F422 HISTORY of the FRENCH LANGUAGE Prerequisite: FRENCH 221

Home , Cantus, French orthography, French verbs, Gaul, History of French, Middle French

F422 HISTORY OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE prerequisite: FRENCH 221

Catalog Description: "A linguistic study of the phonological, morphological, syntactic and lexical changes which turned the Latin spoken in Gaul into modern standard French. No previous training in linguistics required." (Note also: no previous training in Latin or Old French required.)

Language of instruction: English.

Instructor: Dr. Nathan L. Love

Texts: A History of the French Language Peter RICKARD The French Language: Present and Past Glanville PRICE

We will be concerned with external and internal history. External history pertains to the cultural, social, political realities bearing on language change, whereas internal history concerns itself primarily with phonological developments that occur within the language, independent of cultural phenomena. The Rickard text outlines external history, and the Price text catalogues the internal history of the French language.

Class instruction will consist of traditional lectures bearing on language structure and internal history. The emergence of Old French from Vulgar Latin will receive emphasis since it is the earlier stages of development which are most remote from us. The readings on external history will be left to the students to complete.

Requirements: A research paper, midterm and final exam.

This will be a course rich in learning opportunities. It will provide a brief introduction to linguistics (especially historical Romance linguistics), an overview of the structure of Classical Latin, the essential characteristics of the syntax and lexicon of Old French, the standardization of Modern French in the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries. Much that is arcane in Modern French grammar and spelling will become clearer, I hope. With French as a case study, one will emerge from the course with a better understanding of the nature of language change in general, especially as it is reflected in vocabulary and pronunciation. Finally, this course will serve as useful background for any future study of linguistics, Old French, and the grammar of modern French--perhaps even for literary studies oriented toward stylistics. F422 First Day Questionnaire

1. What is linguistics?

2. How closely related are French orthography and phonology?

3. Who was Ferdinand de Saussure?

4. How would you represent : Comment vous appelez-vous? phonetically?

5. What is the difference between Vulgar Latin and Classical Latin?

6. Which sort of Latin is that found on the sides of buildings in Pompeii?

7. What language is this?

Quod dum tempore quodam faceret, et relicta domu convivii egressus esset ad stabula iumentorum, quorum ei custodia nocte illa erat delegata, ibique hora competenti membre dedisset sopori, adsitit ei quidam per somium, eumque salutans as suo appellans nomine.

8. What language is this?

Si Lodhuvigs sagrament, que son fradre Karlo jurat, conservat, et Karlos meos sendra de suo part non los tanit, si io returnar non l'int pois, ne io ne neuls cui eo returnar int pois, in nulla ajudha contra Lodhuwig nun li iv er.

9. Which language has contributed the most to the French lexicon?

a) Latin b) English c) German d) Celtic

10. When did modern French emerge?

11. Did the word in the first column derive from a) or b) ?

poids a) pondus b) pensum

legs a) legatum b) laisser

cendre a) cinerem b) centum

chaud a) calidum b) charta SKETCH OF THE HISTORY OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE

Council of Tours 813

rustica romana lingua

theotisca lingua

Earliest Manifestations of French

Strasbourg Oaths 842

Charles the Bald

Louis the German

Nithardus

Sequence of Saint Eulalia

Jonah Fragment

Clermont Passion

Life of St Leger

Life of St Alexis

Song of Roland

Before the Earliest Manifestations of French

Gauls of Gaul (circa 300 B.C.) spoke Gaulish, a Celtic language.

The Romans introduced Vulgar Latin into Gaul from circa 154 B.C.

Latin supplanted Gaulish, although Gaulish influenced some limited Latin vocabulary. Gaulish died out by end of 5th century. Breton, a Celtic tongue subsisted only in Brittany.

Germanic influence on Latin spoken in Gaul in 5th century and afterward. Eventually the

Frankish conquerors learn Latin, too. What is spoken in Gaul is Latin. It seems to have divided into regional speech or dialects from 8th century or so. Old French

· By 12th and 13th centuries, the vernacular is acceptable for literature. · LANGUE D'OIL (see map in Rickard, p. 48) dialects: Francien, Norman, Picard, Champenois, Walloon, Poitevin, etc. · LANGUE D'OC dialects: Gascon, Limousin, Auvergnat, Provençal, etc. · As Francien gains ascendency, the long-lived process of centralization and codification of French begins. · With 11th century, documents permit one to see that O.F. has a "grammar", if not yet a set othographical system. · 2 case system — oblique / nominative

Middle French: 14th, 15th, & 16th centuries

· The two-case system abandoned--major morphological change. · The vowels simplify--major phonological change. · Conjunctions and syntax become freer. · Vocabuary expands. · Period of Froissard, Villon. · Langue d'oïl--clearly more prestigious than langue d’oc. · French the official language--16th century. · Apologists of the French Language. Apologies: ǂ Deffense et Illustration de la langue françoyse 1549 Joahim Du Bellay ǂ Institution chrétienne 1541 Jean Calvin ǂ La Concorde des des langaiges 1513 Jean Lemaire de Belges ǂ Traicté ... avec le Grec 1565 Henri Estienne

Modern French 17th Century

· Syntax, vocabulary, grammar essentially unchanged till present. · Language codifies. Grammarians of language taken seriously. · Paris clearly the central force in all language matters. Eighteenth Century

· Fun continues to be poked at patois and dialects · French grammarians continue to flourish · French begins to rival Latin, not only as principal language of serious writers in France, but also of the cultivated persons throughout western Europe. · European presses spread written French throughout Europe and social classes benefiting from public education. · With the Revolution, an even heavier-handed approach to promoting a standardized French · Certain reforms concerning grammar, spelling, even names of months, etc. ushered in by Revolution. · Prose crisper, simpler syntax.

Nineteenth Century

· Poetization of French prose, invention of new figures of speech. · Preterite tense on decline · Concrete nouns rendered abstract, and vice versa.

Twentieth Century

· Exploration of "styles" continues · Colloquial speech in novel and theatre · Where will it all end? Peculiarities of modern French grammar & spelling

Ils pensent /ilpɑ̃s/

regarder /rəgarde/

Monsieur /məsjø/

Tu m'as écrit de belles lettres à cette époque-là.

Où sont les lettres que tu as écrites?

Marianne s'est lavée ce matin.

Marianne s'est lavé d'abord le visage.

Il a fait chanter la chanson aux étudiants.

= Il la leur a fait chanter.

Il est venu parler aux professeurs des progrès les plus récents.

= Il est venu leur en parler.

aller: je vais; BUT nous allons

VAIS, VAS, VA, VONT ~ ALLER, ALLONS, ALLEZ

The "boot" of the irregular verbs, i.e., irregular forms in all singular forms and third person plural; nous and vous forms resemble infinitive.

VEUX voulons achète /aʃɛt/ achEtons /aʃtɔ̃/ VEUX voulez achète /aʃɛt/ achEtez /aʃte/ VEUT VEULENT achète /aʃɛt/ achètent /aʃɛt/ Linguistics : A Systematic Study of Language

What other approach to an history of language recommends itself but a linguistic approach, that is, one which is like a science--rigorous, methodical, factual, whose terminology is consistent and precise, whose object lends itself to observation and verification, and is "public" or open to scrutiny?

Victor Hugo in Notre-Dame de Paris (especially in the chapter Ceci tuera cela) illustrates another possible approach: imaginative and "intuitive" -- which proves, however, unsatisfactory by itself. Although based on much knowledge and insight, it functions only as an element of tone and local color in a work of Romantic fiction.

A. History of Linguistics

1. The First Linguists:

a) the lone Indian, Pānini--4th cent. B.C. grammarian gave for Vedic (an early form of Sanskrit) formal, complete, rigorous description.

b) the anonymous aphabetizers. Modern alphabets, invented long ago, present real and significant phonetic distinctions within the sounds of their languages.

c) the men of many words, Greek philosphers and sophists. i) logos as creative and organizing principle of the rational universe. ii) preoccupation with how language, especially abstract and relational terms, relate to reality. iii) Elaboration of logic, with Aristotle a system of principles for sound argumentation.

2. Linguistics over the Centuries:

As with the ancient Greeks, the study of language remains throughout the history of western civilization, a philosophical preoccupation full of more speculation than description or observation at its best, at its worst a subject akin to magic.

a) man & speech; animals and instinctive communication. b) writers of bestiaries and "etymologies."

For some, it is as though language or certain terms, such as incantations, curses, names of deities or satanic entities inherently possess the power of Greek logos.

Modern linguistics emerges from philosophy as a distinct discipline in the manner of psychology or physics. Two main concerns predominate: history of past language and family of languages. Once the notion of inevitable progress is rejected as an axiom, the past becomes more instructive and interesting. With the discovery of similarities in the seemingly most remote languages, one begins to wonder about a common prototype language. 3. Beginnings of Linguistics as Science

Things were shaken up in the very late eighteenth century with the discovery of Sanskrit, for it quickly became evident that there was a kinship among the languages since called Indo- European.

Sir William Jones, a British judge stationed in India, discovered that Sanskrit bore a striking similarity to two other ancient languages of his acquaintance, Latin and Greek. The Sanskrit word for father was pitar, astonishingly similar to the Greek and Latin pater. Sanskrit for mother was matar, and in Latin mater. Jones concluded, in a paper written in 1786, that Sanskrit shared with Greek and Latin "a stronger affinity...than could possibly have been produced by accident; so strong, indeed, that no philologer could examine them all three, without believing them to have sprung from some common source, which, perhaps, no longer exists."

This event initiated the search for the common source of a nearly all of European languages. "Grimm's Law" established that German vater (and English father) has the same root as the Sanskrit/Latin pitar/pater. The next two centuries of research only confirmed little by little the basis for a common source for the family of languages dubbed Indo-European. A common source not only in lexical items such as individual words, but also for the grammar (formal structure) of languages. In exploring the relationships between the various Indo-European languages, linguists worked out a framework of comparative grammar with methods which became more and more rigorous as chance findings or decipherings continued to gratify this new science with confirmations of its basic principles and expansions of its range. Up until the first decades of our century, linguistics consisted of what was mainly a genetics of language; its principle task being the evolution of linguistic forms; it set itself up, in short, as a historical science. 4. Modern Linguistics

If the first phase of linguistics can be called "the philosophy of language" (up until the nineteenth century), the second phase "the evolution of linguistic forms" (the nineteenth century), the third phase--the current one--might be called "the formalization of language structures." Based on the latest findings, linguists began to call into question some of the frameworks elaborated for the Indo-European languages. Theory needed to be tidied up. Linguists therefore came to realize that they had to study present or general linguistic reality without distorting the facts with historical presuppositions or biased techniques. They aimed at describing language fully, understanding what a language consists of and how it functions. Following the lead of Ferdinand de Saussure, they embraced a basic principle of modern linguistics--still widely held: that language forms a system. None of the elements of a language means anything in itself, but only in relation to other similar elements within the structure of a language, that is, a structure of symbols or signs. The key question is how each element (whether lexical, phonemic, morphological, etc.) sets itself apart from or distinguishes itself from other elements of the same type; to answer this question is to unlock how a given language functions.

B. Object of Linguistics

1. language in general; languages in particular

a) theoretical linguistics. b) descriptive, historical (philology) or applied linguistics (language acquisition--primary & secondary).

2. specific aspects of language study:

a) formal grammar (vs. notional) "not based on meaning" and "precise" and "explicit". b) morphology and syntax: internal structure of words and phrases, clauses, etc. c) phonetics and phonology: sound system, pronunciation, sound change. d) lexicon and semantics: vocabulary of language, meanings.

C. Two --isms associated with Linguistics

Positivism--linguistic facts, data.

Structuralism--formal relations and elaboration of language's operational framework. Elements & Examples of Romance or Comparative Linguistics

A. General: Voiced and Voiceless Consonants

Voiceless Voiced p b t d k g f v s z ʃ ʒ tʃ dʒ

B. Evidence for Vulgar Latin etymon

Fr Span Ital VL cheval caballo cavallo CABALLO (CAVALLO)

OF escole escuela iscuola, scuola *SCHOLA

Port station estación stazione estação *STATIONE

C. Latin V.L. (phon) Ital Span OF mare /mare/ mare mar mer cārum /karu/ caro caro chier caelum /kɛlu/ cielo cielo ciel mel /mɛl/ miele miel miel poena /pena/ pena pena peine tēla /tela/ tela tela toile fĭdem /fede/ fede fe fei (foi) nŏvum /nɔvu/ nuovo nuevo neuf flōrem /flore/ fiore flor flour gula /gola/ gola gola goule mūrum /muru/ muro muro mur aurum /auru/ oro oro or

D. Latin Ital Rum Span Prov Fr rīpa ripa (riva) rîpă riba riba rive capra capra capra cabra cabra chèvre mutare mutare a muta mudar mudar muer fāta fata fata fada fada fée amica amica amică amiga amiga amie Classical & Vulgar Latin

CLASSICAL LATIN

As a "synthetic" or "inflected" language, the verbs are conjugated (verb stems + endings), the noun & adjectives are declined (have endings showing "cases."

These endings (as well as suffixes and prefixes) are a matter of syntax (arrangement of words and phrases, showing relationships between elements in a sentence) and morphology (forms of words).

First & Second Verb Declension--Future Indicative

Laudo Moneo (I praise) (I advise)

SINGULAR

1. lauda-bo monebo 2. lauda-bi-s monebis 3. lauda-bi-t monebit

PLURAL

1. lauda-bi-mus monebimus 2. lauda-bi-tis monebitis 3. lauda-bu-nt monebunt (What do the dashes isolate?)

No need for subject pronouns: ego, tu, etc.

Cases for noun (& adjective) declension

1. Nominative = to indicate subject of verb 2. Genetive = for possession, "of", for one noun modifying another 3. Dative = to indicate indirect object ("to", "for") 4. Accusative = to indicate direct object of verb, also after certain prepositions; e.g., ad, post 5. Ablative = "adverbial case", expresses means, manner, agent, place, time; also with certain prepositions; e.g., ab, cum. 6. Vocative = to address directly, call upon person, thing. "Oh Death, where is thy sting?" (In form, usually = nominative)

A. Poeta puellae magnas rosas dat. (The/a poet gives big roses to the/a girl.) B. Puellae nautis rosas poetae dant. (girls give the poet's roses to the sailors.) C. Pecunia patriam puellarum conservant. (They preserve the girls' country/homeland by means of money.)

A. = Magnas puellae poeta rosas dat. English is analytic, whereas C.L. is synthetic.

Three Case Declensions

SINGULAR

NOMINATIVE: murus rosa comes ACCUSATIVE: murum rosam comitem GENITIVE: muri rosae comitis DATIVE: muro rosae comiti ABLATIVE: muro rosa comite

PLURAL

NOMINATIVE: muri rosae comites ACCUSATIVE: muros rosas comites GENITIVE: murorum rosarum comitum DATIVE: muris rosis comitibus ABLATIVE: muris rosis comitibus

Why do you suppose the Latin declensions fell into disuse? Which cases do you think were used most frequently? Which cases do you think most influenced the morphology of both V.L. and O.F.?

A look ahead : O.F.

li murs li mur le mur les murs

li cuens, quens li conte le conte les contes

la rose les roses la rose les roses

La mère Aymon (Aymes), L'église Nostre Dame, Pro Deo amore

Compare:

A. Classical Latin : Numitor inter Albanos regnat. Filium non habet, sed unam filiam, Rheam Silvian. Rhea geminos filios habet Romulum et Remum. Per multos annos gemini inter agricolarum casas habitant.

B. Late Latin : Ego sum Dominus Deus tuus, qui eduxi te de terra Aegypti, de domo servitutis. ... Sex enim diebus fecit Dominus caelum et terram, et mare, et omnia quae in eis sunt,...

Conclusions: As a highly inflected language, C.L. relied on prepositions, subject pronouns, and word order minimally to express syntax. C.L. accounts more for the vocabulary of O.F. than it does the grammar of O.F. VULGAR/LATE LATIN

More on differences between V.L. and C.L.:

Reduction of case system: V.L. has essentially a two-case system. The simplification corresponds to not only an increase in use of prepositions, but also the loss of many word-final sounds, such as [s] and [m]. Thus the declension of murum (above) becomes in Vulgar Latin for the singular:

muro(s) muri muro muro muro(m)

In addition to syntax and morphology, but not unrelated to them, V.L. differs from C.L. in some a) phonological and b) lexical matters, especially after 100 A.D. a) Distinctions of vowel quantity tend toward distinctions of vowel quality, usually "open" and "closed" vowels (See pp. 34 and 45, as well as front of Rickard and Price, p. 56).

[o] & [u] are confused Some diphthongs, though written as digraphs, are pronounced as monothongs.

[æ] > [ɛ] [oe] > [e]

[h] is not pronounced b) some words change meaning or connotation within Latin.

From Reichenau Glosses, meant to accompany the Vulgate :

C. Latin V. Latin C. Latin V. Latin C. Latin V. Latin ager : campus umo : terra litus : ripa in ore : in bucca viscera : intralia sexus : generis forum : mercatum hiems : ibernus rerum : causarum Gallia : Frantia pueros : infantes crimine : peccato

New words (neologisms) are created or borrowed.

From church terminology:

angelus, ecclesia, diaconus, presbyter, monachus The Language of the Eighth-Century Texts... Mario Pei

A.D. 716 A.D. 768 (reign of Chilperic II) (reign of Pepin)

Opertit climenciae princepale, Opertet climentiae principali, inter citeras peticionis, inter citeras petitiones, illut que pro salute illud quod pro salute adescribetur, et pro divine adscribitur et pro divine nominis postolatur, ... nominis postulatur, ... ad aefectum perducere ad effectum perducere ... presente secoli aeterna ... praesentis saeculi aeterna ...'Facetis vobis amicis ... 'Facite vobis amicos

Orthography? Phonology? Grammar?

Notice the dates. Even the later one is before the Carolingian Renaissance!

What do the differences amount to? Matters of orthography, phonology, grammar?

A.D. 716 A.D. 768 O Ph G opertit opertet X X climenciae climentiae X princepale principali X X peticionis petitiones X X X illut illud X ? que quod X X adescribetur adscribitur X X X postolatur postulatur X X aefectum effectum X ? presente praesentis X X X secoli saeculi X X facetis facite X X X amicis amicos X X X

What do the differences, taken together, reveal concerning changes from C.L. to late V.L.?

1. vacillation in spelling. 2. sound changes, some corresponding to spelling changes a) reduction of [ae] to [ɛ], [k] to [s] for graphy ce, ci (aefectum/effectum; climenciae/climentiae) b) prothetic [ɛ] before graphy sc (adescribetur) c) loss of final consonant (illut/illud ?) 3. confusion about grammar, especially inflected forms (noun declension and verb conjugation) (presente/presentis; facetis/facite) Old French By Old French, understand northern French as recorded in documents of the 12th and 13th centuries.

We will cover its phonology and pronunciation (as nearly as it can be reconstructed) in the second half of the course as we consider phonological developments.

STRUCTURE OF OLD FRENCH (Grammar)

Tendencies vs. Rules A. The Cases Of prime importance is the two-case system: nominative and oblique. These two cases came directly from the nominative and oblique cases of V.L. Recall that the nominative case of V.L. is essentially that of C.L. (including the vocative), whereas the oblique case of V.L. replaces the accusative, genitive, dative and ablative of C.L.

For O.F., the nominative case governs the subject of a verb, while the oblique case covers nearly all else.

1. Articles Definite Indefinite Masc. Fem. Masc. Fem. Nom. Sing. li la uns une Obl. Sing. le la un une

Nom. Plur. li les un unes Obl. Plur. les les uns unes

2. Masculine nouns CLASS I CLASS II CLASS III NS li murs li pere(s) li cuens OS le mur le pere le conte

NP li mur li pere li conte OP les murs les peres les contes

3. Feminine nouns CLASS I CLASS II CLASS III NS la rose la loi(s) la none OS la rose la loi la nonain

NP les roses les lois les nonains OP les roses les lois les nonains

4. Proper nouns

NOMINATIVE Charles Aymes OBLIQUE Charlon Aymon 1. Which case, nominative or oblique, more influenced or was retained in the morphology of Mod. French?

2. Is a two-case system truly operative for articles and nouns of both genders?

In O.F., the nominative is used for a) the subject, b) vocative or c) words in apposition to nouns in the nominative case.

a) Charles (not Charlon) est vieuz. b) Aymes! (not Aymon) c) Charles, li rois (not le roi)

The oblique is used :

for the direct object : La mere voit le conte.

after prepositions: Por la nonain.

for indirect object: Porte Aymon la letre!

for words in apposition to nouns in Oblique case: Por Aymon, le baron (not li bers)

for possession/relationship (Latin "genetive") La mere Aymon

For Practice, translate :

1. "Chevalier! veez la reine!" 2. Or fierent ('strike') li paien. 3. La fille le conte ot ('heard') la clamor. 4. Or voit li pelerins la maison le provoire.

B. Personal Pronouns (Subject pronouns were frequently absent.) Nominative: jo, je nos tu vos il, ele il, eles Oblique: moi, me nos (IN)DIRECT toi, te vos (IN)DIRECT soi, se soi, se (IN)DIRECT lo, le, lui, la eus, les, eles DIRECT li, li lor INDIRECT

* The direct object pronoun came regularly before any ind. obj. pronoun. Imparasyllabics = Class III Nouns (see p. 1)

NOMINATIVE ACCUSATIVE/OBLIQUE OF GLOSS Latin OF Latin OF soror suer sororem seror sister latro lerre latronem larron thief baro ber baronem baron valiant warrior pastor pastre pastorem pastor shepherd infans enfes infantem enfant child, youth nepos niés nepotem nevou(t) nephew comes cuens comitem conte count homo uem hominem home man/one

Other Imparasyllabics (Which forms are retained in Mod. Fr.?) bric/bricon unworthy, unnoble person compaign/compagnon fels/felon treacherous person gars/garçon servant; rougue, kitchen boy gloz, gloton glutton, rogue ancestre/ancessor ancester; ancient sire/seignor traïtre/traïtor graindre/graignor bigger; greater pire/pejor worse meindre/menor less; smaller mieudre/meillor better emperere/empereor Hugues/Hugon Charles/Charlon Pierres/Perron

Berte/Bertain Eve/Evain Marie/Marian AVEIR > AVOIR

Pres. Ind. Impf. Ind. Past Part. 1 ai 1 aveie > avoie eü(t), oü(t) 2 as 2 aveies, etc. 3 a(t) 3 aveit 4 avons 4 aviiens, avions 5 avez 5 aviiez 6 ont 6 aveient

Pres. Subj. Impf. Subj. Pret. Ind. 1 aie 1 eüsse, oüsse 1 oi 2 aies 2 eüsses, etc. 2 eüs, oüs 3 aiet, ait 3 eüst 3 ot, out 4 aiiens, aions 4 eüssons, -iens 4 eümes, oümes 5 aiiez 5 eüsseiz, -iez 5 eütes, etc. 6 aient 6 eüssent 6 orent

Conditional Future 1 avreie, areie 1 avrai, arai 2 avreies, areies 2 avras, aras 3 avreit, areies 3 avra(t), ara(t) 4 a(v)riiens -rions 4 avrons, arons 5 avriiez, ariiez 5 avreiz, areiz 6 avreient, areient 6 avront, aront ESTRE

Pres. Ind. Impf. Ind. Past Part. 1 sui 1 (i)ere, esteie esté(t) 2 es, ies > estoie 3 est 2 (i)eres, etc. 4 somes, esmes 3 (i)ere(t), esteit 5 estes 4 eriiens, estions 6 sont 5 eriiez, estiiez 6 (i)erent, esteient

Pres. Subj. Impf. Subj. Pret. Ind. 1 seie > soie 1 fusse fui 2 seies, etc. 2 fusses fus 3 seit 3 fust fut 4 seiions, seions 4 fussons, -iens fumes 5 seiiez 5 fussez, -iez fustes 6 seient 6 fussent furent

Conditional Future 1 serie, estreie 1 (i)er, serai, estrai > seroie, estroie 2 sereies, etc. 2 (i)ers, seras, estra(t) 3 sereit 3 (i)ert, etc. 4 seriiens, serions 4 (i)ermes, serons, estrons estreiz 5 seriiez 5 ------, serez, 6 sereient 6 (i)erent, seront, estront ALER

C.L.: IRE & VADERE V.L.: *ANDARE GALLIC V.L: ALARE (> Reichenau Glosses) O.F aler > ire + vadere + alare

For Comparison

Italian Spanish Portuguese Provençal vado, vo voy vou vau, vauc vai vas vais vas va va vai va, vai andiamo vamos imos anam andate vais ides, is anatz vanno van vam van

Pres. Ind. Impf. Ind. Past Part. 1 vois 1 aleie, aloie, etc. alé 2 vais 3 vait 4 alons 5 alez 6 vont

Pres. Subj. Impf. Subj. Pret. Ind. 1 voise; aille, alge 1 alasse, etc. 1 alai, etc. 2 --- 3 voise, -st; aille, alt 4 alons, -ailliens 5 alez, ailliez 6 ---

Conditional Future 1 ireie, etc. 1 irai, etc. Verbs with vocalic alternation in present stems

amer laver veoir proisier VA ai/a e/a ei>oi/e i/ei>oi

PI.1 aim lef voi pris 2 aim-es lev-es voi-z pris-es 3 aim-e lev-e voi-t pris-e 4 a-mons la-vons ve-ons proi-ons 5 a-mez la-vez ve-ez proi-siez 6 aim-ent lev-ent voi-ent pris-ent

amare lavare videre precare

PI.1 amo lavo video preco 2 amas lava vides precas 3 amat lavat videt precat 4 amamus lavamus videmus precamus 5 amatis lavatis videtis precatis 6 amant lavant vident precant

Verbs with syllabic alternation in present stems (change of stress in present stems led to loss of vowel in unstressed stems and infinitive)

Infinitive PI.6 PI.4 Type

aidier aiudent aidons u/- disner desjunent disnons ju/- mangier manjuent manjons u/- parler parolent parlons o/-

PARLER

PI.1 parol > *paraulo PS.1. parol 2 paroles > *paraulas parous 3 parole > *paraulat parout 4 parlons > *par(au)lumus parlons 5 parlez > *par(au)latis parlez 6 parolent > *paraulant parolent

How can the principle of ANALOGY be invoked above? For Practice:

1. Raous la voit et li done la letre. 2. Car le me pardonez! 3. Ne la vos puis doner. 4. Rendez les nos, jel vos demant.

1 Et quant ceste avanture voient 2 les genz, qui par le pré estoient, 3 si dïent tuit : "Avez veü ?" 4 Cil qui sor la charrete fu 5 a hui conquise tel enor 6 que l'amie au fil mon seignor 7 en mainne, sel siudra mes sire. --Chrétien de Troyes Le Chevalier de la Charrete (Lancelot)

8 Dist Oliver : "Paien ont grant esforz; 9 De nos Franceis m'i semble aveir moult poi. 10 Compaign Rollant, car sonez vostre corn, 11 Si l'orrat Charles, si retornera l'ost.

12 "Compaign Rollant, sonez vostre olifan, 13 Si l'orra Charles, qui est as porz passant. 14 Je vos plevis, ja retorneront Franc." 15 "Ne place Dieu, ce li respont Rollant, 16 Que ce seit dit de nul home vivant 17 Ne por paien que je seie cornant! 18 Ja n'en avront reproece mi parent. 19 Quant je serai en la bataille grant 20 Et je ferrai et mil colps et set cenz, 21 De Durendal verrez l'acer sanglent. 22 Franceis sont bon, si ferront vassalment; 23 Ja cil d'Espaigne n'avront de mort garant." --Chanson de Roland 24 Li cuens Guillaumes a ses orisons dites, 25 Puis si s'en vont andoi à la cuisine. 26 Li sains hermites, cui Dieus soit en aïe, 27 Dona Guillaume de ce qu'il ot à vivre 28 A grant plenté, ainc n'i fist avarice: 29 Eaue boulie à un poi de farine, 30 Et pain de soile: et si burent du cidre,

31 Li sains hermites l'esgarda durement; 32 Quant il le vit vestu si provrement, 33 Si malaisieu, si grant et si parant, 34 Au saint hermite si grant paor en prent, 35 N'i vousist estre pour plein un val d'argent. 36 La porte clot, si s'en fuit durement; 37 Pour cent mars d'or n'i fust plus longuement. 38 "Dieus, dist l'hermites, par ton commandement, 39 De cel maufé, se toi plaist, me defent. 40 Car je sui mors se il as poins me prent; 41 Tout mon hostel et tout mon mandement 42 Ferroit il jus à un pié seulement: 43 Sainte Marie, dont vient si grande gent?" 44 Li cuens Guillaumes à la porte l'attent, 45 Illuec s'asiet, si pleure tendrement 46 Pour ses pechiés, dont se repent forment. 47 lors en apele l'hermite doucement. --Le Moniage Guillaume 48 Voire, ou soit de Constantinobles 49 L'emperieres au poing dorez, 50 Ou de France ly roy tres nobles 51 Sur tous autres roys decorez, 52 Qui pour ly grans Dieux aourez 53 Bastist eglises et couvens, 54 S'en son temps il fut honnorez, 55 Autant en emporte li vens.

56 Princes a mort sont destinez 57 Et tous autres qui sont vivans; 58 S'ilz en sont courciez n'ataynez,* 59 Autant en emporte ly vens. --François Villon Ballade en vieil langage françoys * n'atayntz F422 MIDDLE FRENCH

A. What is meant by "Middle French"

Old French and Modern French are two distinct languages, rather than two ages or phases of the same language. Middle French, extends from approximately 1350 through 1610, that is, from the demise of O.F. until the appearance of Mod. Fr. Middle French applies, not to a third language, but to the state of transition between O.F. and Mod. Fr. Though finished as a language, O.F. lingers on until nearly the seventeenth century; elements of Mod. Fr. can first be seen as early as the fourteenth century. Middle French is difficult to characterize so clearly and fully as O.F. and Mod. Fr. precisely because the language is rapidly changing and thus hard to pin down during those middle years. Certain of these changes can be related only minimally to the socio-political history of that period (e.g., phonological), yet for the sake of convenience, the Middle French period corresponds roughly to the beginning of the "Hundred Years' War" (1328/1346) through the end of the "wars of religion" (1598).

The changes characteristic of the Middle French period are pervasive from a stricly linguistic standpoint: phonological, grammatical, syntactic, orthographic and lexical. There are also changes, as you know, in attitudes toward French, how it is regarded in relation to Latin and Italian, how it is treated stylistically (which we'll see in the second half of the course), what subjects are written in French, etc. The story of Middle French is essentially how a vernacular, not taught as a language and little used apart from poetry (religious and lyric), chronicles, and some fiction--with no set grammar or spelling-- becomes in the seventeenth century a highly respected language with an increasingly explicit grammar and orthography, used in writing about a variety of subjects in a variety of styles or registers. B. Changes in Middle French period

1. Grammatical (simplication)

a) The major change is the collapse and abandonment of the two-case system.

What can be learned from Villon's poem, Ballade en vieil langage françoys, concerning the fifteenth century's awareness of O.F. grammar?

48 Voire, ou soit de Constantinobles 49 L'emperieres au poing dorez, 50 Ou de France ly roy tres nobles 51 Sur tous autres roys decorez, 52 Qui pour ly grans Dieux aourez 53 Bastist eglises et couvens, 54 S'en son temps il fut honnorez, 55 Autant en emporte li vens.

Reasons for loss of nominative/oblique distinction:

· The distinction was never complete for feminine nouns, anyway · The distinction was often null for the plural of masculine nouns, too · The nominative form was used almost solely for one function only (subject); all others covered by oblique · Word order was becoming more and more fixed: SVC · The subject, when not clear from verb form, was usually identifiable by position in sentence. · It was inherently problematic that s indicate both the singular (masc. nom.) and plural (oblique), especially as s ceased to be pronounced in word-final position, and articles served more and more, orally, to indicate number (and gender). b) For the most part, the oblique form of masc. nouns was retained over the nominative. Examples:

conte (cuens, quens), baron (bers), nevou(t) (niés), enfant (enfes), meillor (mieudre)

There were exceptions, such as

i) isolated instances, e.g., suer (nom.) < soeur (~ > soror) traïtre (nom.) < traître (~ > traïtor)

ii) proper nouns: Charles (not Charlon) Pierre (not Perron) Eve (not Evain)

iii) Some nouns for which BOTH were retained, with, however, two meanings: uem > on home > homme gars garçon compaign > copain compagnon sire seignor

b) generalized use of definite articles c) creation of an indefinite/partitive article (du, des, etc.) e) grammatization of subject pronouns (had to be included; no longer optional) d) adjectives regularized; endings simplified--mark gender and number uniformly

O.F. MID. FR. MASC FEM MASC. FEM granz grant ------grant grant grand grande

granz granz ------grant granz grands grandes

(z = ts) (etymological d > GRANDIS) 2. Syntactic (regularized, but also diversified, complex)

Concomitant with the loss of the two-case system of O.F., was an increasing fixity in word order, usually SVC for declarative sentences. On the other hand, a latinizing tendency manifested itself with the deliberate carry- over into French of the Latin complex, periodic sentence, with elaborate subordination and conjunctions.

Ayant doncques sceu ceste mort, avant que la nouvelle en fust divulgee, il voulut prevenir à donner au peuple bonne esperance de l'advenir : si s'en alla avec une chere guaye en l'assemblée du conseil, là où il dit qu'il avoit eu en dormant un songe qui promettoit quelque grande prosperité prochaine aux Atheniens, et incontinent apres arriverent ceulx qui apportoyent la nouvelle certaine de la mort de Philippus : dont les Atheniens feirent aux Dieux sacrifices de joye pour la bonne nouvelle, et en decernerent une couronne à Pausanias qui l'avoit tué. --Vies des hommes illustres Aymiot (traducteur) "Vie de Démosthènes"

Conjunctions of all sorts proliferated. "Et"s and "que"s and "comme"s were used to weld phrases together along with hundreds of new conjunctions, not all of which were retained in Mod. French: surtout que, mesmement que, comme ainsi soit que, par autant que, pour autant que, non que, en manière que, de mode que, si que, somme que, à ce que, etc.

3. Phonological (simplification)

Reduction of the total number of phonemes begins in O.F. and continues throughout the Mid. Fr. period. Consonants are pretty much as in Mod. Fr., except that r is still tongue-trilled. In word-final position, r is mostly silent, not only as in the -er, first conjugation infinitives, but nearly everywhere. In fact, final consonants, generally, cease to be pronounced, except in liaison.

Thus -s as sign of plural drops out of pronunciation, along with -r (e.g., aimer, finir, miroir), -n after nasal vowel (e.g., bien), -l (e.g., sourcil, mortel) -t in verb ending and adjectives (e.g., petit, parlent).

Vowels simplify, too. The diphthongs of O.F. reduce to monothongs by the end of the 16th century, even "au" is by then [o] (e.g., eau [o] and no longer [ow]. The diphthong spelled oi in O.F. becomes a semi-vowel pronounced either [wɛ] or [ɛ], and written more and more ai (e.g., roi, donnois, donnais). 4. Orthography remained archaic, for the most part, though spelling reforms along phonetic lines were proposed. Most spellings that are changed represent--or attempt to-- etymology.

craincte, faict, poinct, Magdeleine, doigt, vingt, joug advenir, adventure, nid, nud, pied verd, grand, rond, sourd, tard paix, noix, six, voix, dix abbé, belle, mettre aureille, pauvre, taureau aile, clair, pair, fraisle

5. Lexical changes were considerable. Many O.F. words drop out of the language.

ajourner, anuyter, assener, isnel, cuidier, si (not 'if'), car (not 'for'), occire, choisir (not 'choose') choir, baillier, ains, etc.

Loan words flow into French from Provençal, Spanish and Italian (little English and German).

ITALIAN: accort, assassin, bagatelle, balcon, baguette, bouffon, banque, bidet, burlesque, cadence, camisole, caprice, caresse, carrosse, cartel, banqueroute, soutane, boussole (see, too, Rickard, p. 94)

SPANISH: bizarre, camarade, cassolette, algarade, abricot (see, too, Rickard, p. 94)

PROVENÇAL: accolade, aspic, badaud, bordel, barricade, caserne, escalier, fat, pastel, presse, troubadour, truc

The major outside influence was Latin.

LATIN: exact, oculaire, auriculaire, académie, facilité, apostolat

Relatinization resulted often in doublets, one learned reflex and an etymological one

etymological learned etymological learned aver ~ avare leün ~ légume batoier ~ baptiser orine ~ origine beneiçon ~ bénédiction rade ~ rapide escomengier ~ excommunier treü ~ tribut encharner ~ incarner verté ~ vérité enferm ~ infirme C. The Place of French in 16th century

1. French in civil acts and administration

August 15, 1539: Ordonnance de Villers-Cotterets required that,

"tous arrêts, ensemble toutes autres procédures, soient de nos cours souveraines autres subalternes et inférieures," be "prononcés, enregistrés et délivrés aux parties en langage maternel français et non autrement."

2. Ambroise Paré, barbier chirugien Briefve collection de l'Admistration anatomique (1550) and Méthode de traiter les playes, faites par harquebutes (1545). Refused to allow them to be translated "pour le plaisir des étrangers"!

3. Peletier du Mans A un Poète latin (1547)

J'écris en langue maternelle Et tâche de la mettre en valeur Afin de la rendre éternelle, Comme les vieux ont fait la leur, Et soutiens que c'est grand malheur Que son propre bien mépriser Pour autrui tant favoriser. Si les Grecs sont si fort formeux Et les Latins sont aussi tels, Pourquoi ne faisons-nous comme eux Pour être comme eux immortels? Toi, qui si fort exercé t'es Et qui en latin écris tant, Qu'es- tu sinon qu'un imitant, Crois-tu que ton latin approche De ce que Virgile écrivait? Certes non pas (tout sans reproche) Du moindre qui du temps vivait? 4. Rabelais Gargantua "La harangue que Janotus de Bragmardo faicte à Gargantua pour recouvrer les cloches."

"Ehen hen, hen ! Mna dies (bonjour), Monsieur, Mna dies, et vobis, Messieurs. Ce seroyt bon que nous redissiez nos cloches [...] ...qui les vouloient achapter pour la substantifique qualité de la complexion elementaire que est intronificquée en la terresterité de leur nature quidditative [...]

"Reddite que sunt Cesaris Cesari, et que sunt Dei Deo. "Par ma foy, Domine, si voulez souper avecques moy in camera, par le corps Dieu! charitatis (salle des hôtes), nos faciemus bonum cherubin. Ego occidi unum porcum, et ego habet bon vino.

"Or sus, De parte Dei, date nobis clochas nostras. "Ca! je vous prouve que me les doibvez bailler.

Ego sic argumentor : "Omnis clocha clochabilis, in clocherio clochando, clochans clochativo clochare facit colchabiliter chochantes. Parisius habet clochas.* Ergo gluc.**

* Toute cloche clochable, en clochant dans le clocher, clochant par le clochatif, fait clocher clochablement les clochants.

** Real formula for conclusion to an absurd argument I. Articulatory Phonetics--sound production

A. Consonants (& semi-consonants)--criteria for classification:

1. condition of vocal cords (voiced/voiceless) 2. point of articulation (where speech organs touch or constrict flow of breath) 3. manner of articulation (how breath controlled or directed)

B. Vowels--criteria for classification:

1. high/low (extent to which tongue raised) 2. front/center/back (part of tongue raised) 3. rounded/unrounded (of lips) 4. oral/nasal (breath through mouth & nose OR mouth only) 5. opened/closed (extent to which jaw opened)

II. Syllabification

Classical and Vulgar Latin, Old, Middle, and Modern French all divide into syllables the same way. In Latin and Old French a word has as many syllables as it has vowels or digraphs. de-a, de-ae, a-mi-cus, mit-to, con-ser-va-re, fi-lle, pe-re 1 2 1 2 1 2 3 1 2 1 2 3 4 1 2 1 2

A. Wherever possible a syllable begins with a sounded consonant. do-mi-na, o-cu-lum, gé-né-ra-teur, na-tu-rel

B. With two contiguous consonants, the syllable divides between them, including geminates. op-por-tu-ne, san-gu-is, nar-ra-tion, mar-di.

EXCEPTIONS: 1. do not divide digraphs ch & ss. ar-che-ty-pus, qua-ssa-re, mit-to, ar-chi-tec-ture,

2. nor the consonant clusters for l or n. fi-lle, di-gne (O.F.)

3. nor consonants followed by l or r. pa-trem, the-a-trum, an-gle, com-pren-dre, en-sem-ble III. Accentuation

A. Stress (loudness, duration, rhythmical emphasis) B. Pitch (tone, intonation, degree of tension in vocal cords) C. Modern French : Unlike other European languages, French has group or phrase-stress, rather than word-stress. The history of French phonology is, in one sense, the gradual elimination of word-stress, in favor of group-stress.

With a few exceptions, the accent or the stress falls on the last syllable of a word or phrase. Compare:

English: politics, possibility. Is HE playing?

French: politique, possibilité. C'est lui qui joue?

D. Latin: Pitch and stress were both part of the accentuation of Classical Latin (were it spoken). Pitch, however, left some time, presumably before the fifth century A.D., leaving only expiration stress, which was especially strong in Gaul.

Degrees of stress:

1. full ́ 2. secondary ̀ 3. weak (relative absence) TONIC COUNTER-TONIC ATONIC

cèrebéllum

COUNTER-TONIC TONIC ATONIC

sécondàry

TONIC ATONIC COUNTER-TONIC

There are monosyllabic or short two-syllable words which receive full, secondary or weak stress, depending on the word's syntactical function, logic or emotion: non, erat, bene, male, etc. Some are uniformly unaccented: de, ad, in, per, et, si, etc. E. Place of Accent in Latin:

1. for two-syllable words, on the first syllable:

cá-nem ná-vis má-gis ór-bis mág-nus dúl-cis

2. for words of three or more syllables, on the penult (next to last syllable) if the syllable is long. a-má-re

A syllable is long if one of the three situations holds

1) it contains a long vowel. secúrus

OR 2) it contains a diphthong. inaúdox

OR 3) it ends with a consonant. cerebéllum

A syllable is short if it ends in a short vowel. spécŭlum

3. If the penult is a short syllable, the accent falls on the antepenult. spécŭlum

There are, then, three possiblities for the place of the Latin accent: a) on the last syllable. This is possible for monosyllabic words only for Latin. Such words are OXYTONES. non, me, etc. b) on the penult. This is the case for most Latin words. Such words are PAROXYTONES. secúrus c) on the antepenult. Such words are PROPAROXYTONES. spécŭlum

F. A vowel within a syllable is said to be free in NOT followed by a consonant. Such a syllable is open. free vowel; open syllable: spe-cu-(lum)

A vowel within a syllable is said to be checked or blocked if the vowel IS followed by a pronounced consonant. Such a syllable is closed.

checked/blocked vowel; closed syllable: ce-re-bel-lum Use the following words to practice what has just been presented. Identify tonic, counter- tonic, and atonic syllables; closed and open syllables (as well as free or checked/blocked vowels); oxytones, pro- and paroxtones (words).

cas-tĕl-lum

sil-vā-tĭ-cus

bo-ni-tā-tem

cá-dĕ-re In Clasical Latin the quantity ( long ̄ or short ̆ ) of the vowel is phonemic.

vĕnit = he comes

vēnit = he came

pŏpulus = people

pōpulus = poplar tree

mālum = apple

mălum = evil

With Vulgar and Late Latin, vowel quantity is not phonemic, but vowel quality ( open or close) is phonemic--as is often the case is Mod. French.

Cl. Latin Vowels high i u mid ẹ ọ low a

Vulgar/Low Latin high i u mid-high ẹ ọ mid-low ę ǫ low a

(Quantity differences do exist in Mod. French. They are not, however, phonemic. rate /rat/ ~ rage /ra:ʒ/ CONSONANTS

Labio- Bilabial Dental Dental Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal

p t k Ɂ Stops b d g

f ṭ θ ç x h (slit) ḅ (ß) v ḍ (δ) ɣ Fricatives

s š (ʃ) (groove) z ž (ʒ)

ts t ʃ Affricates (stop + fricative) dz d ʒ

Nasals m n ñ ɲ ŋ

Laterals l λ ł

Vibrants r R

w y (j) w

Semi-vowels

ẅ (ɥ) ẅ (ɥ) VOWELS

Front Unrounded Front Rounded Center Rounded Back Oral /Nasal Oral / Nasal Oral Oral / Nasal

High i ĩ ü (y) ũ (ỹ) u

High-mid ẹ (e) ẽ ø ø̃ ə ọ (o) õ

Low-mid ę (ɛ) ɛ̃ œ œ̃ ɔ ɔ̃

Low ɑ ɑ̃ ɑ ɑ̃

Four Nasal Vowels of Modern French: ɛ̃, œ̃, ɔ̃, ɑ̃

For diphthongs, see Richard, p. 10. Articulatory Phonetics, Syllabification & Accentuation

A. Using your consonant and vowel handouts, classify the following sounds in accordance with those below already completed.

/p/-- VOICELESS, BILABIAL STOP /b/-- VOICED, BILABIAL STOP /t/-- /d/-- /k/-- /g/-- /f/-- /v/-- /s/-- /ṭ/-- /l/-- /n/-- /λ/-- /R/-- /j/-- /w/-- /ɥ/-- /ts/-- /dz/-- /e/-- front, unrounded, closed oral vowel /i/-- /i/-- /ɛ̃/-- /ẽ/-- /o/-- /ɔ/-- /õ/-- /ɔ̃/-- /u/-- /ü/-- /ø/-- /œ/-- /ø̃/-- /œ̃/-- /a/-- /ã/-- /ɑ/-- /ɑ̃/-- /ə/-- /ɛ/-- front, unrounded, open oral vowel B. 1. Transcribe phonetically. Use a dictionary with the IPA if necessary.

combien

résoudre

événement

passage

sculpter

sommeil

débrouiller

minimum

rose

optimiste

huit

2. Indicate whether the (underlined) vowel is OPEN or CLOSE, and write out the word in standard French spelling.

/pɔl/

/sɛn/

/sjɛkl/

/filozɔfi/

/poer/

/koer/

/məsjø/

/luwe/

/ʒon/

/pɔr/ C. Divide into syllables (e.g., mon-sieur)

h u m i l i s i m p e r a t o r

p e r i c u l u m e p i g r a m m a

c o r r e c t u m a n i m u s

r e s p o n s u m p r ae f e r r e

p e r f e c t u s c a s t e l l u m

c é m e n t e r c a r a f o n

p r é d é c e s s e u r s é p a r a t i o n

t e c h n i q u e t e n d r e s s e

s u b j o n c t i f p a l e f r e n i e r

o r t h o g r a p h e o r g u e i l l e u x

D. Accentuation

1. WORDS IN LATIN For each word, indicate whether it is an OXYTONE, PAROXYTONE or PROPAROXYTONE.

spēs sōlus

saccŭlus prātum

ūtilĭtās vīgintī

mons sŭpěrbus

crŭcis spectācŭlum

sacrāmentum bōvis

claritas venīre 2. VOWELS For each underlined vowel, indicate whether it is FREE or CHECKED (= BLOCKED).

natus multa

mortuus habere

haec exemplum dormir répéter

écrire compter

fin dupe

3. SYLLABLES IN LATIN For each underlined syllable, indicate whether it is LONG or SHORT, OPEN or CLOSED.

pŏrta

nŭměrus

saecŭlum

diăbŏlus

fātālis

dūrăbĭlis canis

edĭctum

4. VOWEL/SYLLABLE IN LATIN For each underlined vowel or syllable, indicate whether it is TONIC, COUNTER-TONIC or ATONIC.

quĭs? pŏrta nŭměrus saecŭlum diăbŏlus fātālis dūrăbilis cănis

explĭcare edĭctum STRESS and PHONOLOGICAL CHANGES in French

One of the most striking developments in the history of the French language is the gradual elimination of word-stress in favor of group-stress. In Latin the rhythm of the group was determined by word-stress (i.e., the alternation of tonic and atonic syllables), modified at most by a slight increase of stress on words which logic or emotion singled out for special emphasis. Accordingly, short words of purely syntactical significance tended to be pronounced with less stress and to play the same part in the group rhythm as atonic syllables. They grouped themselves around the nearest tonic syllable. If such words did receive logical stress equivalent to tonic stress, they show the same development as tonic syllables (ME > me and moi).

A. Through the Old French period

The tonic stress was the most important single factor in the phonetic history of the Romance languages, and it was particulary strong in Old French. It led to the loss or reduction to [ə] of the Latin post-tonic vowels. All post-tonic vowels vanish, with the exception of final a which usually survived as [ə].

PARTE VENDIT VIGINTI UNU MUROS UNA VIDUTA part vend vingt un murs une vie

Final vowels did remain if needed to support certain Latin or O.F. consonant clusters.

MACRU QUATTRO PATRE DUPLU LIBRU ASINU VENDUNT maigre quatre père double livre âne vendent ARBORE CAROLUS arbre Charles As a result, all Popular words (those words deriving from Vulgar Latin and following normal phonological evolution as opposed to Learned words or Analogical Remodeling) were stressed on the last syllable unless that syllable contained contained an [ə].

MUSCA > Sp. & Ital. mosca Fr. mouche

BENEDICTU > Ital. benedetto Sp. bendito Fr. bénit

The first syllable continued to be articulated with secondary stress, and counter-final syllables, caught between two stresses, were to a large extent eliminated (see BENEDICTU, preceding page).

Group-stress, as distinct from tonic stress, was apparently still determined in O.F. by logic and emotion, but a tendency to stress the final syllable of a group is evident in versification. At the same time, the first syllable of a group received a markèd stress and there is a tendency to place in this position words which it is desired to emphasize. B. Middle French period

It was undoubtedly in the Middle French period that the group-stress began more and more to overshadow the tonic stress and that the characteristic accentuation of Modern French was developed. This change is clearly connected with the gradual elimination of word-final [ə], a change which made all Popular words oxytonic. Words which had been accented on the first syllable in Latin thus became monosyllabic. CAMPUM > champ Other Popular words generally preserve in addition to the tonic syllable only the initial (counter-tonic). SACRAMENTUM > serment Consequently in Middle French, if we except Learned words, a speech- group consisted largely of tonic syllables, often consecutive or separated only by counter-tonic syllables. The oxytonic rhythm of the language was maintained by strengthening the stress on the final syllable of the group. From the point of view of stress, the word is therefore replaced by a group with the strongest stress on the final syllable and a secondary stress on the initial. Word-stress being thus eliminated, the intervening syllables are stressed according to meaning, the more significant elements receiving a sense-stress. In polysyllabic words the sense-stress often falls on the initial syllable or verb forms. This tendency, coupled with the tendency to stress the initial syllable of a group, completes the elimination of the tonic stress, and a definite turning-point in the history of French pronunciation is thus reached. In Modern French the tonic stress is uniformly preserved only if the word is used by itself i.e., constitutes a group in itself) or if it is the final word of a group. Nothing could illustrate more clearly the triumph of group-stress than the fact that even an unaccented enclitic pronoun receives a stress if it happens to stand in the final position (faites-le /fɛtlø/, NOT / fɛtlə/). C. Modern French period

Modern French has thus developed a rhythm which distinguishes it clearly from all other European languages. It is in principle an oxytonic rhythm (emphasized by a rising intonation pattern), the final syllable receiving somewhat more stress than the preceding syllables. Normally there is also a stress on the initial syllable of the group, or if it be a proclitic (je, ne, etc.), the following syllable.

Nous allons en Espagne.

Je pense bien. EITHER Jè pense bién /ʒəpɑ̃səbjɛ̃:/

OR Je pènse bién /ʃpɑ̃səbjɛ̃:/

The etymological stress lives on in the form of a group-stress whenever a word comes at the end of a group, but as the word moves to other positions in the group the stress disappears. The quality and quantity of vowels vary: [ɑ̃] is distinctly shorter in Que penses-tu? than in Qu'est-ce que tu penses?; [ɑ̃:] is a tense vowel in Il fait ce qu'il peut, but tends towards [ə] in Qu'est-ce que cela peut être?. But nothing could be more erroneous than to interpret such variations as indecision or lax articulation. The dominant character of French pronunciation remains the crisp, energetic, distinct articulation of both vowels and consonants. SOUND CHANGES: PRELIMINARIES

ATONICS WORD-FINAL

VIGINTI > vint > vingt FECI fis DEBET doit FERRUM fer MINUS moins NITIDUM net CABALLOS > chevals > chevaux MUROS murs

LATIN PAROXYTONS

DUPLUM double SOMNUM somme PATREM > pedre > père NOSTRUM > nostre > nôtre SIMIUM > *simjo > singe

LATIN PROPAROXYTONS

CAROLUS Charles MASCULUM > masle > mâle CALAMUM > chalme > chaume TITULUM > title > titre COMITEM conte LIGEREM Loire MALE HABITUM malade TEPIDUM tiède

A WORD-FINAL

DURA dure ALBA aube PLUMA plume PLUMAS plumes AMA aime AMAS aimes AMANT aiment

ATONICS COUNTERFINAL

DORMITORIUM dortoir RADICINA racine BONITATEM bonté CIVITATEM cité HOPITATEM hôtel BLASPHEMARE blâmer LUNAE DIES lundi ADJUTARE aider SIMULARE sembler COLLOCARE coucher *PARAULARE parler

ATONICS WORD-INITIAL

BEFORE R

BERYLLARE briller DIRECTUM droit DIRECTIARE dresser QUIRITARE crier *VERACUM vrai

VARIOUS

APOTHECA boutique AQUITANIA Guyenne ILLUM lo, le ILLA la ILLORUM leur icest > cest > cet, ce ici > ci (e.g., celui-ci) UNICORNEM licorne

Beginning with page 46, recall that whatever the spelling of the Classical Latin etymon given, the vowel system of Vulgar Latin had simplified and corresponded to the following indications:

Classical Latin Vulgar Latin ī i [i]

ĭ, ē, œ é [e] ĕ, æ è [e] ā, ă a [a ] ŏ ò [o] ō, ŭ ó [ o]

ū u [u] SOUND CHANGES: VOWELS

I TONIC -- Free or Checked [i] => [i]

MILLE mil FILUM fil SCRIPTUM écrit RIPA VITA NIDUM VILLA

CLOSED E TONIC -- Checked (LATIN ē or ĭ) [e] => [ɛ]

EPISCOPUM évêque PISCAT pêche DEB(I)TA dette ILLA MITTERE FISSA VIR(I)DEM MISSA

CLOSED E TONIC Free [e] => [ɔi] => [we] => [wɑ]

FIDEM foi DEBES dois HABERE avoir PE(N)SUM SETA BIBAM boive PIPER CREDERE

OPEN E TONIC -- Checked (LATIN ĕ) [ɛ] => [ɛ]

HIBERNUM hiver CERVUM cerf INFERNUM SEPTEM TERRA FESTA

OPEN E TONIC -- Free [ɛ] => [iɛ] => [jɛ]

FEL fiel HERI BREVEM brief FEBREM fièvre PETRA AD RETO arrière A TONIC -- Checked [a] => [a]

PARTEM part CAPTIAT chasse CARRUM char CABALLUM BRACCHIUM NAV(I)GAT nage VACCA

A TONIC -- Free [a] => [ɛ]

MARE SAL NAVEM nef PATREM ...... NASSUM CLAVEM PRATUM AMARE aimer

OPEN O TONIC -- Checked [ɔ] => [ɔ]

DORMIT dort MORTEM mort PORCUM PORTA FORTEM

OPEN O TONIC -- Free [ɔ] => [ue] => [oe] OR [ø] BOVEM boeuf > buef NOVEM neuf > nuef NOVUM COR VOLET OPERA POTET peut

OPEN O PROTONIC -- Free or Checked [ɔ] => [u] FORMICEM fourmi TORMENTUM tourment CORONA MORIRE NOVELLUM nouveau JOCARE LOCARE *VOLERE vouloir COLOREM

CLOSED O TONIC -- Checked (LATIN ō OR ŭ) [o] => [u]

URSUM ours FURCA fourche *CORTEM cour DUB(I)TA MUSCA CO(N)STAT GUTTA

CLOSED O TONIC -- Free [o] => [œ] OR [ø] FLOREM fleur > fluer > flor ILLOREM HORA heure SOLUM GULA NODUM noeud NEPOTEM neveu DUOS

CLOSED O PROTONIC -- Checked or Free [o] => [u]

CORTE(N)SEM courtois DUB(I)TARE douter SUBVENIRE souvenir NODARE SPO(N)SARE SUBINDE souvent *DIURNATA

U TONIC -- Checked or Free [u] => [y]

NULLUM nul CULUM BRUMA JUDICARE juger FUMARE PALATALIZATION

PALATAL + E (LATIN ē or ĭ) [e] => [i]

MERCEDEM > mercit > merci CERA cire LICERE loisir PLACERE plaisir TACERE taisir

PALATAL + A TONIC -- Free [a] => [ie] => [je] (=> [e]) OR [jɛ] (=> [ɛ]) CARUM > chier > cher PECCARE > pechier > pécher NEGARE > neiier > nier NECARE > neiier > noyer PACARE > paiier > payer JUDICARE > jugier > juger

PALATAL + A PROTONIC -- Free [‘a] => [ə]

CABALLUM cheval CAMISIA chemise CAPILLUM cheveu

I + PALATAL [i] => [i]

DICERE dire AMICUM SALSICIA saucisse *AMICITATEM amitié

CLOSED E + PALATAL [e] => [ei] => [we] => [wɑ]

PLICAT > pleie > ploie LEGEM > lei > loi REGEM > rei > roi STRICTUM > étreit > étroit DIGITUM > deit > doigt (also) FRIGIDUM > freit > froid REGALEM > reial > royal LEGALEM > leial > loyal *PISCIONEM > peisson > poisson OPEN E + PALATAL [ɛ] => [i]

DECEM NEGAT *PRECAT prie LEGERE lire MEDIUM mi SEX sis > six LECTUM lit ECCLESIA église PECTUS pis

OPEN E PROTONIC + PALATAL [ɛ] => [ei] => [we] => [wɑ]

VECTURA > veiture > voiture MEDIETATEM > meitié > moitié MESSIONEM > meisson > moisson SEXAGINTA > seissante > soixante

A + PALATAL [a] => [ai] => [ɛ] OR [e] FACERE faire MAJUM mai RADIUM rai FACTUM PACEM LAXAT ESAGIUM essai PACARE PLAGA plaie RATIONEM ADJUTARE > aidier > aider

OPEN O TONIC + PALATAL [ɔ] => [ɥi]

NOCTEM nuit OCTO huit NOCERE nuire CORIUM cuir

OPEN O PROTONIC + PALATAL [ɔ] => [ɔj] => [wɑ]

LOCARIUM loyer FOCARIUM foyer

CLOSED O + PALATAL [o] => [oj] => [wɑ]

VOCEM voix ANGUSTIA angoisse TO(N)SIONEM toison CRUCEM croix Ū + PALATAL [u] => [ɥi]

FRUCTUM TRUCTA truite DUCERE duire

CLOSED E + PALATAL L [e] => [ɛλ] => [ɛj]

SOLICULUM soleil (e, + yod) VERMICULUM vermeil PARICULUM pareil AURICULA oreille VIGILARE veiller

OPEN E + PALATAL L [ɛi] => [ɛλ] => [ɛj]

OR [ø] MELIUS mieux VETULUM > veclo > vieil MELIOREM meilleur

A + PALATAL L [a] => [aλ] => [aj]

ALIUM ail TREPALIUM travail MACULA maille PALEA paille

OPEN O + PALATAL L [ɔi] => [ɔλ] => [œj]

OCULUM oeil FOLIA feuille CAPRIFOLIUM chèvrefeuil

CLOSED O + PALATAL L [ol] => [uλ] => [uj] (=> [u])

GENUCULUM genou RANUCULA (g)renouille VERRUCULUM verrou *ANDUCLA andouille NASALIZATION

I + NASAL [i] => [ĩn] => [ɛ̃n] => [ɛ̃] OR [ĩm] => [ɛ̃m] => [ɛ̃] FINEM QUINQUAGINTA SIMIUM singe VINUM PRIMUM TEMPUS printemps

E + NASAL + CONSONANT [ɛ] => [ɛ̃ń] => [ɑ̃ń] => [ɑ̃] OR [ɛ̃m] => [ɑ̃ḿ] => [ɑ̃]

PRENDERE prendre VENTUM vent IN FINE enfin VENERIS DIES VINDICARE venger SENTIRE CIN(E)REM SIM(U)LAT semble

CLOSED E + WORD-FINAL NASAL [e] => [ẽn] => [ɛ̃ń] => [ɛ̃] OR [ẽm] => [ẽḿ] => [ɛ̃]

FRENUM frein PLENUM SINUM REN rein REMOS Rheims SERENUM serein

OPEN E TONIC + WORD-FINAL NASAL [ɛ̃’] => [ɛ̃n] => [jɛ̃] OR [ɛ̃m] => [jɛ̃]

BENE REM MEUM mien VENIT vient TENET tient A + NASAL + CONSONANT [a] => [ãn] => [ɑ̃] OR [ãm] => [ɑ̃] CAMPUM champ GRANDEM > grant > grand CAM(E)RA chambre MAN(I)CA manche ANNUM an CAMBIARE changer

A TONIC + NASAL + VOWEL [a] => [ãń] => [ɛ̃n] => [ɛ̃] OR [ãḿ] => [ɛ̃m] => [ɛ̃] GRANUM MANUM SANUM sain PANEM FAMEM faim AMO aim

O + NASAL [o] => [ɔ̃ń] => [ɔ̃n] => [ɔ̃] OR [ɔ̃ḿ] CONTRA contre MONTEM mont FUNDUS fond(s) COM(I)TEM comte FONTANA fontaine FUNDARE fonder DONUM don RATIONEM raison NOMEM nom

U + NASAL [u] => [ỹń] => [œ̃ń] => [œ] OR [ỹḿ] => [œ̃ḿ] UNUM un AUGUSTODUNUM Autun LUNAE DIES VERODUNUM Verdun

VOWELS + PALATAL N [ɛɲ] / [aɲ] / [ɔɲ]

INSIGNIA enseigne VENIAM > viegne > vienne TENEAM > tiegne > tienne SENIOREM seigneur MONTANEA montagne HISPANIA Espagne AGNELLUM agneau CUNIARE cogner VERECUNDIA vergogne SOUND CHANGES: CONSONANTS

Consonants from CL to EOF: K and G (Velar Stops)

N.B.: CL c = [k], g = [g]

EOF c before i or e = [ts], otherwise = [k]

EOF ç = [ts]

EOF g before i or e = [dʒ], otherwise = [g]

EOF ch = [t], j = [dʒ]

EOF final -z = [ts]

EOF intervocalic -s- = [z]

CL centum EOF cent CL gentem EOF gent cenare cener gelare geler cilium cil gemere giendre cinere cendre generum gendre cerebellum cervel

rumicem ronce argentum argent mercedem merci pollicem polce

falcem falz salicem salz crucem croiz legem lei vocem voiz regem rei

racemum raisin flagellum flaiel placere plaisir pagensem paiis dicentem disant

LL facia face corrigiam correie LL glacia glace brachia brace LL Francia France Georgius Georges arcionem arçon brachium braz exagium essai facio faz fugio fui campum champ LL gamba jambe cantet chante(t) galbinum jalne caballum cheval gallinam geline causam chose gaudia joie

*franka franche navigat nage(t) arcam arche largam large buccam boche longam longe siccam seche advocatum avoé(t) rugam rue locare loer amicam amie necat nie(t) negat nie(t) secam sie pacare paiier paganos paiiens necare neiier negare neiier decanum deiien bacam baie plagam plaie collum col guttam gote coronam corone gulam goule cumulum comble gobionem gojon curam cure cretam crei(d)e grandes granz falconem falcon angustiam angoisse porcum porc longum lonc siccum sec largum larc securum seür augustum aost Saucona Saone neco ni nego ni paco pai lego li amicum ami lacrimam lairme nigum neir sacramentum sairement magis mais laxo lais legere lire facere faire nocere nuire noctem nuit auriculam oreille regulam reille maculum maille vigilat veille(t) *veculum vieil Consonants from CL to EOF: P and B (Bilabial Stops) purum pur plenum plein bellum bel brachium braz talpam talpe exemplum essemple campum champ carbonem charbon membrum membre *corbum corp ripam rive habere aveir aprilem avril libram livre leporem lièvre trabem tref *capum chief cuppam cope > cupe cippum cep abbatem abet duplum doble > duble tabulam table septem set capsam chasse debita dete subtilem sotil > sutil corpus GR korps EOF cors apes aeps es galbinum galbne jalne lavare LL labare laver navem nabe nef vivere bibre vivre cameram camra chambre cumulum comlu comble Consonants from CL to EOF: T and D (Dentals)

fortia force [ts] pretium pris [s] rationem raison [z]

radium rai diurnum jorn > jurn podium pui medium mi

tarde tart mando mant

surdos sorz > surz [ts] pedes piez [ts]

vitam vite > vie gratum gret > gré nudam nude > nue fidem feit > foi petram piedre > piere

mittit met

sunt sont portat portet

aestimare esmer perdere perdre ordinem orne alterum altre pontes ponz ponere pondre pulverem poldre *essere estre ......

Kw and Gw

qui qui [k] linguam lengue [g] quaero quier [k] quando quant [k]

Frk. *wardôn guader [gw] *werra guerre [gw] Consonants from CL to EOF: fricatives

fidem feit inflare enfler defendere defendre affirmare afermer

horam oure > eure *helm helm *heriberga herberge

causam chose [z] scutellam escuele nasum nes [s] statum estet *skalja escaille *spehôn espier missam messe [s] bassum bas [s]

Consonants from CL to EOF: Nasals illam ele mensem meis instrumentum estrement agnellum agnel, aignel, aingel, angnel famem fain nomen non comitem conte feminam fame animan ame vineam vigne, vingne montaneam montagne, montaigne, -taingne, -tangne simium singe commeatum congiet Consonants from CL to EOF: semi-consonants ventum [ḅ́ ] vent [v] lavare laver ianuarium janvier annualem anvel *sparwari espervier magis mais radium rai iam ja [dʒ] gentem gent diurnum jorn rationem raison mansionem maison corium cuir filiam [lj] fille [λ] lineam [nj] ligne, lingne [ɲ] rubeum roge > rouge caveam c(h)age simium singe sapiam sache *hapja hache SOUND CHANGES: CONCLUSION

Find OF reflexes of the following Latin forms. What problem do you see arising? campus campos cantus cantos nullus nudus nudos navem napum naves napus napos nasus nasum nasi nasos natus natos

Has the problem been solved? How? armatura

calamum

hospitalem

*collocare

pensare

tibia

separare

diurnum

nausea

frigidum

strictum

asperitatem examen blasphemare

vindicare

redemptionem

sacramentum

nativum

liberationem pensum

rememorare Phonological Anomalies Real & Apparent amour jaloux cage chage

fabliau fableau

tubulare > troubler pro > pour formaticum > fromage

Sp. mosquito > moustique

OF tiule > MF tuile

peregrinem > pelerin divinum > devin

*gundfanon > gonfalon flammula > flamble > flambe

*bilancia > balance circare > cerchier > cherch(i)er Trace the development from Latin to Modern French, and give the popular reflex of the following:

C.L. or L.L. Lrnd. L.

cumulare cumuler maior majeur rabia rab[ique] causa cause opera opéra (from Ital.) armatura armature iacentem (sous-)jacent

*fusionem fusion *strigila strigile navigare naviguer capitalem capital legalem légal simulare simuler

Nigrum nègre (from Sp.) nativum natif

Recemum racém(ique) bulgarus bulgare Indicate what is unusual, vestigial or otherwise noteworthy in the following Mod. French expressions:

femme moustique (

(à) grand-peine

gars, garçon

Pont-L'Evêque noblesse oblige

étincelle (

Hôtel-Dieu grand'chose

Charles from Vie de Saint Alexis (11th c.)

Bons fut li secles al tens anciënur 1 Quer feit i ert e justise et amur, ...... Al tens Noé et al tens Abraham 3 Et al David, qui Deus par amat tant, Bons fut li secles,......

Velz est e frailes,...... 6 Puis icel tens que Deus nus vint salver, Nostra anceisur ourent cristïentét,

from Perceval Chrétien de Troyes from Guiot ms: from ms T:

Et si dist ma mere meïsme Ce me dist ma mere meïsme qu'an doit Deu croire et aorer Qu'en doit Dieu sor toz aorer et soploier et enorer, Et suppliier et honorer, et je aorerai cestui, Et je aor(e)rai cestui et toz les altres avoec lui." Et toz les angles aprés lui." Derivations I.

Make an educated guess, based on information at hand to date concerning sound changes or any good dictionary (including actual etymological dictionaries), as to the Popular French Reflex (not learned borrowings!) yielded by the following etyma. This is a student activity which is to be done without consultation of university faculty. You are free to work together in any combination; your individual answer sheets will be graded and a grade assigned to each individual.

1. OCULUM 2. *PITTITTUM 3. FOSSA 4. CALAMUM 5. CAPUT 6. CATTUS 7. *CAPTIARE 8. *BRACHITARE, DE BRACCHIUM 9. *ADVENTURA 10. *ALIQUUNUS 11. ALBA 12. BALARE 13. BLASPHEMARE 14. CIRCULUM 15. *CERESIA 16. CARO 17. CANTIONEM 18. CUNEUM 19. CREDERE 20. CORPUS 21. DEBERE 22. CASTIGARE 23. CLAVUM 24. CALIDUM 25. DUPLARE 26. DIRECTU 27. SCRIBERE 28. INQUISITA 29. FACERE 30. FEBRE > FEBRIS 31. FOCU 32. FILIA 33. FRIGIDUM 34. FRUCTUM 35. GLORIA 36. JOVIS DIES 37. HORAM 38. JUVENEM 39. HIBERNU 40. LACTEM 41. LINGUAM 42. LOCUM 43. LINEA 44. LEGERE 45. MANDUCARE 46. MEL 47. LEGALEM 48. MISSA 49. LOCARE 50. NAVIGARE 51. NOVA 52. NATALEM 53. NIGRU > NIGER 54. NOCTE 55. PANIS 56. PIETAS 57. PETRAM 58. PLENUM 59. PRETIUM 60. PUGNU(S) 61. PROBA 62. SAPERE 63. SECURU 64. RATIONEM 65. *RACIMUM 66. REGALEM 67. REDEMPTIONEM Derivations II.

Make an educated guess, based on information at hand to date concerning sound changes or any good dictionary (including actual etymological dictionaries), as to the Latin etymon for the following words. This is a student activity which is to be done without consultation of university faculty. You are free to work together in any combination; your individual answer sheets will be graded and a grade assigned to each individual.

1. yeux 2. fossé 3. châtaigne 4. braquer 5. aventure 6. aube 7. aubépine 8. avancer 9. béer 10. bien 11. bêler 12. blâmer 13. bouche 14. cercle 15. cerf 16. chair 17. chandelle 18. changer 19. chanson 20. coin 21. doute 22. coûter 23. châtier 24. clef 25. chaud 26. chère 27. douer 28. droit 29. écrire 30. enquête 31. entendre 32. fièvre 33. feu 34. frère 35. heure 36. jeune 37. langue 38. lettre 39. lieu 40. ligne 41. lire 42. manger 43. miel 44. mettre 45. loyal 46. messe 47. loyer 48. nager 48. neuf 49. neuve 50. noël 51. noir 52. nuit 53. pain 54. pitié 55. piété 56. pierre 57. plein 58. prix 59. nègre 60. poign 61. preuve 62. nombre 63. savoir 64. sûr 65. raison 66. royal 67. règne 68. rançon STYLISTICS: OLD FRENCH PERIOD

In general, word order for complete sentences is freer. This is theoretically so since there is syntactical information provided by the flexions for nouns, determiners, and verbs. It is in fact so, as can be seen in poetry. For the 12th and 13th centuries, as you now know, there is little more than verse in French. For that reason, one must be leery of generalizations concerning what was actually done with word order in Old French texts other than those extant.

Subject pronouns and determiners, including definite and indefinite articles, were present less systematically or obligatorially than has become the case with Mod. French. Consequently, the presence or absence of such words could be considered if not always optional, at least, of stylistic import, i.e., conveying shades of meaning or tone.

Vocabulary is difficult to assess. In a time of such manifold linguistic change as the Middle Ages, it is uncertain what choices in diction (vocabulary choice) were available to an author for any period in any region. In any case, the extant literature suggests a rich range of both learned and popular words, and numerous synonymes in verse and prose alike.

It is doubtful that various registers of elegance are plentiful. The rhetorics of the period were intended for Latin composition. Although since antiquity high, low, and middle styles were distinguished, the texts in Old French were probably written implicitly in middle-to-low style. Provençal lyric poetry was of a refined and elegant sort, frequently of a highly formal nature as well, but the langue d'oïl was generally used for the edification of the people of a non- discriminating taste anyway. One might make an exception for the rhymed courtly romance which emulated the vocabulary and refined parlance found in the Provençal lyric. In any event, discernible differences in register even if not so great as with later French literature exist. Comedies and the later fabliaux clearly use a vulgar to colloquial language. The chronicles, written usually to glorify the past of a noble family, were frequently of a less coarse sort. A work such as the Roland seems at times elegant, reminiscent in places of biblical (O.T.) style, in places coarse.

Prose becomes more plentiful in the 14th-15th centuries, particularly as a result of the remaniements of O.F. chansons de geste and rhymed verse narratives--ususally of a courtly nature. Syntax is frequently convoluted and unclear. Pronouns are not infrequently used without an explicit antecedent. Relative pronouns often refer not to the last possible antecedent but to one still more remote. It is probably safe to say that style is not a matter of serious and extended reflexion and experimentation until the late 15th and especially 16th centuries. STYLISTICS: MIDDLE FRENCH PERIOD

By the end of the 13th century there is as much prose produced as verse, at least to judge by what remains. We will be looking at prose style, not versification, a technical matter of some complexity. (See for references: Suberville Histoire et théorie de la versification française, Elwert Traité de versification française).

Not only is there a wide-spread interest in long prose remaniements of the 12th century rhymed narratives of yesterday, there is an increase in learning generally taking place and germinal valorizing of the vernacular in many a medieval mind. Thus French is invigorated by the the late 12th century "renaissance," in particular by the efforts of those who brought their knowledge of Latin--its lexicon and rhetoric--to bear on French. To the influx of new words there corresponds an increase in options for diction; as the former grows, so too the latter; for every new word there is a new choice possible. As synonymes differentiate, each acquiring a meaning or nuance peculiar to it, shades of meaning and nuance proliferate generally, with the result that the language becomes both more supple and subtle. Not surprisingly, care and thoughtfulness are ever more discernible in the redaction of French prose pieces. Under such conditions, one may approach the matter of late medieval and Middle French vernacular style(s) with increasing assurance and reward. Notice, incidentally, that this early rise in prestige and expressive potential predates the (French) Renaissance, despite the deliberate impression frequently (and falsely) left by the humanists that the vernacular was finally, only with the 16th century, emerging from the "Dark Ages."

In any event, the borrowings from Latin enrich not only the lexicon of Middle French, but influence its very rhythm of discourse, presumably spoken as well as written. Popular reflexes are typically of few syllables. Syncope had shorn most Latin words of more than one syllable and, with the loss of those atonic syllables, had very nearly leveled out spoken rhythm (See pp. 31-33, 41-45). Learned words, especially the Latin loan-words of the fifteenth century bring in large numbers of polysyllabic words which retain, as well, most of their tonic, counter-tonic and atonic syllables. Thus, different rhythms become possible for poetry--and prose.

There is little reason to postulate, before the Middle French Period, a significant divergence between spoken French and written French--particularly when it is recalled that nearly everything was written in Latin and that the reason French was sometimes chosen was precisely to communicate effectively with unlearned listeners. One should then very much expect that texts in the vernacular closely parallel the popular idiom. Except for word order, patterns of rhyme and assonance, a certain number of lexical items, and perhaps an irresistible rhetorical flourish here and there, what is written was probably much like the spoken language. For all too obvious reasons, the true nature of the old spoken language must remain within the realm of probable knowledge at best; its true nature can never be known exhaustively or definitively. As time passes, with the Middle French period and especially during the sixteeth century, the gulf between the spoken word and the written word becomes wider and wider. It was part of the prevailing esthetic that artistic prose utilize rhetorical effects that could be arrived at best after careful consideration and experimentation. As Erich Auerbach has shown in Mimesis this is so even with a seemingly simple, unadorned style, as with the Chanson de Roland. Spontaneous writing would have been regarded as mere unfinished writing, from this esthetic vantagepoint; it offers little that cannot be had in conversation. Expensive parchment and velum, as well as the time of the scribe or the copiste, are resources reserved for documents particularly worthy of preservation. Remember that books are not mere media of conveyance, mere bridges for the meeting of the minds, they are not disposable objects whose worth amounts to no more than the content they contain. They are objects few can afford; and, as the beautiful caligraphy and illuminations remind us, they are objects of beauty and grandeur in their own right. Remember, too, that for the most part, people did not write to extend their message geographically. That will not become the case until a means of mass producing written documents at low cost presents itself with the invention of the printing press. People wrote to give their discourse a pleasing or effective presentation and form. Writing was used to extend the message only temporally, at best; that is, so that the message might be read by successive generations.

Style then emerges as a rather distinct aspect of vernacular writing gradually throughout the Early Old and Middle French periods. The medieval as well as the Middle French mentality requires that instruction, edification, and enjoyment--often all at once--immediately stand under any particular redaction. Thus a concern for and with style(s) is implicit throughout the 11th through the Middle French Period.

Before leaving the topic at hand, mention must be made of one final but pervasive influence on Middle French prose style.

The fifteenth century legal and administrative circles exercise a lasting influence on the French language generally. As we have already seen in this course of study, the praticiens were decisive, in at least the short run, on matters pertaining to orthography and vocabulary. They play a major role in the determination of French prose style as well. Their stylistic legacy can be briefly summed up by enumeration of their writing tendencies: sobriety of tone, high degree of specificity, tightness and clarity of articulation and syntax (as in relatives and antecedents), (over)use of relatives pronouns and determiners like lequel,laquelle; ledit, ladite, et passim, themselves instances of acute specificity. But to Descartes and the Classicism whose rational side he is said to have inspired goes the credit, in most literary histories, for the clarity and precision of the French prose style whose true champions are, in my opinion, the much underestimated practiciens. NAME

F422 Midterm Exam History of the French Language

I. Simple Format (30 pts./15 minutes)

Answer all twenty questions.

1. At the outset of the seventeenth century, one figure more than any other perhaps incarnates the reaction against the liberal growth in vocabulary and syntax typical of the preceding centuries by proscribing: archaisms, neologisms, learned borrowings from Latin, provincialisms, and technical terms. This was:

A. Malherbe B. Erasmus C. Du Bellay D. Dante

2. The following modern French vocabulary items are loanwords from or were brought into the language by: acquarelle, sonate, gramme, congrès, budget, mètre, solo, plébiscite, grog

A. 18th century, England

B. 1789 +, French Revolution

C. 14th century, Latin

D. 16th century, Italy Circle the correct ANSWER(S).

3. There are vast numbers of prose texts written in French in the twelfth and thirteen centuries. (T / F)

4. The literary prestige of Occitan, in the north of France especially, suffered a serious setback with the Albigensian Crusade. (T / F)

5. A sound in a language that is functional or distinctive is called an phoneme; whereas a sound that offers no distinction (grammatical or semantic) is called an allophone. (T / F)

6. Assimilation is a linguistic term designating an adaptation of a sound to its immediate phonetic environment. (T / F) F422 Midterm page 2

7. Syllabic alternation can be invoked in an account of many irregular verbs, especially those having a vowel change in the stem. (T / F)

8. French spelling in the Middle French period was guided by three principles, according to Rickard and Beaulieux before him: rapprochement (= R) differenciation (= D) pronunciation (=P) Which principles do these examples illustrate:

PUT R, D OR P IN THE BLANKS BELOW.

mes, mets, mais grand (for grant), il perd (for il pert), sept (for set), scauuoir (for savoir) femme (for fame) soustance/sustance/substance, oscur/obscur, poix, poids, poix

9. In the sixteenth century French made inroads into such traditionally Latin domains as: medical writing, mathematical treatises, astronomy, natural philosophy, theological discourses, and university lecturing. (T / F)

10. The most famous apology for the French language is undoubtedly Du Bellay's Deffence et illustration de la langue françoyse. (T / F)

11. The knowledge that the sixteenth-century grammarians had of ancient Greek, Hebrew, and especially Latin, provided them with valid methods and schemata for the analysis of French grammar. (T / F)

12. The cedilla, the acute accent for [e], the apostrophe, and the dieraesis (e.g., ambigüe), were mainly innovations on the part of sixteenth-century printers. (T / F)

13. The sixteenth century "quarrel" that the French language had with Italian and with Latin was of the same nature, with the same language concerns at stake in both cases. (T / F)

14. The chief rival to French as the international language is

15. One influence of the written on the oral language is the steady increase from the nineteenth through the twentieth centuries of liaison. (T / F) F422 Midterm page 3

16. Twentieth century changes in the pronunciation of such words as legs, gageure, sculpter, and oignon are representative of: a) lack of historical perspective b) normal phonological change c) awareness of etymology and linguistics d) influence of spelling on pronunciation e) influence of the Académie Française (CIRCLE ALL CORRECT ANSWERS)

17. The most frequent source of neologisms in French is and has been for some time English. (T / F)

18. Although first conjugation infinitves such as manger were once pronounced /ma R/ and later /ma e/, the second conjugation infinitives (e.g., finir) have never lost the pronunciation of the final "r". (T / F)

19. Classical Latin is an analytic language. (T / F)

20. How many cases were there in Vulgar Latin?

II. Short Answer-I.D. (30 points/20 minutes)

Identify or comment briefly ALL items preceded by an asterisk (*), namely 1-15, and do any others, optionally, time permitting.

*1. In a sense, French is doubly derivitive of Latin. First, of course, French evolved over time from the Latin spoken in Gaul. Yet what also happened with respect to Latin in the 14th through the 16th centuries approximately?

*2. How important is the rather considerable translation activity of Latin texts into French for the French language of the Mid. Fr. period?

*3. How closely related are French orthography and phonology? F422 Midterm page 4

*4. Who was Ferdinand de Saussure?

*5. What is the difference between Vulgar Latin and Classical Latin?

*6. When did modern French emerge?

*7. The Académie Française was to produce three major types of reference works. What were two types of them?

*8. Strasbourg Oaths

*9. genetive

*10. What accounts for the boot-shaped present tense conjugation pattern typical of so many verbs?

*11. oblique

*12. Qui pour ly grans Dieux aourez

*13. Ordonnance de Villers-Cotterets

*14.-*15. Transcribe phonetically with the IPA:

les hommes et les femmes français F422 Midterm page 5

16. 813

17. Reichenau Glosses

18. "Mis langages est boens, car en France fui nez."

19. The first official grammar of the Académie Française was published approximately how long after that organization's inception? How influencial is it today?

20. How much of a threat does Rickard regard either the encroachments of the English language on French or changes within the French language to its purity or excellence?

21. Which sort of Latin is that found on the sides of buildings in Pompeii?

22. langue d'oc

23. Why is it that aller has three different stems: one beginning with al-, one with v-, and one with ir-?

24. imparisyllabic nouns

25. Saint Eulalia F422 Midterm page 6

C. Short Essay (40 points/25 minutes) Choose ONE topic to develop

1. Discuss French orthography and reforms over the history of the French language from its beginnings.

2. Discuss the growth in prestige of what has become standard French both within and without France.

3. How have other languages influenced French vocabulary over the centuries?

Use reverse side if necessary (rather than another sheet). F422 FINAL EXAM Tuesday May 5, 1988 NAME

PART I (50 PTS.)

A. Match the examples of nine different linguistic phenomena.

1. femme a) palatalization

2. moustique (

3. (à) grand-peine c) etymological spelling

4. gars, garçon d) analogical remodeling

5. Pont-L'Evêque e) metathesis

6. noblesse oblige f) assimilation

7. étincelle (

8. Charles h) cases

9. li peres i) prothetic letter/sound j) vestige of an O.F. k) survival of O.F. nominative l) nasalization m) vestige Latin's lack of some articles F422 Final PAGE 2 NAME

B. True or false

(TRUE--FALSE) The literary prestige of Occitan enjoyed a wave of enthusiasm with the Albigensian Crusade.

(TRUE--FALSE) A sound in a language that is functional or distinctive is called an allophone; whereas a sound that offers no distinction (grammatical or semantic) is called an phoneme.

(TRUE--FALSE) Assimilation is a linguistic term designating an adaptation of a sound to its immediate phonetic environment.

(TRUE--FALSE) Syllabic alternation can be invoked in an account of many irregular verbs, especially those having a vowel change in the stem.

(TRUE--FALSE) Grand for grant represents a case of what Rickard and Beaulieux before him call differenciation.

(TRUE--FALSE) The most famous apology for the French language is undoubtedly Du Bellay's Deffence et illustration de la langue françoyse.

(TRUE--FALSE) One influence of the written on the oral language is the steady increase from the nineteenth through the twentieth centuries of liaison.

(TRUE--FALSE) Twentieth century changes in the pronunciation of such words as legs, gageure, sculpter, and oignon are representative of lack of normal phonological change.

(TRUE--FALSE) The most frequent source of neologisms in French is and has been for some time English.

(TRUE--FALSE) Classical Latin is an analytic language.

(TRUE--FALSE) At the outset of the seventeenth century, Du Bellay more than any other perhaps incarnates the reaction against the liberal growth in vocabulary and syntax typical of the preceding centuries by proscribing: archaisms, neologisms, learned borrowings from Latin, provincialisms, and technical terms.

(TRUE--FALSE) There is much more prose in the Old French of the twelfth and thirteen centuries than verse.

(TRUE--FALSE) There were three cases were there in Vulgar Latin. F422 Final PAGE 3 NAME

(TRUE--FALSE) Ferdinand de Saussure was the European linguist who discovered Sanskrit.

(TRUE--FALSE) The sixteenth century "quarrel" that the French language had with Italian and with Latin was of the same nature, with the same language concerns at stake in both cases.

(TRUE--FALSE) The chief rival to French as the international language is English.

(TRUE--FALSE) The Académie Française was to produce three major types of reference works: a dictionary, a grammar, and a thesaurus.

(TRUE--FALSE) The Ordonnance de Villers-Cotterets ordered priests to deliver the sermon in the vernacular (French or German) rather than Latin.

(TRUE--FALSE) The first official grammar of the Académie Française was published within ten years of its founding. (T /F)

(TRUE--FALSE) The following words are among those that survive as "dialectal" rather than Francien: amour, jaloux, cage, fabliau.

(TRUE--FALSE) The following Mod. Fr. words, prêtre, ancêtre, peintre, traître, soeur are among the small number of popular reflexes which survived the Old French period as nominatives rather than obliques.

(TRUE--FALSE) The reflexes: copain, gars, and sire are nominative survivals of O.F. whose oblique counter-parts also survive.

(TRUE--FALSE) The Strasbourg Oaths date from the year 813 A.D.

(TRUE--FALSE) The definite articles of Mod. Fr. derived from the definite articles of C. L.

(TRUE--FALSE) The vast majority of Mod. French adverbs and conjunctions derived directly from the corresponding C.L. adverbs and conjunctions.

(TRUE--FALSE) Mod. Fr. present subj. and preterite derived their forms from the corresponding verb forms in C.L.

(TRUE--FALSE) The verb habere has left its mark in the Mod. Fr. simple future and conditional tenses.

(TRUE--FALSE) Even in the 17th century, a past participle agreed regularly with a preceding direct object. F422 Final PAGE 4 NAME

(TRUE--FALSE) The constructon consisting of the present of aller plus infinitive is accurately called sometimes the futur proche (or futur prochain).

(TRUE--FALSE) Seventeenth-century writers had reached general agreement that point was a stronger negation than pas.

(TRUE--FALSE) In doing Romance Linguistics, it is essential to recognize that sound laws are descriptions of regular sound changes that hold true, regardless of particular language, dialect, time or place.

(TRUE--FALSE) In Old French, just as is the case in modern French, the first negative particule (ne) was not nearly so important as the second one (pas, jamais, etc.).

(TRUE--FALSE) As for vocabulary, the seventeenth century welcomed neologisms and loan words, whereas the eighteenth century saw a general return to a "pure" French lexicon.

(TRUE--FALSE) One effect of the New Learning was to render Latin more adaptable to the ever-changing needs of sixteenth-century French society. (TRUE--FALSE) The most famous apology for the French language is undoubtedly John Palsgrave's De la precellence du langage francois.

(TRUE--FALSE) A comparison with Latin reveals that all French consonant sounds (phonemes) remained as they had been in Latin.

(TRUE--FALSE) The tongue-trilled (or apical) /r/ and the uvular /r/ are, in French, allophones.

(TRUE--FALSE) The process by which the point of articluation of a sound shifts to the palate is called nasalization.

(TRUE--FALSE) It is true to say that, although the second negative particle (pas, jamais, etc.) is sometimes omitted in negating a verb, ne is never omitted.

(TRUE--FALSE) The following words : arme, lèvre, fête, joie, oeuvre, voile ('sail')--feminine despite their derivation from Latin neuters--illustrate nicely the capricious and irrational side so often at work behind language changes.

(TRUE--FALSE) The French-speaking world of today do no longer take very seriously the quality of the French language and its position in the world. F422 Final PAGE 5 NAME

(TRUE--FALSE) Dialects, nearly eliminated with the unification and centralization of France under Louis XIV, were largely revived in the wake of the French Revolution and Napoleon I.

PART II (100 PTS.)

C. Give the Modern French POPULAR (not learned) reflex for each word. 1. ADVENTURA 2. ALBA ______3. ALIQUUNUS _____

4. ALTERUM 5. AMICAM 6. ANGUSTIAM __ __ 7. ANIMAN 8. AUGUSTUM _ 9. AURICULAM 10. BLASPHEMARE 11. BRACCHIUM 12. BUCCAM 13. CALIDUM 14. CAMERAM 1

16. CANTIONEM ______17. CAPTIARE 18. CAPUT ______F422 Final PAGE 6 NAME

19. CARBONEM 20. CARO _____ 21. CASTIGARE ______22. CATTUS 23. CAUSAM __ 24. CENTUM

25. CEREBELLUM 26. CERESIA 27. CINERE ______28. CIRCULUM 29. CLAVUM 30. COMITEM 31. CORONAM 32. CORPUS 33. CREDERE 34. CRUCEM 35. CUMULUM 36. CUNEUM 37. DEBERE 38. DEBITA ____ 39. DIRECTU 40. DIURNUM __

41. DUPLUM 42. EXAGIUM F422 Final PAGE 7 NAME

43. FACERE 44. FAMEM 45. FEBRE 46. FIDEM 47. FILIAM

48. FOCU 49. FOSSA 50. FRIGIDUM 51. FRUCTUM 52. GALBINUM 53. GAUDIA 54. GENTEM 55. GLORIA 56. GRATUM 57. GUTTAM 58. HABERE 59. HIBERNU 60. HORAM 61. IANUARIUM 62. INQUISITA 63. JOVIS DIES

64. JUVENEM 65. LACTEM F422 Final PAGE 8 NAME

66. LEGALEM 67. LEGEM 68. LEGERE 69. LIBRAM 70. LINGUAM

71. LOCARE 72. MEL 73. MENSEM 74. MERCEDEM 75. MISSAM 76. NASUM 77. NECARE 78. NEGARE 79. NIGER 80. NOCTE 81. NOVA 82. OCULUM 83. PACARE 84. PANIS 85. PEDES 86. PETRAM 87. PIETAS F422 Final PAGE 9 NAME

88. PLACERE

89. PLAGAM 90. PLENUM

91. PORCUM 92. PRETIUM 93. PROBA

94. QUANDO 95. RATIONEM 96. REDEMPTIONEM 97. REGALEM 98. RIPAM 99. RUBEU 100. SACRAMENTUM 101. SAPERE 102. SCRIBERE 103. SECURUM 104. SICCAM 105. SICCUM 106. SIMIUM 107. SUNT 108. VECULUM

109. VITAM 110. VOCEM F422 Quiz 1 : Rickard Chap. 1 Name

In the absence of any instructions, briefly identify :

1. langue d'oïl

2. 813

3. Reichenau Glosses

4. What has happened in the latter part of the eighth and early nineth centuries to render Latin from then on unsuitable to shed much light on the developments in Latin until that same time?

5. Do the Franco-Provençal dialects belong to the langue d'oïl or langue d'oc dialects?

6. penult

7. What sorts of vocabulary items did early Christianity bring to Vulgar Latin?

8. What sorts of vocabulary did Gaulish leave behind in Vulgar Latin?

9. What sorts of vocabulary did the Franks, a Germanic people, introduce to V.L?

10. rustica romana lingua F422 Quiz 2 : Rickard 2; Price 1 Name

1. Strasbourg Oaths

2. Sequence of Saint Eulalia

3. Jonah Fragment

4. Clermont Passion

5. Life of Saint Leger

6. Life of Saint Alexis

7. Song of Roland

1.-7. Match A-G, descriptions of these works with their modern titles :

A. 516 octosyllables dealing with the suffering and death of the Christ. B. 625 decasyllables in five-line stanzas composed 1040-50 dealing with a saint who left wife and parents to respond to the call of God. C. late 11th century 4002 line epic account of struggle between Christendom and Heathendom. D. earliest document of Old French and Old German E. notes partly in Latin, partly in French, of a sermon F. a poem of 29 lines relating the martyrdom of a fourth-century saint, a lovely young maiden G. 240 octosyllables, like the Clermont Passion, copied into a Latin glossary preserved in Clermont-Ferrand.

8. Which of these Early Old French texts is/are clearly written in prose rather than verse?

9. Which of these Early Old French texts is/are not of religious cast or inspiration?

10. Which of these Early Old French texts is/are predominantly biblical?

11. At the outset of the seventeenth century--a period of standardization and codification for French--one figure more than any other perhaps incarnates the reaction against the liberal growth in vocabulary and syntax typical of the preceding centuries by proscribing: archaisms, neologisms, learned borrowings from Latin, provincialisms, and technical terms. This was:

A. Erasmus B. Du Bellay C. Malherbe D. Dante 12. A twelfth-century writer proudly proclaimed:

"Mis langages est boens, car en France fui nez." which would give literally in Modern French:

Mon langage est bon, car je fus né en France.

Apart from word order, are you satisfied with this literal translation? Give it an A or an F, depending on how adequate you judge it to be, and briefly explain your grade.

13. The following modern French vocabulary items are loan-words from or were brought into the language by: acquarelle, sonate, gramme, congrès, budget, mètre, solo, plébiscite, grog

A. 16th century, Italy

B. 1789 +, French Revolution

C. 14th century, Latin

D. 18th century, England

Circle the correct ANSWER(S).

14. French is doubly derivative of Latin, in a sense. First, of course, French evolved over time from the Latin spoken in Gaul. Yet what also happened with respect to Latin in the 14th through the 16th centuries approximately?

EXTRA CREDIT: Write over in standard, grammatically correct French part of the passage in Price given from one of Queneau's novels:

On peut pas supposer que les gens qu'attendent à la gare d'Austerlitz sentent plus mauvais que ceux qu'attendent à la gare de Lyon. F422 QUIZ 3: Rickard 3; Price 2 Name

1. There are few prose texts written in French in the twelfth and thirteen centuries. (T / F)

2. There are few, if any, Old French texts in any pure, unadultrated dialect such as Francien. (T / F)

3. In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, Old French completely replaces Latin as the primary language of didactic and fictional literature. (T / F)

4. The literary prestige of Occitan, in the north of France especially, suffered a serious setback with the Albigensian Crusade. (T / F)

5. The sounds of modern French are more numerous than the sounds of the French spoken in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. (T / F)

6. In doing Romance Linguistics, it is essential to recognize that sound laws are descriptions of regular sound changes that hold true, regardless of particular language, dialect, time or place. (T / F)

7. A sound in a language that is functional or distinctive is called an allophone; whereas a sound that offers no distinction (grammatical or semantic) is called an affricate. (T / F)

8. Assimilation is a linguistic term designating the cultural absorption of the original language of a population into the newer language which replaces it, e.g. French assimilated Saxon in England. (T / F)

9. Syllabic alternation can be invoked in an account of many irregular verbs, especially those having a vowel change in the stem. (T / F)

10. In Old French, just as is the case in modern French, the first negative particule (ne) was not nearly so important as the second one (pas, jamais, etc.). (T / F) F422 QUIZ 4 : Rickard 4 Spring 1988 Name

1. In the Middle French period, which two French cities could boast of numerous printing presses, some 100 between them?

2. As French continued to increase in use in various official documents in France in the 14th and 15th centuries, how was it faring in southern Italy and England?

3. French spelling in the Middle French period was guided by three principles, according to Rickard and Beaulieux before him: rapprochement (= R) differenciation (= D) pronunciation (=P) Which principles do these examples illustrate:

PUT R, D OR P IN THE BLANKS BELOW.

poix, poids, poix mes, mets, mais grand (for grant), il perd (for il pert), sept (for set), scauuoir (for savoir) femme (for fame) soustance/sustance/substance, oscur/obscur,

4. What has happened to the two-case system of Old French by the end of the Middle French period?

5. How important is the rather considerable translation activity of Latin texts into French for the French language of the Mid. Fr. period?

6. Of Italian, English and Latin, which language influences written French of this period the most overall (orthography, vocabulary, morphology and syntax)?

In which one of the four aspects of language listed in parentheses are the other two languages most influencial? F422 QUIZ 5: Rickard 5 Spring 1988 Name

1. In sixteenth-century France, Latin--its pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar--were subjected to close scrutiny by humanists with a renewed interest in what constituted the true, ancient standards of Classical Latin. (T / F)

2. One effect of the New Learning was to render Latin more adaptable to the ever-changing needs of sixteenth-century French society. (T / F)

3. In the sixteenth century French made inroads into such traditionally Latin domains as: medical writing, mathematical treatises, astronomy, natural philosophy, theological discourses, and university lecturing. (T / F)

4. Pro-Italian feeling surged in France immediately following the Massacre of St. Bartholomew, together with renewed Italianizing in speech and writing. (T / F)

5. A number of works emerged making a positive case for the French language in comparison with the following languages: Latin, Italian, Classical Greek, Hebrew, and German. (T / F)

6. The most famous apology for the French language is undoubtedly John Palsgrave's De la precellence du langage françois. (T / F)

7. The knowledge that the sixteenth-century grammarians had of ancient Greek, Hebrew, and especially Latin, provided them with valid methods and schemata for the analysis of French grammar. (T / F)

8. Curiously, there appears to be no concern, in the sixteenth century, for phonetic spellings. (T / F)

9. Would-be reformers of the French language found eager support among printers. (T / F)

10. The cedilla, the acute accent for [e], the apostrophe, and the dieraesis (e.g.ambigüe), introduced earlier by the practiciens, were retained by sixteenth- century printers. (T / F)

11. In the long view, the importance of Robert Estienne's Dictionnaire françois- latin lies with French vocabulary. (T / F)

12. Fluctuation in pronunciation was still, as with the Middle Ages, essentially a geographical phenomenon, rather than a social one. (T / F)

13. John Palsgrave's Esclarcissement de la langue françoyse is a description of the French language written in English. (T / F) 14. That vallon could mean either wide valley or small valley and that medaillon can still mean either a small or a large medallion is best understood by invoking the confusion following the borrowing of a German diminuative suffix. (T / F)

15. The "quarrel" that the French language had with Italian and with Latin was of the same nature, with the same language concerns at stake in both cases. (T / F) F422 QUIZ 6 Rickard 6 2-17-88 Name

1. The Académie Française was to produce three major reference works. What were two of them? 2. By the time of the French Revolution, object pronouns followed nearly all the present rules for word order. (T / F) 3. (1555-1628) led a reaction against the experimentation and untidiness of the sixteenth century, and advocated intelligibility and sobriety in vocabulary and grammar.

4. By the time of the French Revolution, scientists and writers of fiction more often used French than Latin. (T / F)

5. As for vocabulary, the seventeenth century welcomed neologisms and loan words, whereas the eighteenth century saw a general return to a "pure" French lexicon. (T / F)

6. The most important grammar for the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries was

a) Remarques sur la langue françois--Vaugelas b) Precellence du langage françois--Henri Estienne c) Grammaire de Port-Royal--C. Lancelot & A. Arnauld d) Esclarcissement de la langue françoyse--John Palsgrave

7. Which work records usage?

8. Which work is based on logical, if not Cartesian, principles?

9. The French language was widely believed to be:

a) nearly perfect b) universal c) second only to Latin for treaties and diplomacy d) clear and logical in vocabulary and syntax

[Circle all true completions]

10. Final [-r] became mute by about the middle of the eighteenth century in the endings -eur, -ir, and -oir. (T / F) F422 QUIZ 7, Rickard 7 & 8 Name

1. The chief rival to French as the international language is

2. The first official grammar of the Académie Française was published approximately how long after that organization's inception? How influencial is it today?

3. Does the French-speaking world of today take very seriously the quality of the French language and its position in the world? Compare, if you like, with English and today's speakers of English.

4. How much of a threat does Rickard regard either the encroachments of the English language on French or changes within the French language to its purity or excellence?

5. Nearly everyone today in France speaks French. (T / F)

6. Dialects, nearly eliminated with the unification and centralization of France under Louis XIV, were largely revived in the wake of the French Revolution and Napoleon I. (T / F)

7. There is some regional variation in French pronunciation today. For instance, for some "r" is trilled and word-final, unaccented "e" is pronounced. (T / F)

8. On the whole, sound changes for French seem to have slackened--a probable result of an ever-growing reading public. (T / F)

9. One influence of the written on the oral language is the steady increase from the nineteenth through the twentieth centuries of liaison. (T / F)

10. Twentieth century changes in the pronunciation of such words as legs, gageure, sculpter, and oignon are representative of: a) ignorance b) normal phonological change c) awareness of etymology and linguistics d) influence of spelling on pronunciation e) influence of the Académie Française (CIRCLE ALL CORRECT ANSWERS)

11. Today's outstanding grammar is, in Rickard's view, Le Petit Larousse Illustré. (T / F)

12. The most frequent source of neologisms in French is and has been for some time English. (T / F) F422 QUIZ 8: Price Chap. 3 Name

1. A comparison with Latin reveals that all French consonant sounds (phonemes) remained as they had been in Latin. (T / F)

2. The tongue-trilled (or apical) [r] and the uvular [r] are, in French, allophones. T / F)

3. What phonological tendency of Old French do these examples illustrate?

grandem > grant longum > lonc tardem > tart

servum > serf quando > quant viridem > vert

4. How do the examples below represent vestiges of the factors which governed the development of final consonants from O.Fr. through Mid.Fr.?

a) J'en ai cinq b) cinq enfants c) cinq francs /sɛ̃k/ /sɛ̃k/ /sɛ̃/

a) comptez jusqu'à huit b) huit heures c) huit jours /ɥt/ / ɥt/ / ɥ/

5. What is the process called by which the point of articluation of a sound shifts to the palate?

6. What phonological tendency operative in V.Latin do these examples illustrate?

mensem > /mese/ > Fr. mois, Ital. mese, Sp. mes

mansionem > /masjone/ > maison

insula > /isola/ > O.Fr. isle > île

7. What general phonological phenomenon is illustrated below?

fam(i)ly > fambly Ezra > Ezdra

cam(e)ra > chambre num(e)rum > nombre

gen(e)rum > gendre cin(e)rum > cendre

8. What general phonological phenomenon is illustrated below?

scriptum > écrit spina > épine schola > école F422 QUIZ 9 Price Chaps. 4 & 5 Name

A. In a paragraph or so, describe the subject matter of Chapters 4 and 5.

B. Match the Latin etyma and French reflexes.

1. sacramentum a. nu 2. punctum b. pré 3. manum c. verre 4. nudum d. oeuvre 5. ovum e. plaire 6. cantare f. soie 7. pratum g. fièvre 8. labra h. eu 9. februm i. louer 10. maturum j. chief 11. habitum k. cire 12. videre l. voir 13. creta m. oeuf 14. vitrum n. serment 15. laudare o. venger 16. locare p. lit 17. seta q. chanter 18. lectum r. écrit 19. cera s. louer 20. noctum t. point 21. *capum u. nuit 22. vindicare v. craie 23. placere w. mûr 24. scriptum x. lèvre 25. opera y. main F422 QUIZ 10 Price Chaps. 6 & 19 Name

1. Of the two particles used to negate French verbs, only the first, ne, is used in some set expressions or with certain verbs, e.g., à Dieu ne plaise, si je ne me trompe. What from a historical standpoint might be invoked to explain this modern phenomenon?

2. Are personne, rien, jamais ever used by themselves nowadays as single word answers with a positive rather than a negative value?

What might explain this from a historical viewpoint?

3. Is it true to say that, although the second negative particle (pas, jamais, etc.) can sometimes be omitted, ne is never omitted in negating a verb?

4. What accounts for the change to an s in the nominative singular for such words as "father" and "emperor": pater > pere > peres ; imperator > emperére > empereres?

5. What kind of construction is reflected in such current expressions as hôtel-Dieu, Bourg-la-Reine, and Pont-l'Evêque?

6. What grammatically (not semantically) accounts for such Mod. French doublets as copain/compagnon, gars/garçon, sire/seigneur?

7. What grammatically accounts for such doublets as:

cerveau/cervelle, vaisseau/vaisselle, grain/graine? F422 QUIZ 10 page 2

8. Why are the following words feminine despite their derivation from Latin neuters?

arme, lèvre, fête, joie, oeuvre, voile ('sail')

9. For the dual plurals of aïeul, ciel, oeil, which form is a consequence of normal phonological development (=PH) and which is the result of anological remodeling (=AR)?

aïeuls aïeux {ciels {cieux oeils yeux

10. In Mod. French one finds such words as grand-mère and pas grand-chose, because A) early on, the e and final consonant had ceased to be pronounced, and this is reflected in certain fixed expressions OR B) in Old French, grant was both the masculine and feminine form of the adjective, such that grande mère and pas grande chose simply never developed.

Circle: A is correct. B is correct. A & B are correct. ANSWERS TO DERIVATIONS, pages 67-70. oeil OCULUM yeux OCULOS petit *PITTITTUM fosse FOSSA fossé FOSSATUM chaume CALAMUM chef CAPUT châtaigne CASTANEA chat CATTUS chasser *CAPTIARE braquer *BRACHITARE, de BRACCHIUM aventure *ADVENTURA aucun *ALIQUUNUS aube ALBA aub_pine *ALBISPINUM < ALBA SPINA avancer *ABANTIARE béer baer < *BATARE bien BENE bêler BALARE blâmer BLASPHEMARE bouche BUCCA cercle CIRCULUM cerf CERVUM cerise *CERESIA chair CARO chandelle CANDELA changer CAMBIARE chanson CANTIONEM coin CUNEUM croire CREDERE doute DUBITA corps CORPUS devoir DEBERE coûter COSTARE châtier CASTIGARE clef CLAVUM chaud CALIDUM chère CARA doubler DUPLARE douer DOTARE droit DIRECTU écrire SCRIBERE enquête INQUISITA entendre INTENDERE faire FACERE fi_vre FEBRE > FEBRIS feu FOCU fille FILIA frère FRATER froid FRIGIDUM fruit FRUCTUM gloire GLORIA jeudi JOVIS DIES heure HORAM jeune JUVENEM hiver HIBERNU lait LACTEM langue LINGUA lettre LITTERA lieu LOCUM ligne LINEA lire LEGERE manger MANDUCARE miel MEL mettre MITTERE loyal LEGALEM messe MISSA loyer LOCARE nager NAVIGARE neuf NOVEM neuve NOVA noël NATALEM noir NIGRU > NIGER nuit NOCTE pain PANIS pitié PIETAS piété PIETAS pierre PETRAM plein PLENUM prix PRETIUM nègre NIGER poign PUGNU(S) preuve PROBA nombre NUMERUM savoir SAPERE sûr SECURU raison RATIONEM raisin *RACIMUM royal REGALEM règne REGNUM rançon REDEMPTIONEM