of being Ibara, but until this year (1876) no very unhealthy, as far as the Mala white man having penetrated beyond gasy fever is concerned ; and the the Tsi-a.fa- balala, nothing has people of being very quarrelsome. been done ; and the want of infor The first is probably true, as the mation has been the means of indu country nearest to the Betsileo lies cing the missionaries to accept the to the west of one of the highest prevalent idea that the people were ranges of hills in the south of Ma verynumerous, warlike, and savage, dagascar, and the villages, unlike and that the country was wild, the Betsileo, are built in the plain, almost impenetrable, and deadly. often only slightly above the level A short time since some Betsileo of the rice-fields and marshes, and carpenters were ordered to Ih6sy not on the summits of the hills. to rebuild the r6va, or spiked As for the latter point, the number stockade surrounding the garrison of reported quarrels among them, houses. After they had done all involving civil war, which have they could by way of bribing their reached the ears of the missionaries, overseers, and making offers to other would seem to bear out the cha men to take their places, they took racter. But it appears each chief farewell of their wives and families, has absolute power in his own friends and neighbours, as though territory, and although certain they were going to a certain grave ; "' ''.Ny basinay eko ny lefonay ro Avara-drovanay." Rougli Sketches of a Joit1'ney to the Ibara. 103 the fever being ready to take ofl' the highest in Betsileo. Late in all left from the spears of the wild the evening, after crossing a rather Ibara. high pass between two hills, the To clear away this state of uncer scenery ahnost instantly changed. tainty the Rev. J. Riordan and Instead of the desolate appearance myself were requested by the which this part of the country bears Oo=ittee in Fianarantsoa to make in the winter months, we came to a a journey of discovery, with a view broad valley enclosed with high to ascertain the number and cha hills on every side, and through racter of the people, and also to dete which several small streams mean rmine the character of the country, dered. to the west, the banks being and the position of the towns, etc. lined with bushes and large trees, The following extracts (which making a pleasant relief to the were written at the end of each usual sameness of this tropical (?) day's journey) will help to shew country. We stayed the night at what we saw and how we fared. Ankazombato, a village of thirteen Wednesday, April 27tli. Leaving houses standing at the foot and to Ambohimand.roso we started across the south of a high bald rock, rising the broad plain of Tsi-6nim-parihy, quite 600 feet nearly perpendicularly leaving Imaroparasy and Iaritsena on the south side, and called Tsi on our right, and crossing the Ma afa-balala ('not to be climbed by nambulo about four miles from grasshoppers'). In the Prime Min Ambohimandi·oso. This river is a ister's speech .to the Ibara chiefs, tributary of the Manana-tanana, when addressing them at Fianaran rising in a hill south of Beanana tsoa at the time of the Queen's visit, and to the.east of the great waterfall, he spoke of them as those "living and joining the Manana-tanana to the south of Tsi-afa-balala." So south of Iaritsena and north of that politically this can legitimately Manampy. Having passed through be called the northern boundary of this very broad and fertile valley, the Ibara country. In point of fact abounding in rice-fields and the the inhabitants of the villages in plant (batry) grown for the rearing this valley (Ambatomainty and An of the silk-worm, we began to kazombato) are mixed Ibara and ascend the gorge in the high hills Betsileo, the majority however at the S. W. corner of the plain. being Betsileo. The S.E. trade-wind Here we were able to get several blows with terrific force through valuable bearings, by means of the gorge formed by the perpen which to connect that portion of the dicular side of Tsi-afa-balala and country already surveyed with the the hill opposite. So fierce was it unknown tract to the south lying that we had the greatest difficulty before us. The country through in keeping up the tent during the which we travelled the remainder night. Before six o'clock next morn of the day, differed in no respect ing I had half-a-dozen people from from the Betsileo to the north ; no this and the neighbouring village trees, long grass gradually turning seeking medicine, a good supply of brown, boulders, and bare-topped which we had fortunately brought hills. Several fine peaks were with us. opened up in the course of the We were on the march again afternoon, some of them among soon after seven o'clock, and wound 104 Rough Sketclies of .a Journey to the Ibara. along a deep valley between some twelve houses. Small as it is how very high hills, among them being ever it boasts a king and a judge. Kipeseha and Ivaravarana, high We sent word from a distance that peaks that can be seen from Fiana we intended to come and visit the rantsoa. At about ten o'clock we Icing, and then entered, having crossed another pass in a spur of · first instructed those men who the great central range, and came were carrying luggage on their into a valley noted for its strange shoulders at each end of a stick to looking sentinels. At every point so join their bundles that they except that by which we had en could enter the village with it on tered the valley, rocks and mountain their beads ; as we had previously peaks, some of them of most fan heard that it was fady (tabooed) tast~c shapes, rose to a height vary to enter their town· with entana ing from 300 or 400 feet to 1300 slung on the shoulder of one man. feet above the plain. Strange to This custom came from their ances say, although scarcely any flowers tors, but why it was, or from what except a few struggling 01·chids on cause firnt established as a rule, ·no the rocks are to be seen, these high one could tell us. Having sur peaks form aerial nests ·for bees. mounted this difficulty we entered, From many of the crevices and fis and were received by the king with sures in the very summit of Ivarava the usual formalities and questions rana, the natives procure honey, and relating to the Queen, Prime Min- ' the wax with which they decorate(?) ister, and governor,-to which we their hair. The chief, if not the returned suit0,ble replies ; we then only, town in this valley is one at told him the object of our coming the foot of a rounded boulder-topped among them, saying we hoped hill, Itsaranoro. At the base of he would do what he could to this hill is a small wood in which advance the cause of education and are a few houses, but which boast Christianity among his · people, to ed of a large population in the which he seemed very readily to time of Ranavalona I. During her agTee. Notwithstanding that reign a captain of the Hova soldiery nearly all the men were away he brought his men here and besieged prepared a very good feast for us, the place, and not being able to consisting of manioc, rice, fowls, storm it, sat down at the east of pwnpkins,. and sugar-cane, which the wood and starved them. But our men fully appreciated. instead of surrendering the people Thursday night we stayed at Iki prefened to die of starvation, which valy, a village of twelve houses, determination they carried out with forming one enormous cattle-pen, Spartan stoicism. So that when the animals evidently being allowed Ramiandrivola ( 15 honours) entered to use the whole of the village, with the village there was nothing in it the exception of the inside of the alive-every human being and houses. So that the cleanest spot animal was dead. Even now the we could find to pitch the tent, holes in the rocks are full of human without going outside the village bones. In the time of Rada.ma II. into the tall spiked grass, was the present occupiers gave in their nothing better than a level dunghill. submission to the Hova government, All the evening we were visited and built the existing village of with _all kinds of creeping things, .Rough Skefclies of a Journey to the Ibara. 105 not to mention the numberless place was reached. ' mosquitoes that buzzed about and Besikaona ( 'the town of many preyed upon us till we coulcl scarcely stkaona,' an acrid fruit growing in endure ourselves. In the morning great plenty) is situated at the we were visited by the sick folk, entrance of a most extensive and who received such medicine and level tract of country, extending help as we we were able to give. 30 or 40 miles south, and twice that One woman wanted some medicine distance east and west. This plain to enable her to find some goods is somewhat higher than that of she had lost a week ago, and Tsi-enim-parihy, in which Ambohi seemed quite incredulous when we manchoso is situated. It is crossed smiled at her and told her our and re-crossed by a river, the Mena inability to furnish that medicine. rahaka, rising to the west of Besi One man came rather late, after kaona; and after traversing nearly the medicines had left, but rather the whole length of the valley in a than be disappointed in procuring western direction tmns to the south help for his child he followed us and then east, to a point further for several miles, but not catching than its som·ce; again doubling up the bearers he was reluctantly on itself to the south it flows nearly compelled to return. clue west along the foot of a very During the whole of Friday our high chain of mountains, and so track lay through a Malagasy leaves the valley in its descent to desert. There were no houses to the sea on the west coast. be seen, nor did we meet a single After tea, or rather dinner, as individual travelling in either di we had not eaten since 6·30 in the rection till quite late in the evening, morri.ing, not being aware of the when we arrived at Besikaona. existence of the desert, and our guide, The level parts' of the road were possibly considering it a matter of most troublesome to the men, owing small consequence whether we feast to the grass, which is very long, ed or fasted, had not informed us, meeting at the top across the path, the girls of the village assembled and and armed with seeds, i;harp as a sang us some of their native songs ; neeclle, aHd barbed with a little the first Ibara singing we had tuft of hair near the point. These heard, and a more barbarous noise not only stuck into our clothes, but coming from human throats it is also entered the legs and feet of scarcely possible to imag·ine the the men, causing great irritation, word singing attached to. A rmd being very clifficult to extract. couple of those not engaged in the I ventured to walk a few miles vocal exercise (for exercise it_ cer (having only four bearers-all I tainlywas, and would have made me conlcl obtain willing to enter the hoarse in five minutes) stood up country), but I paid dearly for my and danced. Beside the usual temerity, becoming literally covered ugly style of hair-dressing, they with seeds, each of which entering had horns branching like those of by degrees, caused a sensation very oxen, made of the split rush used like what would be caused bya sharp in making their mats. The dance hair brush, and having co=encecl did not materially- differ from that to walk, I found that of compulsion of the Havas and Betsileo, except I must walk on, until the sleeping- that each carried a staff made of 106 Rough Sketches of a Journey to the Iba1·a. polished iron, about five feet long, filled with tinder. For this he had and ornamented with some half-a given an ox, and he said, and dozen links of a chain at the top, seemed firmly to believe, that it which rattled with every motion. would protect him from the power The style of hair-dressing differs of bullets fired at him. Outside the considerably from that of any other gate of this village is a pair of sam tribe I have seen. Once a month, py. Pieces of wood about two feet and in some cases once in six weeks, long are roughly sh!!,ped like busts, the hair is washed, and then rolled male and female, with a bent spear up into a great number of knots, head stuck in the ground between varying in siz0 from that of a them. These are surrounded by a marble to that of an orange, and double fence like the two 'rovas' always round. After being care of a town. These are the presiding fully rolled up and tied or sewn, as protectors of the town, and are the case may be (for these people, believed to have the power of warn like their more civilized sisters, are ing the inhabitants of approach given tomakingupnature'sdeficien ing danger. cies with hair from other sources), it From here, westward, we found is then thickly coated with bees the people more in their normal wax melted with fat, so that when condition, no fighting going on, as cold each knob is firmly cement in all the tribes to the east ; the ed to those adjacent to it, and cattle were still with them, a village all appearance of hair is gone. of 30 or 35 houses possessing, I When freshly done it looks like should . think, nearly a thousand lumps of grey clay stuck on their head of cattle. We were also able heads, each of which when struck better to estimate the population of gives back a sound like striking a each village, and found that the piece of hard wood. It is a marvel average in each · house was four how, having no pillows, they can persons. sleep. It gives 9ne an idea of On Sunday morning we arrived sleeping on a newly macadamized at the Hova town of Ihosy, con rqad. I asked one how she could taining 220 houses, which stands in sleep, and she assw.'ed me that the centre of an extensive valley, without the lumps they cannot through which from south to north sleep well, and that it is comfortable flows the river Ihosy on its course to feel the hard lumps under the to the Tsimandao. This plain is head when lying down. enclosed with high hills, especially At noon next day we stayed at on the west, where we noted two or a village called I vily for tiffin, and three of considerable height. In while our men were discussing their several places the river spreads out rice, I had a chat with the chief into large lakes or marshes, partial and some of his principal men ly covered with rushes and reeds, about their ody (charms) and sampy forming the home of large flocks of (gods). He had one of the former wild ducks and water-fowl. As far as round his neck, consisting of a the eye can reach (llday's journey) piece of wood shaped like a flower north and south is inhabited coun pot, about an inch long, with a try, containing about 16 villages, piece of iron stuck horizontally with from 12 to 50 houses each. ne!\r the bottom. The inside was A king lives in one, Ipapamena, to Rough Sketches of a Jozwney to the Ibara. 107 the south, and another at Ibetani pointing out what his duty is, al mena, to the north. Beyond this though we were quite ready to admit district and to the south is a desert his difficulties, and exhorted him uninhabited between thi·ee and four earnestly to uphold what was right days' journey in length; on the according to his light. north is the same for between one Although the church has been and two days' journey; whilst the established many years, not one east, although not strictly a wilder Ibara has ever entered it, nor has ness, has very few inhabitants. any other church been built for the The principal people from Ihosy Ibara to meet in. After service we came out to welcome us, and to went with the governor to the king ask about the arrangements they to explain to him the reason for should make for services ; after set our coming, and we took the tling which we went up into the opportunity thus afforded us for town to get a meal before the shell driving home the advice we had should be blown to assemble the been giving in the church; and if worshippers. At about 2·30 we promises go for much, we shall, were summoned by the pastor and I hope, soon have a different state deacons to the chui·ch, a poor edifice, of things both in Ihosy and in the built of rushes, daubed with mud, Ibara. There has never been any about 30 feet long by 20 wide, and school held for the children of capable of accommodating from be Ihosy, but the governor promised tween 200 and 300 people. Whe that one should certainly be estab ther the congregation we saw was lished, and he would appoint some the usual one or not I cannot say, of those who could read . and wTite but doubtless Olli' arrival had caused to instruct the children as far as some to come OlJ-t of curiosity.. they are able. He aLqo promised to There were about 220 people pre continue to urge the people to sent; of these we found 135 were build another church outside the chui·ch members. But the less said town, and invite the Ibara living about the discipline exe1·cised in near to come to it for worship. the church the better for the credit Remembering that this town is of . the pastor, a young man who entirely composed of Hovas, we has held the office for thi·ee years, were very astonished to find no but who feels h-i.inself very greatly pretence of teaching, considering hampered by the governor and that the word of the Queen is very officers. As has been found in other strict on this point. outlying places, the church work, Monday and Tuesday we spent .and the work of the kingdom, in talkin.g with the people, min are looked upon far too much as istering to the sick, attending a identical, and where there is a go feast provided by the governor, and vernor; he is almost sure, ex-officio, receiving presents brought by some to exercise an overpowering influ of the Ibara chiefs, who, hearing ence in chui·ch matters, even where, that some Vazaha were at Ihosy, as in the present case, there are came in to visit us. grave doubts as to whether he On W ednesclay the governor sent himself is living worthy of a church worcl to us to say that the Ibara member. We had some serious king from Isaly (that part of the talk with the pastor on this subject, Ibara-be west of the three days 108 Rough Sketches of a Journey to the Iba1·a. desert, and that part to which the then asked me to address them, Imerina Congregational Union pro which I did, trying to point out to posed to send evangelists) was just them that in urging them to adopt about entering the town. Under the plan of praying and teaching such circumstances we felt it our followed by the Hovas we did it duty as well as a pleasure to delay for their own good both now and om· proposed departure. He accord hereafter, and if they were willing ingly came clown from the rova to do their part in using their with his officers and a few soldiers influence to urge their people to as escort, and we formed a proces learn, they would find that they sion and marched out of the town hacl many friends who would be to the martial music of three di·ums. willing to help them in finding By the side of the outer gate, on them teachers. the grass, were seated the Ibara, In reply, the king said that they their king in the midst, to whom had only heard as it were faint the governor introduced us, after whisperings about the 'praying' and the usual form of saluting the teaching, but that now they really Queen had been gone thl:ough. heard, and that he would give his Seated on the grass to the number word to us to bear to om· friends of about 200, each with a couple in the north, that there should be of spears, or a gun and a spear a church built in Isaly for worship, resting perpendicularly in front of in anticipation of the arrival of a him, they presented quite a novf)l teacher to use it and instruct spectacle ; ancl we could not help them. We thanked him for his contrasting them with the half promise, telling him that the next dozen soldiers with us carrying the time we hear of him we hope to same weapons. After the usual hear that a church is built with the questions relating to the health of full consent of his people, and with the Queen, etc. hacl been asked a true desire for more light and and answered, the pastor of Am truer wisdom. bohimandi·oso ( our guide) spoke After this he presented the usual to him about the 'praying,' ad hasina to the Queen in the person monishing him for not having done of the governor, and we proceded anything to introduce the custom on our way to Ambinaniroa, the among his people ; telling him that town of Benarivo, the nearest all those who were anxious to shew Ibara chief to Fianarantsoa. After themselves true subjects of Her two days' journey we arrived at Majesty were also desirous of Mandazaka, the village next to following her in her search after Ambinaniroa, but a disappoint wisdom ; and that the 'praying' ment was in store for us : Benarivo was not of the wisdom of man, but was ill, and as he is still a heathen came direct from God (using An he still believes in the sikzdy drinnanahdry, 'the Creator,' recog (divination), and he had received nized by all Malagasy tribes even instructions that he was not to iu heathenism); and that the mis shew himself to any stranger for a sionaries had come into the Ibara month, nor hold any communication for the express purpose of seeing with any but his own people ; that what could be done to help them he was to shew himself at the in their ignorance. The governo1· window to his own people on the Rough Sketches of a Joiwney to the Ibara. 109 day following our arrival at Man lowered myself with the help of dazaka, and after that not till this the men, but after scrambling moon had waned. So we had to about the sides for some time, pocket our disappointment, and nothing could be discovered but make up our minds to forego the the deep, apparently bottomless, pleasure of a talk on better things fissures, now overgrown with with him, and make for Ambohi brush-wood. Some of the rocks mandi·oso in as straight a line as about bear every appearance of possible. having been at some former time One sick man came to me for in a semi-liquid state, and having medicine after dark iri a most congealed in their gradual descent mysterious way, saying that he to the valley. If the rugged mass dare not come in the daylight for extending 30 or 40 miles in a fear of being killed, because his continuous chain south of this illness was the work of an enemy, were explored, I have little doubt and that if it were known that he that other marks of extinct craters had come to me he would certainly would be found. The name given die. After laughing at him, and to this mountain, the 'door-way' telling him how absurd a notion (Ivaravarana), is most appropriate, his was, I examined him, and as it is, like all entrances to the found that he was very much nearer villages and towns here, most the truth than perhaps he really intricate and in some spots danger believed ; for, as I told him, his ous, and it is also the entrance to the illness was the result of the bottle, Ibara country on this side. and that was an enemy indeed. On Saturday I went on to We retul'lled to Ambohimandro Ivohibe. This is 1·eally the name so, spent the Sunday there, and on of an enormous rocky mountain or the Wednesday following were plateau standing isolated in the again on the road to the south centre of another plain farther eastern portion of the Ibara, of south than the plain of Menaraha which I v6hibe is the principal town. ka. It resembles both in appear Entering from this side we had to rance and character the fortress of pass over the hill called I varavarana Ik6ngo, but its ascent is not so mentioned above. It is the north difficult. It has however, like ern extremity of the Anilihgotra Ikongo, a lake and spring on its range of mountains. It is a conical summit, which overflows in a mountain, very easily distinguished considerable cascade on the north from the hills as far north as Am side. This enabled the people bohimaha. By observations on the during the time of war to w}th shoulder we found it to be over stand any siege, as they could 7000 feet above the level of the sea. plant and tend their rice on the Its composition is granite mixed summit as well as on the plain. with sandstone, and bearing unmis In this plain I found the best takable proofs of its volcanic origin. population I had seen in the Ibara. I found in one spot an extensive The town I slept in, I v6himariim, basin-shaped hollow, in which were has 50 houses and a fair population. f01u· very large and deep holes, This town is the market for the fourteen feet across, and the bot Hovas, beyond which no Hova is tom ·undistinguishable. Into one I allowed to pass without special 110 Roitgli Sketclies of a Journey to tlie Ibara. perrmss10n from Rainibaha, the not having eaten since early mom chief of the Iantsantsana, the ing. tribe inhabiting this part of the The chief came later still in the country. evening, bringing an ox, a pig, and This is a regular rum-drinking several baskets of rice for our food. place, and I fancy that there were I told him what I had come for, very few really sober people when and he seemed anxious that his I arrived there late in the afternoon. people should be taught. Next Besides this, as they had never seen morning, at a great kabary made a Vazaha before, there was a to hear what I had to say, I repeat terrible excitement when they saw ed my exhortation, urging them to us coming over the hill above their send some young men to Fianaran town. They stopped us at the gate tsoa to learn, in order that they of the town, ostensibly to ask the may be able to come back and usual questions about the Queen, teach their fellow countrymen ; as etc., but the man making the the Betsileo are so afraid of the oration broke off several times to fever, that it was hopeless to expect express their pleasure at seeing a them to come as teachers. This he Vazaha, whorn he persisted in promised to do. And after mutual calling a god, though as often thanks and hancl - shaking I left rebuked, amongst them. So that them to return to Menarahaka, what with the rum and their excite where I hacl left Mr. Riordan too ment at seeing me, we were kept unwell to travel on. half an hour before the usual I am happy to say that since our kabary was completed. They then return three young men from asked me to go in and choose what Ivohibe have come to learn in the house I liked, as they were so glad Central School at Fianarantsoa, an.cl that they would all clear out if I by their diligence are making very wished it ; but I told them to find rapid progress. The Ibara appear me a house, which they did after a to have plenty of intelligence, but good deal of talking and shouting. from all we saw we have little I was no sooner in than the house doubt that the population is de was full, in which state it remained creasing, ancl is at present not more till past nine, when I had to turn than a twentieth part of what it them out in order to get my dinner, has been estimated at hitherto. GEORGE A. SHAW. The .Antananarivo Annual, Oliristmas, 1876. Ill NOTICES OF NEW BOOKS. (1) Remarlcs on Writing Malagasy. 12). There is one thing, however, By L. S."'; pp. 12. about which Mr. Street confesses that (2) "Audi Alteram Pm·tem." A he has a crochet, viz. the hyphen. Reply cind a Justification : A Oritique The useful hyphen is his bugbear. on "Somet Remarks on Writing Its very existence is distasteful to Malagasy." By J. Richardson; pp. 28. him; and his crochet is, he tells us, Imarivolanitra: printed for the Au to avoid it altogether'. (p. 4). In thor. addition to the remarks quoted above, We can hardly say that it is with and others of a similar character, pleasure we take up our pen to write Mr. S. gives us several long lists of a notice of these controversial pam words intended to expose the wretched phlets. For many reasons we rather inconsistencies of writers for the shriuk from doing so. It is, however, Malagasy press, and to prove by a only fair to the authors that a brief reductio cid absurdum the glaring review of their endeavours to improve incorrectness of certain recognized Malagasy orthography should appear orthographical rules. In the present in our ANNUAL; and besides this there unsettled stage of Malagasy ortho are, in our judgment, a few valuable graphy nothing is easier than to show conclusions to be drawn from the up the inconsistencies that occur in controversy which we wish to indicate different publications. But is the to our readers. assumption of scholarly superiority The difference between the two and critical accuracy borne out by the pamphlets is very marked : in their pamphlet? or is it justified by the general look and 'get-up,' in their 24 pages of Dictionary proofs which tone, and, we must add, in their accompanied it? "proofs," be it borne conclusiveness, they widely differ from in mind, "issued entirely from an each other. We will deal only with independent stand-point, no precedent the second and third of these differ having been followed but that which ences. Mr. Street writes with a dig commends itself to our" (i. e. Mr. nified assumption of scholarly and Street's) "judgment," and specially philosophical superiority. Thus we circulated among the missionaries have : "If these sheets be critically "for the purpos.e of soliciting criti compared with the ordinary matter cism" (p. 12). No one, we think, who issued from the press in this country," has read the critique of Mr. Richard etc. (p. 1) ; "We can hardly conceive son can say that consistency, accuracy, how any intelligent scholar who has or critical acumen, are Mr. Street's any regard for correct writing can strong points. We cannot but r0gret advocate such a use of the hyphen" therefore·that he needlessly exposed (p. 4); "But our remarks are made himself to rough handling by his merely to show how unphilosophical opponent. He has been decidedly it is to make such an unreasonable worsted in the fight.. Whilst recog distinction" (p. 5); "We have no nizing, however, that Mr. Richardson crochets of our own to carry out" (p. has the best of the argument, we * These well-known initials are of course Mr. Louis Street's, t The "Some" does not occur in our copy of Mr. Street's pamphlet. It seems to have been· added by his critic. 112 Notices of New Books. should fail in our duty if we did not taken at random from books recently raise our voice against the general sent forth by five of the best-known tone of his 'Reply.' tie saw fit English publishers: hourly-increasing, to adopt a style of rollicking smart relic-cure, common-sense, coast-line, ness tempered with well-arranged camp-follower (Henry S. King and argument. The combination of Co.); street-preaching, pocket-case, the lively cricketer and the Malagasy well-organized, prayer-books, founda scholar and author is amusing, but tion-stone (Triibner and Co.); south does not coincide with one's sense of west, ternate-leaved, broad-leaved, the becoming. We fear his words clay-slate, rock-basins (Murray); must have wounded and offended. hinge-line, hatchet-shaped, so-called, His case would be as strong, nay soft-bodied (Blackwood and Sons) ;. stronger, if he had been contented trumpet-tongued, pole-star, co-ordi with argument; and we are sorry on nate, cricket-ball (Macmillan). Sure that account too that he should have ly we need not make up our minds lessened the force of his reasoning by just yet to "join no words which awakening a feeling of sympathy for admit of separation." Mr. Street his opponent. Further, we pi:otest complains that in Malagasy "hyphens against the intense egotism of the are introduced for the purpose of whole composition. The 'cock-a indiclLting the grammatical construc doodle-doodle' spirit of it irritates the tion of a phrase." Is not this equally reader. true of many of the English examples We have not space to enter fully just given ? and are there not hun into the various questions raised and dreds of such combinations? Where discussed in these two pamphlets, but the connection of thought is close, and a few of them need a word or two. a compound noun or adjective, etc. is On page 1 Mr. Street treats us to the formed, writers are naturally led to following dictum: ''If we were to lend join two words, either completely, or our influence in favour of theopposite with a hyphen. Mr. Street gives us extreme to that which is followed by another rule (p. 3), and would have the unlearned, and join no words us "avoid the use of hyphens between which admit of separation, we should nouns and adjectives, unless there be certainly cultivate a more correct an elision of a letter, an elision of taste." What does this mean? One is one of the mutes" [falsely so-called], rather startled to hear that following "or a change of letters in the compo an extreme can be considered an evi sition of the words.'' This rule is dence of correct taste. But apart from worth thinking over. But let it be that, what is it that Mr. Street advo borne in mind that the question cates when he speaks of joining no resolves itself into this: Is closeness words that admit of·separation ? Does of thought, or are derivation and he mean that he would write head change of letters, to be the guide ? strong 'head strong,.' hardware 'hard An author writes the word saro ware,' oversight 'over sight,' fourfold bidy, and a moment after writes mora 'four fold,' masoandro 'maso andro,' vidy. If he has used these compound ranomaso 'rano maso,' and so on ? Or adjectives as .limiting a noun (e.g. is it merely the offending hyphen 'zavatra saro-bidy io,' 'zavatra mora that he has in view? But even were vidy io') he is al.most unconsciously this the case, he. is far too sweeping led by the exact similarity of thought in his assertion. The hyphen has to join, either with or without perhaps been used somewhat freely in hyphens, both of these compound Malagasy, but it is not likely to be adjectives. He does not thlnk of discarded altogether, either in Ma derivation, but solely of the gram lagasy or in English,-our friend's matical connection. But as it has been pamphlet notwithstanding. The fol found almost impossible to employ' lowing examples of its use have been hyphens in all these cases, and a slight Notices of New Books. Ila change of construction necessitating usedbeforethese passive verbs and the the resolution of such compounds ho before the root is no mere fancy. into their simple form, the L. M. S. We may not have arrived at a distinct Press has for some time discontinued conception of this ho as we have with this use of the hyphen. Mr. Street's the discriminative no; but doubtless pamphlet will, we think, be useful in we shall eventually. Mr. Street rousing attention to our employment means to be crushing about voa and of hyphens, although he has utterly taja (p. 9); but Mr. Richardson failed to follow his own rules in the effectually answers him. It is a pity sheets of the Dictionary he has given Mr. S. did not carry his own illus us. (See Mr. R.'s Critique; pp. 4-7.) tration a little farther to convince Were we not obliged to make our himself either that he was wrong, or remarks brief we should feel tempted that he ought-to separate other to write a little fully on what may be prefixes. He gives us an explanation called the Ho, no, voct, and tafa con of the distinction between voa and troversy. But it is really not required. tafa (in reality the difference between We specially commend to the careful a transitive and an intransitive verb), consideration of Mr. Street and others and then furnishes us with an illus (if there be any) who seriously doubt tration, which we take the liberty of the wisdom of our established prac extending a little:- tice, the part of Mr. Richardson's Voa lentilca izy. It is sunk (i.e., by pamphlet (pp. 21-27) which treats some one). of this. In our opinion this is Tafa lentilca izy. It is sunk (i.e., the best portion of it, and is in of its own accord). the main unanswerable. Those who have been here long enough to Mi lentika izy. It sinks (i.e., of its remember (or any one who will own accord). carefully compare former publications A lentilca izy. It is being sunk with present) can scarcely hesitate to (i.e., by some one). testify to the great gain that has The last two are our addition, been secm·ed in joining the time but Mr. Street's closing words are as augments ho and no to the passive true of them as of the first two: "We derivative verbs which require them think words with a meaning so clearly for making their past and future. defined partake more of the nature We regard them simply as fuller of auxiliaries than inseparable prefix 0 forms, required by verbs beginning es." Our judgment would be the with consonants, of the n and h, exact reverse of this. which no one ever dreams of separa We must stop here. Some probably ting from verbs beginning with vowels. exclaimed when they had read the When our present rule was adopted two pamphlets: "What a storm in a the difference between the discrim teapot !" or : "Much ado about inative particle no and this time nothing !" We have another illustra augment no was but little understood; tion of the old proverb : "People and we query whether those who who live in glass houses should n'ot think that what is called the double throw stones." It is very difficult no is incorrect understand it even to be consistent. Nor is it any now. The usage of these two no's has disgrace to us to be still somewhat nothing whatever in common, and it unsettled in our Malagasy orthogra- · is more than possible that their like phy. Even in English considerable ness is a mere accident, just as much variety is to be found. There are as ny the article and ni ( often incor many points we are not yet prepared rectly written by the Malagasy ny) to settle, but our orthography is the past verbal prefix of a class of gradually improving. Of that there active· verbs. The distinction Mr. can be little doubt. Tentative efforts Richardson. points out between the ho at improvement are useful, even 114 Notices of New Books. though experience may show that a what this large island is like, to get return to former usage is desirable. an intelligent idea of its physical The lessons to be learnt from these features from north to south and from pamphlets we venture to summarize east to west; and we need also faith as follows : Firstly, Do not pride ful accounts of the real state of the yourself on writing Malagasy with people. perfect consistency. Secondly, Do not Mr. Sibree has earned our best be too hard on your adversary; - "Aza thanks for giving us a pamphlet manao : Tano, fa azo ; tsindrio, fa which meets all these wants. Having resy." Thirdly, Abide by the now adopted the journal style, a little long-established practice of treating unavoidable sameness slightly roars ho and no before passive derivatives the interest of the narrative. But the as time-augments, and voa and. tafa story ou the whole is vigorously and as simple verbal prefixes : trusting to well told from beginning to end. growing acquaintance with grammar The reader is treated to some telling and to time for correctness in writing. and vivid descriptions of scenery Fourthly, Be more sparing in the use ( e.g., the mountain-locked plain north of hyphens. of Ambohimandroso, p. 3, the hills bouuding it, p. 4, the descent to lvo (3) South-East Madagascar. Being hitrosa, p. 11, etc. etc.) ; nor can we Notes of a Journey tl1rough the Tanala, complain that the amusing and face 1 aimoro, and Tu.isdlca Countries, in tious are omitted ( vide the comedy per June and July, 1876. By James Sibree, formed by our 'distinguished foreign Jun., Missionary of the L. M. S.; ers' at Iolomaka, p. 9, the account pp. 81, with a Map. Antananarivo: of the lively old governor atAnkarana, A. Kingdon. his grand banquet, and his buxom A very hearty ·welcome is due to wives, pp. 53-55, and others). We are this valuable contribution to our struck too with the delightful naivete knowledge of Madagascar. Euro with which the charms of 'village peans living in lmerina have as it rule belles' and 'dark beauties' 'll,re spoken a vr:,ry imperfect conception of the of. Well might the 'comely' Tana.la condition of the island generally ; and 'lassie' 'seem to know' t4at she was although we are gradually becoming good-looking, when even the eyes of much better acquainted with one or the passing Vazaha were constrained two of the larger and more important to render homage to her fascinations! tribes living at a distance from the If we had room we could point out • Capital (such as the Betsileo, the many things worthy to be remembered Betsimisaraka, and the Sibanaka), in these "Notes." Mr. Sibree seems there are many tribes of which we carefully to have observed the course as yet know next to nothing. Such of each river he and his companion journeys as that here recorded will came to ; he made good use of his add to our information, especially if aneroid; and gives us a few impor those who undertake them travel tant contributions concerning the with their eyes open to see, and their geological formation of the country. wits at work to describe, the country His references to the flora of different they traverse. Bare itineraries, telling districts will be helpful to those of us where the travellers had their us interested in botany. It is to be salcJjo, how many hours they were in hoped that Mr. S. will test the cor their palanquins, where they stayed rectness of his identification of the for the night, and what they had for vahcindahy (p. 7) with the "plaut supper, are not the desideratum; nor common in South Africa." Ge'ologists should missionaries rest content with aud naturalists appear to be coming giving their readers nothing beyond to the conclusion that Madagascar, simple records of work accomplished though so near to Africa, has not been in their journey. We want to know connected with it in its present for- Notices of New Books. 115 mation ; and all facts bearing either be truly and forcibly urged that the one way or the other should be noted. conquered tribes distrust the Hovas. A charge of indifference about such They do, and probably will for some questions as these is often brought time to come.· The Hovas are reaping against missionaries. We sincerely what they sowed. . They cruelly hope that this will never have to be wronged the people they subdued in made against missionaries in Mada previous reigns ; and much oppression gascar. A good example has been set is common still. But on the other us in these pages, which others will do hand, wherever the Hovas go they well to imitate. The map and the co now take a little education and some pious letter-press have given us much thing of Christianity too ; and, with reliable information about South the gro,ving intelligence of the Capital east Madagascar, of which six months and its neighbourhood, with the more ago we knew scarcely anything.· humane and enlightened policy of the We can only briefly hint at one or present sovereign and her prime min two thoughts that occurred to us ister, with the healthy earnestness of while reading the pamphlet. The the leading spirits in the native Sunday at I vohitrosa is very sugges churches of Imerina, which is rousing tive. How the primitive simplicity them to active effort to give the and barbarity of the Malagasy still gospel to the entire isla.nd, we cannot prevails among the far-off tribes; resist the conviction that in following how gradually even these rude sava in the footsteps of the dominant ges are finding that their hated foes Hovas, in working through them and the Hovas are in possession -of a with them, we shall be obeying the religion better than their own poor dictates of prudence and the gui superstitions ; how ready they are dance of God's providence. to listen to the foreigner who comes to visit them in their secluded forests; (4) Jos~ph S. Sewell and his Worlc how naturally paganism and Chris in Maclagasccir. June 1861-June 187{!. tianity get mingled in the thoughts By H. E. C. ; pp. 19. (Printed for and conduct of peoples just emerging private circulation.) Antananarivo : from darkness to light (see the account A. Kingdon. of the morning service and the after One of the first of the missionaries noon dancing, pp. 15, 16) :-these and sent to Madagascar by the Friends' similar reflections were suggested. Foreign Mission Association, Mr. Again, one cannot but see that a great Joseph S . Sewell will long be held work might be done by missionaries in affectionate remembrance by the stationed at Ambohipeno, or at some Christians of Antananarivo and its other centre in the Matitanana Valley. neighbourhood. During his nine No one, we suspect, was prepared to years' residence in this country Mr. hear of such a populous district Sewell did very much for the cause existing out of lmerina. Something of education, not only in the schools ought to be done without delay for he founded, but in the number of this part of the island. Suitable valuable books he prepared for the native agents should be sent at once; .. use of the people, particularly for and hereafter a couple of European the younger and more intelligent missionaries might join them. In portion of them. But beyond this, our opinion the wisest course for us his '.vise, judicious, and conciliatory to pursue will be to follow the Hovas, spirit was manifested in numberless making the larger garrison towns the ways ; and it was very much owing base of operations. It inay indeed to his liberal and large-hearted views 1 *The Isan-Enim-bolami, we are glad to say, has, by a resolution at its recent meet. ing, decided to do this if it be practicable. 116 Notices of New Books. that a m1ss1on of the Society . of heroes are unmitigated scamps, and Friends has for so long been enabled have none of the redeeming qualities to work in thorough harmony with which were attributed to the Robin that of the London Missionary Hoods, Little Johns, Rob Roys, and Society. While holding firmly to others of European countries. the special views of his own religious body Mr. Sewell saw that these need (6) Malagasy Customs: Native Ac not be so prominently put forward counts of the Circumcision, the Tangena, as to cause any divisions between the Marriage and Bu1·ial ceremonies, etc. Christian people of this country;. and Collected and edited by W. E. Cousins, accordingly there has been no separa Missionary of the L. M. S. ; pp. 56. tion, even of the slightest kind, between .Antananarivo : L. M. S. Press. the congregations under the care of This is the third of a series of books the F. F. M. A. and those super which we owe to Mr. W. E. Cousins, intended by the L. M. S. missionaries. and which are of equalinterest to those This pamphlet gives much interesting who wish to understand the customs information as to Mr. Sewell's work of the Malagasy and to those who in this country, and the views which are studying their language. In he held as to how the Friends' Mission conjunction with -Mr. Parrett, Mr. here should be carried on ; and on Cousins published in 1871 a collection the latter account especially it is well of Malagasy Proverbs ; this was that much of what is here recorded followed in 1873 by a series of Mala should have been preserved in gasy Kabiry, or public speeches, a permanent form; although we fancy chiefly by the former kings of lmeri that Mr. Sewell himself will be the na; andagain, justbeforehisdeparture least pleased of all who may read its for England, Mr. Cousins has given pages. We will only add that we us a third instalment of papers which doubt not that Mr. Sewell, although he has been industriously collecting no longer working in Madagascar will for several years past. Many of the still bo working /01· it in England, customs here described are fast falling and will not allow the interest of his into disuse, and will soon be ouly a co-religionists to grow cold in the matter of history; Mr. Cousins has work they have now carried on for therefore done good service' in print nearly ten years in this country. ing these interesting papers. Besides the curious ceremonies used at the (5) llcotofetsy sy Imdhalcd, sy Tan Circumcision, at the administration tara JJtfalagasy hafa lcoa. Nangonina of the Tangena (poison) ordeal, and sy nalaha-dRabezandrina ; pp. 42. at Marriages and Funerals, there are (Printed for private circulation.) An also given the forms of oath formerly tananarivo : John Parrett. used in the solemn agreement of This little book is a collection of friendship by blood-drinking, called curious native stories, chiefly narrating Fati-dra; the different things and the knaveries of two Malagasy rogues, acts Fady or tabooed by the chief Ilrntofetsy and lmahaka. These are idols ; the various things used as a interesting as exhibiting the habits piaculum to avert evil or to atone for and manners of a former age, and wrong - doing (the Faditra); the are also valuable to the student of ceremony of taking the Oath of . the language as affording examples .Allegiance by spearing a calf and both of words and idioms which in striking water; the customs at the many cases are obsolete or obsoles Fandroana or New Year's festival; cent. .Although the story of the two together with the different forms of rogues is a very popular one, and is Salutation in use ; etc. We hope to found with nmuy variations and give translations from some of these additions in different parts of Imeri in a futlU'o number of the ANNUAL, na, it may be remarked that the Noti"ces of New Books. 117 (7) Publications of the Malagasy a table of the contents. The whole Follc-Lore Society. No 1.-January, book will probably extend to 300 1877. (For private circulation only.) pages, 12mo, and comprises the fol Antananarivo : John Parrett. lowing: Hain-teny lavalava (adages, The Prospectus of this publication short stories, repartees), Hain-teny informs us that "this Society has been fohifohy (shorter pieces, much like formed for the purpose of collecting proverbs), Fctrnpanononana (riddles, and printing the 'Folk-Lore' of Ma conundrums),Sa.fidy(''choosewhatyou dagascar. Each member is expected will have," followed by two things to forward to the publisher, from expressed in figurative language), time to time, any specimens of the Iliran'ny Ntaolo (songs of the ancients), Native Literature of interest that Hain,r;om-pitenenana ( flowers of speech, may come under his notice, such as oratorical flourishes), Filalaovan' an Tantarct (tales), Fanoharana {fables, kizy (children's play-songs), Sampan allegories), Ohabolana (proverbs), javati-a mahagaga (wonderful tales, Kabary (public speeches), etc. etc. 'bogey' stories), Angano (fables), and A committee has been formed for the Fanampiny (miscellaneous pieces). It purpose of editing the above work ; will be seen from the above that the and a monthly number, consisting of editor has been industriously collect 24pp. 12mo, well printed on . good ing a great deal that is curious and paper, with a cover, will be issued to inti;resting in the traditional stories, each member." This work, judging songs, and sayings of both Imerina from the first part, promises to be and Betsileo. We hope that Mr. one of·great interest. The two stories Dahle with favour us with specimens contained in it are each a I.rind of from his stores, translated into Eng fairy tale, in which the heroes, lish, for future numbers of the who rejoice in the unconscionably ANNUAL. long names of Andrianarisainabonia masoboniamanoro, and lfaralahitsitia REVISION OF THE MALAGASY DIBLE, nininamany, respectively, have some wonderful adventures. The former, (9) Report of the Revision Committee with whose birth some strange pro for the year 1875; with the Revised digies are connected, has a wonder Vei·sion of the remaining chapters of Ge working spear, which, when stuck nesis (xlv.-1.) and the whole o.f Exodus. into the ground, brings to pass any (10) Supplement to the Report for thing its owner desires, much like the 1875; containing the Revised Version lamp of Aladdin in the Arabian of the Gospel of Matthew. Antanana Nig-hts. The other story is one of rivo: L. M. S. Press. enchanted grounds, where the refrain Within the past year the Committee ing from touching or tasting brings appointed to revise the Malagasy favour and good looks, while the Bible have placed the emended por breach of the laws of the place causes tion of their work before the Christian the offenders to ba changed into public. It has therefore become a frogs, lizards, and serpents. We shall matter for legitimate criticism, i.nd look with interest for the succeeding the present ANNUAL would be in numbers of this publication. complete without some notice of what has been done. Passing by the (8) 11[alagasy Follc-Lore. Collected superior excellence of the new version, and edited by Rev. L. Dahle, N. M. S. which must be admitted by all who Antananarivo : A. Kingdon. aro familiar with the different efforts The editor of this work, which is not which have been made to give the yet completed, has kindly favoured Malagasy a faithful translation of us with some of the sheets of this the Sacred Scriptures, this brief sketch collection of curious native stories, must be confined to its more apparent fables, proverbs, etc., and also with defects. A cursory comparison with 118 Notices of New Books. the various readings given by our ko indray -aminareo izany ao amy ny predecessors will be sufficient to fanjakany ny Raiko." Messrs. Cou demonstrate the thoroughness with sins give us : ''Hatramy ny andro vao which the Committee has gone about hisotroako izany indray aminareo ao its work, so that it assumes more the amy ny fanjakany ny Raiko." The appearance of an independent trans Bible Revision Committee render lation than a fresh revision. In this these words: "Mandra-pihavin' izay respect the Committee seems to have andro hiarahako misotro azy tonga not given a strict adherence to the vaovao aminareo aoamyny fanjakan' object for which it was appointed: ny Raiko." It is questionable whether to 1·evise the Malagasy Bible, not to there be a native in the island who make a fresh translation. In the text can tell what the phrase "tonga prepared by some of those who have vaovao" in this connection can mean. preceded us, the tendency to ignore Of the four different readings perhaps all that had been previously done is the least to be preferred is the one now very marked, and this appears to given by the Bible Revision Commit have been the fruitful source of many tee. Again, in Matt. xxvi. 31, all who a grievous error. It is incredible have preceedecl us have followed the that a company of serious right reading of our English version, ''Ho minded men, with the help of native tafintohina amiko," "shall be offended Christians, should sit down to make because of Me." But our revised a complete translation of the whole reading is, "Ho tafintohina noho ny Bible, and so render every verse from amiko," which appears rather to Genesis to Revelation as to produce mean, "Shall be offended because of nothing worth retaining. Yet in the some who are ,vith Me." In Matt. revision made in England (Griffiths's) xxiii. 24, all who have preceded us every verse in the whole Bible has use the phrase "tantavaninareo ny been altered, with the exception of moka," "strain at a gnat." Our two, one in the Old Testament and revised reading gives us "tantavani one in the New; with what advan nareo izay misy moka," "strain that tage is patent to every student of which contains gnats." Nor do we Malagf!,sy. Although we may be in find in Matt. xviii. 35 an improved little danger of making such blunders grammatical construction: "Dia na as are to be found in Gen. iii. 6, 13, naovany loka no fizarany ny fita or in John ix. 1, our desire for tho fiany." To extend these invidious roughness and an extremely literal comparisons beyond that which is rendering of the text have given our sufficient to make the matter clear work a baldness which might have would be only to cast disparagement been easily avoided at _no expense of on a noble work which is more worthy faithfulness. There are several points of prai$e than adverse criticism. to which attention might be called to 2.-1'he Choice of Words. In Matt. elucidate these remarks, which, for viii. 11, all who have preceded us the sake of brevity, must be limited have followed the reading of our to the Gospel by Matthew. English version : ''Many shall come !.-Grammatical Constructlon. In the from the east and west, and shall sit version given us by the early mission down with Abraham, and Isaac, and aries, we read at Matt. xxvi. 29: ".A:ry Jacob, in the ldngdom of heaven." izaho milaza amy nareo, fa izaho tsy But in our desire for a literal rendering hisotro intsony ity vokatra ny t.ahoro we give the Malagasy : "Ka handri boaloboka ity, ambarapahatongany ilika am-pihinanana miaraka aminy ny andro no vao ho sotroi' ko indray, Abrahama sy Isaka ary Jakoba;" amy nareo izy, any amy ny fanjakany "And shall lie down at the dinner ny Ray ko." Mr. Griffiths gives us table, or, upon the dinner table, for the latter part of the verse : along with Abraham, and Isaac, and "Hatramy ny andro no vao hisotroa- Jacob." We doubt not that the early Notices of New Books. 119 missionaries were equally familiar Nor is the phrase "nihoron-koditra" "-l with ourselves with the common in eh. xiv. 26, an improvement on practice of the Jews in reclining at what we have had before; or "va their meals; and that they knew hoaka" a proper word for' 'multitude." such to be the literal meaning of the All of our predecessors have used the Greek text. But their judgment, as word "mitsaoka" for worship, as in well as that of those who followed Matt. viii. 2 : "Ary, indro, nisy boka them, led them, after the example of anankiray avy nitsaoka Azy." Al our English version, to give the though there may have been little or Malagasy: "Hipetraka aminy Abi no idea of spiritual worship in the rahama," etc. Nor has "mandri-ilika primitive use of the word among the· am-pihinanana" a less comical sound Malagasy, its frP-quent repetition in' in Malagasy than a similar reading the Sacred Scriptures has given it a would have in English, as it conveys higher signification. On the grqund the idea of such immoderate intem of derivation it is certainly not more perance in eating and drinking as to objectionable than "miankohoka," be no longer able to sit up. Such an which is now proposed, and has the idea repeatedly thrown out in refer advantageof direct government, which ence to our blessed Lord is extreme is not the case with "miankoh.oka." ly repulsive ; yet we have it occur Not less objectionable are most of ring again and again ; see Matt. ix. the foreign words which are proposed 10; xxvi. 6, 20. Nevertheless in Matt. in the revised text. Coeval with the xiv. 16, where the same word occurs introduction of Christianity, or before in the original, the Bible Revision it, the word "farantsa" was incor Committee give us: "Dia nasainy porated into tbe Malagasy language nipetraka am bonin' ny ahitra ny to designate a class of officers under vahoaka." Again, in Matt. xxiv. 8, the judges, whose business it was to our predecessors have followed the collect taxes and custom-dues, and example of our English version : to witness wills, family compacts, "All these are the begiilning of sor etc. At a later date the business of ro,qs." They doubtless well knew the these officers seems to have been more figurative reference of the Greek text, entirely confined to the collection of and with becoming delicacy have tribute paid in kind to the feudal shielded the Malagasy from any chiefs ('tompon' ny menakely'). The thing offensive to the ear. We idea of taxation was first borrowed however render this phrase : "!zany from the French, and therefore these rehetra izany dia iandohan' ny faha officers were called .farantsa. In the rariam-piterahana." "All these are first version of the Bible the word was the beginning of the labour pains" ! used to designate the agents of the It is worthy of consideration whether Roman publicani, called publicans in such a phrase should not find a place our English version : "Two men went in the margin rather than in the body up into the temple to pray, the one a of the text. Again, it is doubtful Pharisee and the other a publican." , 1 whether "kilalao" is a better word The example of the first missionaries than "fositra" in the text, "Where has been followed by all our p1,ede- · moth and rust doth corrupt;" or cessors in their a1ltempts at revision ; whether "tamby" is better than and to the present generation of "fitia" as a word for "reward." We Christians the New Testament use of find "fitia" substituted by "tamby" in the word "farantsa" is quite familiar. the foxt, "For great is your reward in But lest the the Malagasy should cl) heaven" (Matt. v. 12). And again in associate the farantsa of Scripture Matt.· x. 41 : "He that receiveth a ,vith their own farantsa it is proposed prophet in the name of a prophet to coin a word from the Greek, and we shall receive a prophet's reward." have telona offered us instead. The c.. ) '<'.: .... ~: •• ~. •) 'n'. '.'.' -~~ ~ · 1-· • .., : ' ~ ( c.) ,·. '... c\) \ i> .',: r;,l,'r, ,.,e:.,,~ ... ,, 120 Notices of New Books. suggestion has 88 little to be said in its 'Davida,' 'Heroda,' and 'Pilato' will favour 88 would a similar suggestion. suit the natives as well as 'Davidra,' to introduce the word telona into our 'Herodra,' 'Pilatra,' etc., which are English Bible, lest the common people more in · accordance with common should associate the publicans of usage. And much less will they be Scripture with the keepers of public pleased with 'Elia' for Elija, 'Kristy' houses. For similar reasons, "am-. for Kraisty, and 'Jodeana' for Jiosy. pamorian-tela" is proposed instead of The Malagasy are as famiUar with their <>-1 "fandraisan-ketra" in Matt. ix. 9. word 'Jiosy' as we are with our Eng .Again, in Matt. xiii. 33, the word lish word 'Jews'; and such renderings - 1., ) "masirasira" has been altered to as: "Hianao vano Mpanjakan' ny Jo- r'-, ''fermenta," lest the natives should deana ?" and, "lty no Jesosy Mpan get an erroneous idea about the jakan' ny Jodeana," will not be likely luaven, and associate with it saltness to meet with general acceptance ; see or sweetness .. Hence we have: "Ny Matt. xxvii. 11, 37. Ina work of such fanjakan' ny lanitra dia tahaka ny general importance as the revision fermenta." And again, in Matt. xvi. of the Malagasy Bible it is to be 6, "Mihevera ka mitandrema hiana regretted that we are not able to reo, fandrao 8zon' ny fermentan' ny command more of thorough Malagasy Fariseo sy _ny Sadoseo." For a scholarship. And heretofore our similar reason, "mpanoratra," scribes, difficulties have been materially is changed to "mpanora-dalana," increased by our inability to secure lest the natives should associate them a full attendance of delegates. We with their own 'mpanoratra' : "Fa have not unfrequently been obliged lozanareo, mpanora-d8lana sy Fari to hold Otll' meetings with only four seo" (Matt. xxiii. 13). · out of the seven delegates present, 3.-Proper Names. A more tho and five out of the seven has been a. rough acquaintance with the genius of common number. The non-atten the Malagasy language, and in,creased dance of delegates has doubtless familiarity with the use of the been to a large extent unavoidable, Sliffixes na, ka, and tra, would have but it does not alter the fact that the caused us to hesitate before making responsibility of the revision is thereby. so many alterations in the names of thrown much more upon a few than is · persons and places as is now pro at all desirable in such a work as the posed. It is doubtful whether revision of the Malagasy Scriptures. LOUIS STREET, THE CYCLONE OF FEBRUARY LAST. N the night of Sunday, February 20th, 1876, the centre of Mada O gascar was visited by one of the most destructive storms which have occUl'red for many years past. It commenced about nine o'clock in the evening, the wind gradually increasing in violence, with torrents of rain, and lasted until about nine the following morning, when it very quickly abated. The wind blew first from the south-west, and gradually veered round to the east, blowing successively from nearly three quarters of the different points of the compass. A large number of houses in the capital were damaged; scores of village chapels were unroofed ; and in the inner line of forest, to the east, thousands of large trees were upro oted or broken short off, so that for weeks some of the chief roads were impassable. ED. \.. \ \ ,, (A.) ', 11,, /. ', - r! -...,.,, ' I ', 1\ ·· ',( !' \ \(1" ·1-,) ...... -V•r,\ \ (e', s \ IC•• ,I; The Antananarivo Annual, O!iristmas, 1876. 121 BRIEF SUMMARY OF IMPORTANT EVENTS IN MADAGASCAR DURING THE YEAR 1876. POLITICAL. The question of slavery the chiefs or kings of the Ibara, who, has continued to be a cause of excite with his attendants, had come up from ment during this year, chiefly owing the south to ask for Christian teachers. to a number of foolish and quite Two or three weeks after this meeting unfounded reports put into circulation another one was held at the Memo during the months of May and June, rial Church, Ampamal'inana, to set to the effect that all slaves were to apart and wish God-speed to two be set free, and that England was evangelists who had offered them sending a squadron to enforce the selves for this work. The Queen provisions of the treaty referring to and Prime Minister also took great the slave-trade. But the re-organi interest in their going and gave them zation of the army has been a still every encouragement, and this first more exciting subject to the people; regular mission to a distant portion and for several months almost all of the island was thus commenced other work was brought to a stand with considerable eclat," and with still through the calling up of the every prospect of success. But, unhap soldiers and officers, far and near. pily, the hopes raised have been A large number of old and worn-out frustrated. A few months ago letters soldiers have been discharged, and were received from the two evange some fresh levies made, who are being lists, saying that after a toilsome and trained by European officers. trying journey through difficult coun During the year the small-pox has try they arrived at the Ibara terri been ravaging the north-eastern coast tory ; ·but that, to their great surprise of the island; and in advancing and disappointment, the people re southwards has reached Tamatave, fused to have anything to do with them. where great mortality has taken place. They declared that if the teachers settled in any village the people would RELIGIOUS. Owing to the usual desert that village. The evangelists half-yearly meeting of the Congrega reasoned ,vith them, but could not tional Union, or 'Six-Months-Meet change their resolution. They went ing,' being deferred from December to several other tribes, hoping that 1875 to January 1876, three meetings some at least would receive them and have been held during the year. The listen to their instructions ; but every first of these was on Jan. 6th, at where they met with the same deter the Memorial Church, Ambatonakan mined opposition. At last they re ga. The Rev. J. Richardson presi tired to Mod6ngy, the nearest Hova ded; and papers were read on 'The military post; and have since returned propriety of House to House visita to the Capital. The exact cause of tion to induce people to attend Pub this failure is not yet quite clear: but lic Worship'; 'The Conversation and it seems likely that the Ibara feared Speech proper for a Christiau' ; and that the teachers were agents of the on 'The Deceptions practicecl by some government, and sent to prepare the in their Marriage Relations.' Besides way for bringing them more corn-· the usual discussions, unusual interest pletely under Hova authority. was given to this meeting by the The second meeting was held on presence o'f ltsikora, the son of one of July 13th, at the .Amparibe Church. 122 Brief Summary of Important Events. Mr. H. E. Clark presided; and pa revised versions of a portion of Gene pers were read on 'The Principles to sis (xlv.-1.) and the whole· of Exo be followed in the Management of the dus, and also of the Gospel of Mat Church;' and on 'What we should do thew, have been issued. A cheap to Stir up and Strengthen the Church.' handy edition of the revised book of The failure of the mission to the Iba Genesis has been published, and the ra was also announced ; and although revised version of Matthew is also in much disappointment was felt, it the press. was determined not to slacken the During· the year the Rev. L. Dahle, efforts made to collect money, and of the Norwegian Mission, has sent to encourage the congregations to to the press in Norway a History of persevere in endeavours to evangelize the Country and People of Madagas the still heathen portions of the car, under the title of Mada_g(l,skars island. Land og Folk ('Madagascar, Land and The third meeting was held on Dec. People'). It will consist of two vo 14th, at the Analakely Church. The lumes. Knowing the learning and Rev. W. Montgomery presided, and extensive erudition of the author it the Rev. T. G. Beveridge gave the is a matter of regret to us that our opening address. A statement was ignorance of Norwegian will prevent read ·by the secretary as to the ac us having the pleasure of perusing counts, and also detailing the reasons this work or reviewing it in these of the failure of the two teachers sent pages. We hope that as soon as to the Ibfara. The two men them it is completed some of our N orwe selves also each gave some account of gian friends will favour us with a the difficulties they had had to en notice of it for the ANNUAL, counter, and of the reasons for their return. A resolution was then moved "We understand that the eminent and seconded freeingthem from blame, ornithologist, Dr. G. Hartlaub, of and resolving that teachers should Bremen, has in preparation a new • be sent to a tribe still further south, work on the 'Birds of Madagascar.' called the Tanosy. A deputation from This will be a considerable underta this tribe has twice made the long king, as since the publication of Dr. journey from their own country to the Hartlaub's last work on this subject Capital to ask for teachers. Twenty ( Ornithologischer Beitrag zur Fauna two petty chieftains or kings, of whom Madagascars, Bremen, 1861 ), great one Radoda is chief, have all agreed additions have been made to our to receive instruction. On the second knowledge of the ornithology of this visit of the deputation several of the wonderful island by the investigations. chief men brought their wives with of Pollen, Van Dam, Grandidier, them, to shew their perfect confidence Crossley, and other naturalists."-Na in the Hovas. It was also resolved, if ture; Feb. 3, 1876. practicable, to send an evangelist to the populous district on the Matitana ARRIVALS AND DEPARTURES OF na river, in the south-east. A paper MISSIONARIES. was also read on 'Evil Practices which Arrived. July 24th. Rev. G. Cou should be carefully guarded against sins and Mrs. Cousins (College). Miss lest they enter into the Church.' Bliss (Girls' Central School). Mr. W. Pool (Mission Buildings). LITERARY. The Revision of the Left. June 8th. Mr. J. S. Sewell; Malagasy Bible has only been carried Mrs. Wesley ; and Miss Cameron. on for a few weeks during the present June 13th. Rev. W. E. Cousins, Mrs. year, owing to the Rev. W. E. Cou Cousins, and family. sins, the Revising Editor, leaving for Nov. 25th. Dr. A. Davidson. England in the month of June. The Tlie .Antananarii•o Annual, Glwistmas, 1876. 123 LIST OF FOREIGN BOOKS ON MADAGASCAR, CHIEFLY IN THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 1.-C'oinmentaA·ios do gi•ande Afonso Dal descub1•i1nientos o conquistas, gue?•1•a,s della boquei·que. Lisbon : 1576 ; fol. India Ol'ientale; par don Joseph Felipe 2. ·-Spi•aa,k ende woord boek in de Martinez de la Puente. Madrid : 1681. maleische ende Madagaskai·sche talen; Memoires pour servir a l'·hiatoire des Freel. de Houtman. Amsterdam : 1603. lndes orientnles, contenant :- 3.-Voyage de Coi•neille van Heemskei•k; ~3.-La, navigation des quat1·e p1·emie1·s voca.bulaire de la langue parlee dans l"ile vaisseaux de la Compagn ie; l' etablissement de Saint-Laurent. Amsterdam : 1603; 4to. d'un conseil souverain a l' ile de lli:a.dr, 4.-Besclweibung de1· rnrochtigen und pour le gouvernement des Indes orientales · ~ueitbe1·uh1nten I nsel M adagascaA'. Hieron _14. -Le vo.1Jage de llf. ~e llfondevei•gue: Megiser (avec un dictionnaire de la langue vice-roy des Intles, et admiral des mers par de l'!le). Altenbomg : 1609 ; 8vo. dela l' equateur ; 5.-Colloquia latino-rnaleyica et mada 15.-Le 1·t!cit succint de l' expedition de gasca1·ica ; Goth. Arthusius. Francfort : M. de la Haye, successeur de M. de Monde 1813; 4to. vergue; l'abandonnement de l' isle de llfadr. · 6.-Histoi1·e de la Navi,gation de Jean la prise et la perte de la ville de Saint~ Hugues de Linschot, Hollandais, aux Thome sur la cote de Coromandel, par M. S. Indes oricntales, contenant diverses descrip de Rennefort. Paris : 1688; 4to. Carte tions des lieux jusqu' a p1·esent decouverts generale ae l' ile cl' a.pres Flacourt. par les Portugais ; etc. etc. Amsterdam : 16.-Histoi?'e des Jndes oi·ient(iles, par llI. S. 1638. Avec une carte de la cOte d' Afrique de R~nnefort. A Leide : 1688, 12mo. et. de Madr., que et S. Laurentii insula dicitu1·. 17.--Jou1·nal du voyage des G?'andes Indes 7.-Relation du voyage que Fmncois con tenant ce qui s' est fait et passe pa; Gauche de Rouen a fait d MadagascaA', l' esca.dre de Sa Majeste envoyee sous la. Iles adja.centes et cOtes d' Afiique. Recueilly commandement de M. de la Haye, depuis par le sieur Morisot, avec notes en marge, son depart de la Rochelle, au mois de mare carte de Madr. ou de Saint-Laurent. (Cette avec description exacte de toutes les villes' relation est compiise dans le recueil intitule : ports, etc. 1670, 12mo. Paris : 1698. ' Relations veritable et curieuses de l' isle 18.-Voyage de Madagascar, connu a,usst de Madr., et du Bresil, etc.) 4to. Aug. sous le no1n d' isle de Saint - Lau1·ent, Courbe, Paris : 1651. par 111. de V ...... (Carpeau du S:tussay). A 8.-:-Histoii'e de la gi•ande isle de llfada Paris : 1722 ; 12mo. (Repetition de la gasca1·, composee par le Sr. de Flacourt, carte de Flo.court.) · directeur general. de la Compagnie fra.ncaise 19:-Histoi?'e des decoui·ei·tes et conquetes de l' Orient, et commanclant pour Sa llfajeste des Pol'tugais dans le Nouveau-llfonde par en la dlte Isle et es isles adja.centes. Avec le R. P. Joseph-Francois Lafitau, de la Comp. une relation de ce qui s' est passe es annees de Jesus. Paris: 1734. 1655, 1656, et 1657 non encor veue dans 20. -Lettel's inedites de Chai·les N acqum·t, la premiere impression et plusieurs cartes. p1·Bt1·e de la Mission de llfadagascm·, a M. Paris : 1661, 4to. Vincent, superieur general de la mission, 9.-Histoii'e de l' Uablisseinent de la Com datees 1750, du Fort Dauphin, habitation pagnie f1·ancoise pou1· le Comnie1·ce des Indes des Francais ; observations de l'auteur dans 01•ientales, par Charpentier, de l' Academie l'ile de llfadr. 111S. Bibliotheque du Mans, francoise. Paris : 1666 ; 4to. no 187. " 10.-Relation du p1·emie1· voyage de la 21.-Vocabu.lafre francais - malgache et C'ompagnie des Indes oi·ientales en l' ·,sle de rnalgache-fi·ancais, imprime ,\ l'Ile de France llfadagasca1· ou Dauphine; par M. Souchu en 1773 ; Svo. par Chnlland. de Rennefort, secretaire de l' Etat de la. 22.--Voyage 24.-Voyages et M.!inoi1·es. de )lfau1·ice I' amiral Duperre, etc. etc. Pads : 1836. A uguste comte de Benyowski, magnat des 38. -Essai su1· Madagascm·, par M. le royaum~s de Hongi-:ie et de Pologne. 2 vol. baron d' Unienville, arcbiviste colonio.l de 8vo, 1791. I' ne Maurice. Paris : l 838. 25.-Voyages ,); Madagasca1•, ,~ Ma1•oc, et 39.-Notices statistiques su1· les colonies aux Indes 01·ientales, par Alex,s Rochon, fmncaises; impdm~es ri.ar l' ordre de l\I. le memb, de I' Inst. nation. de France ; 3 vols, vice-amiral baron Roussm, etc. etc. Madr. 8vo. Carte geograpbique de. l\Iadr., et et les Iles Saint-Pierre et Miquelon. Pai.is : vocabulaire madegasse, etc. Pans : an x. ]840. 26.--Mem,oi?'e nlat,j d l'iledell1adagas~ai·, 40.-Voyage ,i, Ma.dagascai· et aux Ues par le citoyen Lescallier, lu le 17 fruc~1dor Comoi·es (1823 a 1830) ; par B. -F. Legue an ix. Memoires ,le !'Inst. nat. des sc1. et vel de Lacombe, p1·ecicle d' une notice arts; t. iv. vendcmaire an :ri, p. 1 des historique et geographique sur Maclr., par Memoires. l\I. Eugene de Froberville. Avec un atlas 27.-Les t1·ois (tges dts colonies, ou de leur cle vues et costumes et deux cartes geogra etat passe, present, et a venir, pa~· l\I. de phiq ues. 2vol. Svo. Paris: 1840. Pradt, memb. de l'Assemblee const1tuante; 41.-Colonisation de !,fadagascai·, par 3 vol. 8vo. Pads : 1801-10. Desire Laverdant. Paris: 1844. Avec une 28.-Moyens d' ameliorntion et de 1·esta_ura carte. tion pi·oposes au gouvC?'11C'lllent .e~ aux habitans 42.·-Histoi?-e de l' etablissement fmncais de des colonies ou melanges pohtiques, econo M adagasca1· pendant la R.estaw·ation ; pre miques, agricoles, et c~mmerciaux et relatifs cede d' une description de cette ile, et aux colonies, par le c1toyen · J. -F. Charpen suivie cle quelques considerations politiques tier. Cossigny, e:i:·ingenieur, etc., 3 vol. et commerciales sur l' expedition et la. 8vo. Paris : an xi, 1803. colonisation cle Madr. ; par L. Carayon, 29.-Histoi?'e des vegetaux 1·ecueillis dans etc. etc. Avec une carte. Paris: 1845. les ties austi·ales de l' .Afrique, par Aubert 43. -Documents su1• l' histoi?'e,la geog1·aphie, Aubert du Petit-Tbouars. Pads : 1806. et le comrne1•ce de la pai•tie occidentale de 30.-Dictionnafre f1·ancais-madecasse, .en Madagascai·, recueillis et rediges par 1\1. 3 volumes, par Barthelemi H~_et, che".alier Guillain, capitaine cle corvette. · Pnris : de Fl'Oberv:ille, ancien capt. d mfanterie: 1845. (Cette ouvrage est accompagnee 31.-Histoi?-e de Madagasca1·, ou Memoires cl'une carte de la cote occidentale de l' !le. pour serv:ir 11 I' histoire de I' lle __de llfadr., II se clivise en deux parties : histoire poli re,liges mis en ordre, et pubbes sur lea tique du peuple sakalave, et voyage fait a notes 'manuscdtes de l\I.l\I. l\fayeur, Du la cOte ouest de Madagascar en 1842 et maine et autres, et endchis cles extraits de 1843.) plusieurs voyages anciens et modernes, par 44.-Histoii-e et geogi·aphie de M adagasca1•, 1\1. Bart. Huet, chev. de Frobervme, etc., par l\I. Mace Desc.artes, memb. tit. de _la 2 vol. Isle de France. 1809. (M. Mayeur, Soc. orient. de Paris. Avec une carte. Pans : interprete du gouvernement, dont les rel~ 1846. . . . tions sont inserees dans cet ouvrage, a fai.t 45.-L' Univers: ou Histoire et descnpt1on quatre voyages dans I' interieur de l' ile : de tons les peuples, etc. etc. Volume des en 1774, dans le nord; avdl de la, meme Iles d' Afrique, par M. D' Avesac; art. annee au pays des Seclaves, cote ouest ; Iles Madagasca?', Bou1·bon, et MaU?·ice, par en 1774, an pays cl' Ancove, dans l' interieur l\I. Victor Charlier. Paris: 1848. des terres par ordre de Benyowsky ; en 46 -Madagasca1· et la Fi•unce, par H. 1785, au ~eme pays d' Ancove par le pays Cha~vot. Avec une carte. Paris: 1848. cl' Ancaye.) 47.-Documentssui· l' histoi?'e, lageogi·aphie, 32.-Menwi?'e su1· Madagascar, par M. et le commei·ce de l' .Afrique 01·ientale, recueil Rondeaux, 1813. lis et rediges par l\I. Gumain. 3 vol. 33.-Histoi?'e des Plantes decouvei·tes a 8vo. et atlas. Paris. !,fadagascar l' Ile de Fmnce, et Bou1·bon. Par Du Petit Thouars. 1822. 48.--Renseigements nautiques su1· Nossi-Be, 34.-Voyoge aux colonies 01·ientales, ou Nossi-Maitsiou, Bavatoube, etc. (c~te N.-0. lettres ecrites des Iles de France et de de l\Iadr.), et sur l' ile Mayotte,. par M. Bourbon pendant les ann6es 1817-1820, J ehenne capt. de corvette. Pans : 1850. 11 l\I. le comte de Montalivet, pair de (Cet ouv'rage est extrait des Annales ma?·a France, par Auguste Billia'.d. Paris : 1822. times et coloniales, mars, 1843.) 35.-Histoii·e des 1·emlutwns de llfadagas 49.-Rappoi·t Commercialsu?'la c~te 01-ien ca1·, clepuis 1642 j~1squ' ~ nos joms, par tale d' Afrique, par l\I. Loarer, dans•. 1' ~x l\I. Ackerman. Paris : 1833. ploration fait par l\I. le capt. Guillam, 36. -Fall'n e Entmnologiquede !,fadagasca1·. 1846-49. Paris : 1851. Par Boisduval. 1833. 50.-Considei-ations genfrales sui· l' ocean 37. -Pi·t!cis sui· les etablissements f01:mes a I ndien par l\I, Ch. Phil. cle Kerhallet, /,{adaua.~ca1·, imprime par l' ordre cle l\I. capt. de fregate, etc. Paris : 1853, List of Foreign Books on Madagascai·. 125 5L-"Encyclopedie moclerne," Firmin 61.-ilfadagascai· et le 1·oi Rada,na II., J?idot freres. Paris, 1853. Au mot Mada par le P. Henri de Regnon, procureur des gascar : Geographie et histoire, par M, Missions cle llfadr. et du Maclure. Paris : Amedee Tardieu ; linguistique, par M. 1863. Leon Va'isse. 62.-Ti•ois Moi3 de Sijou1· a llfadagascai·, 52.-La question de Madagascai· api·es la par le capitaine Dupre ; pp. 281. Paris : question d' 01·ient, par le, comte de Gaalon 186:t de Barzay. Avec une carte. Paris: 1856. 63.-Jlfadagasca,· et les Madecasses: His 53.-De la T1·anspo1·tation. Apercus toire, Moourn, Productions clu Pays, Curiosi legislatifs, etc. etc., sur la colonisation tes Naturelles; par Octave Sachot. Paris : penitentiaire, par C-0. Barbaroux, conseil pp. 348 ; 1864. ler d' Et"t, etc. Avec une carte de Madr. 64.-Rechei·chcs su?'la Faune de llfada;gas Paris : 1857. cai· et de ses dependances, cl' apres les 54.-llfada.gascai· : possession fi-ancai3e, clecouvertes cle Francois P. L. Pollen et depuis 1642, par V. A. Barbie du Bocage, D. C. Van Dam. Dedie ii, S. 111. Guil etc. etc. Avec une grande carte par laume III., Roi des Pays Bas. En cinq M. V. A. Malte-Brun. Paris : pp. 367 ; parties, contenant (1) Relation de Voyage; 1858 (?)* (2) Mammifers et Oiseaux; (3) Reptiles ; 55.-01·nitlwlogische1• Beitrag zui· Fauna (4) Poissons; (5) Insectes, Crustacea, Mol Madagascars. Dr. G. Hartlaub. Bremen: lusques, etc. J. K. Steenhoff, Editeur. 1861. Leyde : 1868. 56.-Connaisance de Madagascai·; par 65.-Madagascai· et ses habitans ; par Louis Lacaille ; Paris : 1862. James Sibree, Jmu·. Avec une carte et 57.--Relation du Voyage a Tananai·ivo. illustrations. Paris: 1872. (Tracluit cle Par le T. H.P. Jouen. I' Anglais.) 58.-Les Voyages c), Jlfadagascai· du docteu1· * N. B. Almost the whole of the preceding Willim1L Ellis; par Octave Sachot. Paris : list of books, up to No. 53, is taken from this 1860. work of l\I. Barbie du Bocage. Want of space 59.-Precis sm· les itablissement fi-ancais prevents us from giving a list of papers from de IIIadagascai·, pub lie par le departement different French periodicals and scientific de la marine. F. Riaux. journals taken from the same work. These 60.-:Notice geographical et histo1•ique su1· must be reserved for our next number. l' ile de M adagasca1·, Par E. de Frobei-ville. ED. ANTS AND SERPENTS. R. Grainge, in his Visit to Mojanga and the Nortli-west Coast (ANNUAL, M 1875, p. 14), says: "We also noticed about this part a large number of earthen mounds, varying from one to two-and-a-half feet in height; these were the nest of a large ant, credited by the men with uncommon sagacity. We were told that they make regular snake traps in the lower part of these nests ; easy enough for the snake to enter, but impossible for it to get out of. When one is caught, the ants are said to treat it with great care, bringing it an abundant and regular supply of food, until it becomes fat enough for their purpose ; and then, according to native belief, it is killed and eaten by them."* It would be interesting if some mission ary living in the country would test the reality of this reputed fact by digging open a few of these nests. There is no doubt but that the belief is most universal among the natives. I have been assured most confidently over and over again that it is a fact that snakes are kept and fattened by the ants as above described ; and knowing the sagacity of ants, and the care they take in feeding the aphides for the sake of their honey, one would not hastily set aside the statement, so generally accepted by the natives, as devoid of truth. R. ToY. * See also South-east Madagascar, p. 5. 126 Tlie .A.ntanana?'ivo Annual, Oliristmas, 1876. MALAGASY CONUNDRUMS. AM not acquainted with any wi'i.ter who has drawn attention to the I . way in which the Malagasy amuse themselves by propounding 11.d dles. The late Mr. Ellis, in his admirable history of Madagascar, makes no reference to the practice, but many of us, I am sure, have often been amused by' some of these simple yet ingenious conundrums ; and it may be amusing to others to have their attention drawn to the mat ter. Many of these little things give us an insig·ht into their habits of mind and thought. I have selected the following twenty as being some of the simplest and most readily understood by outside readers. I have a large collection in my possession, and I am constantly adding to them. Some of them are unfit for general reading, and others can only be understood by those who know the Malagasy. 1. Andrahoina tsy masaka, atono mora foana? Cannot be cooked (in a pot), can very easily be roasted? The hair. 2. Bataina tsy zaka, a:findra mora foana ? Cannot be carried ( or, you are unable to carry it), but can very easily be removed? The road.(a) 3. Hoy ny reniny, Andeha hamely taha-maina ; hoy ny zanany, An deha hamely·toto-hondry? Strike with the flat hand, says its mother; Strike with the fist, say her children? T!te leaf of a fem. 4. Hoy ny reniny, Andeha hitsangana; hoy ny zanany, Andeha hi-· tsivalana? Stand up, says its mother ; Lie at length, say her children? A ladder ( and -its rungs). 5. Ilay kely monina an-trano vy? The little one (who) dwells in an iron house ? The tongue. 6. Ilay kely sahy Andriana? The little one bold to the Queen (even)? A.fly. 7. Kamory kelin' Andriamanitra tsy azo ilomanosana? God's little lake in which (one) cannot swim ? T!te eye. 8. Kitapo kelin' Andriamanitra tsy hita zaitra? God's little bag the stitching ( of which) is unseen ? An egg. 9. Kapaina tsy hita fery? When cut no wound is seen? The water. 10. Manam-bava hihinana, fa tsy manan-kibo hitelemana? Having a mouth to eat with, but not having a stomach to digest with ? A pair of scissors. 11. Maro am1)inga, maro lefona, fa tsy maharo vady aman-janaka? Having many shields, ancl many spears, but unable to protect wife and children ? A lemon free. (b) (a) The road in general can be altered at will-there are no rights of way in Madagascar. (b) In allusion to the spikes of the tree and the rinds of the fruit, · Malagasy Oonunitrums. 127 12. Mihinam-py tsy matavy? Living on the fat 0£ the land, but not (becoming) £at? A candlestick.(c). 13. Milevina tsy lo? Being buried, but not rotting? Tlte hair. 14. Ny lavany sy ny sakany atao indray manonona hiany? Its length and breadth are spoken 0£ in one word? Sakalava.(d) 15. Ny maty no milanja ny velona? The dead which carries the living ? A bedstead, 16. Salakao ilay kely £a hiady? Gil:d up the little one's loins £or he will fight ? A needle. 17. Tanora banga, anti-boribory? Toothless (having gaps in it) when young, but corpulent when old? The moon. 18. Tsy atoraka, tsy akipikipy, ka mahalasa lavitra? Not thrown, not pitched, and yet going (reaching) a long way? The eye. 19. Vatolampy kelin' Andriamanitra tsy azo anahazam-bary? God's little rock on which (you) cannot d.i·y (your) rice? A toe or finger nail.(e) 20. Maneno ny maty hahala£o ny velona ? The dead m·y out to sell the living ? A drum beaten in front of an ox going to marl.et. J. RICHARDSON. (c) Candlesticks a.re something like a rleep plate, in which the fat is put, and a. small rag which serves as wick is held up by the rim· of the plate. (d) The name of the tribe living on the west coast, whoRe name signifies literally 'the long side,' or plain. (c) Alluding to the p1·actice of drying rice after it is threshed, EARTHQUAKE SHOCKS. T is well known that the centre of this Island is frequentiy visited I by slight shocks of earthquake. Those who have resided in the Capital £or some time can remember almost as many· shocks as they have lived years in the country. They have frequently been felt in the months 0£ September and October, just before the commencement of the rainy season. About forty years ago a very severe shock was felt in the Capital, and this is said to have thrnwn down a large mass 0£ earth and rock on the west side 0£ the city, where the cliffs overhang the Maha,µi.asina plain. A smart shock was felt in Antananarivo and its neighbourhood on Sunday afternoon, De~. 24th, at about half:past £our o'clock. The earth-wave appeared to come from the north-west and to pass away to the south-east. It seems not to have been felt at Ambohimanga, or far to the north 0£ the Capital, but was felt at Tsia fahy, twelve miles to the south. In the upper part of the city it was much slighter than in the suburbs, where numbers -0£ houses were violently shaken, small articles, such as bottles, thrown down, and much alarm caused £or a few minutes. I shall feel obliged if our readers in different l)arts 0£ the country will send us particulars of any earthquake shocks £or record in futtu·e numbers of the ANNUAL. En. 128 Tlie Antananarivo Annual, Christmas, 1876. HOVA, BETSILEO, .A.ND TAN.A.LA NAMES OF THE MONTHS. NOTICE that the Editor of this magazine, in his Notes of his j oumey I to the South-eastern part of the island, gives a list of Tana.la months. It is interesting to compare them with a list I obtained from a very old Betsileo man during my residence at Fianarantsoa. He gave them to me in the order in which I give them here as the equivalents of the Hova months in the first column ; it will be noticed that they are practically the same as the Tanala, but not quite following the same order. Hova Betsileo Tanala Alahamady Hatsia Volasira Adaoro Volasira Faosa Adizaoza Volapaosa Maka Asorotany Vo lam aka Hiahia Alahasaty Hiahia Sakasay Asombola Sakamasay Sakave Adimizana Volambita Volambita Alakarabo Asara Saramantsy Alakaosy Asaramanara Saramanitra Adijady Asaramd.nitsa Vatravatra Adalo Asotrizonj ona Zonjo Alohotsy Vatravatra Hasia. It is well to add for English readers, that these do not correspond to the European months ; the new year begins with Alahamady, and ends after twelve moons. Alahamady began on Oct. 17th, 1876. J, RICHARDSON,