Further Evidence for the Interpretation of the ‘Indian Scene’ in the Pre-Islamic Paintings at Afrasiab (Samarkand) Matteo Compareti Venice

The Sogdian paintings at Afrasiab opinion, Silvi Antonini’s idea Fragmentary inscriptions on the were discovered accidentally more remains the key for a correct western wall mention the name of than forty years ago during road interpretation of the entire cycle a sovereign, Varkhuman, who construction near Samarkand. of the paintings at Afrasiab. While corresponds to the local king However, only in 1975 was the first a detailed study by Markus Mode recognized as governor of book concerning them published a few years later disputed her Samarkand and Sogdiana by the (Al’baum 1975). Archaeological interpretation (Mode 1993), the Chinese Emperor Gaozong (649- excavations continued at the great specialist of Sogdian studies, 683) in the period between 650- Afrasiab site for some time, the late Boris Marshak, not only 655 (Chavannes 1903, 135).1 In leading to the discovery of other accepted it but also added other 658 Gaozong even sent an envoy fragments of schematic paintings important elements to the general to the court of Varkhuman for an between 1978 and 1985 interpretation of the whole cycle official investiture (Anazawa and (Akhunbabaev 1987). Since 1989 and, especially, of the southern Manome 1976, 21ff., cited by French archaeologists have been wall paintings (Marshak 1994). Kageyama 2002, 320). However, excavating at the ancient site in Soviet scholars continued to study according to Islamic sources, collaboration with Russian and, the Afrasiab paintings, although when Sa‘id ibn Othman conquered after the collapse of the Soviet their interesting results did not Samarkand in 676 he did not find Union, Uzbek colleagues, but become widely known because of any king there. So it is possible to without a specific connection to their publication in Russian in rare suppose that Varkhuman was no the paintings themselves. journals or books (e.g., Maitdinova longer regent of Samarkand at the 1984; Akhunbabaev 1990; Motov The room where the paintings time of the Arab conquest (Frye, 1999). were discovered came to be called 1954, 40; Smirnova 1970, 275; the ‘Hall of the Ambassadors,’ In recent years other authors Fedorov 2006, 222-223). All of the since its western wall, facing the such as Etsuko Kageyama, Frantz evidence suggests that the entrance, depicts several repre- Grenet, Sergei Iatsenko, and Afrasiab paintings were executed sentatives of non-Sogdian lands Simone Cristoforetti together with around this period. bearing gifts. While from the start the present writer reopened the Other literary sources (Chinese, there has been general agreement problem of the interpretation of Persian and even Sogdian) could on the identification of that the Afrasiab paintings considering be useful for the comprehension imagery, the interpretation of single scenes or details and chronology of the mural what exactly the ritual is that the (Kageyama 2002; Grenet 2003; paintings. They have already been scene depicts and some of its Yatsenko 2004; Grenet 2005; extensively considered in a recent details have been a matter of Grenet 2006; Compareti and study by Frantz Grenet, who also debate. This article is a con- Cristoforetti 2005). Finally, a demonstrated that the spatial tribution to that discussion. conference was organized by the organization of the Afrasiab present writer in March 2005 in paintings corresponds to an Venice in order to collect in one General Interpretation established scheme well known in volume the most recent results of Sasanian Persia (Grenet 2005, the investigations by those At the end of the 1980s Chiara Silvi 124-130) and in India too where scholars who had already studied Antonini offered persuasive it possibly originated (de la the paintings together with a new evidence to identify the scene of Vaissière 2006, 148).2 In translation of the Sogdian the western wall in the so-called particular, as already noted by inscriptions at Afrasiab by Vladimir ‘Hall of the Ambassadors’ as a Mode (Mode 1993), a passage of Livshits (Compareti and de la representation of the Iranian New the Tangshu (History of the Tang Vaissière 2006). Year Festival (Nawruz) in Dynasty, composed between 1043 conjunction with the coronation of The inscriptions are extremely and 1060) referring to 7th-century the local king, Varkhuman (Silvi important in order to attempt a central Sogdiana mentions a royal Antonini 1989). In this author’s chronology for the paintings. pavilion where representations of

32 Fig. 1. Western wall, Afrasiab (after F. Ory and Grenet reconstruction). Persians and Byzantines appeared Persepolis (Silvi Antonini 1989, interest is Sergei Iatsenko’s very on the western wall, Chinese on 125-126). interesting observation about the the northern wall, and the Turks necklace and the reconstructed It seems correct to consider the and Indians on the eastern one torque in the hands of the envoy New Year Festival as a good (Chavannes, 1903, 145).3 As will from Chaghanyan on the western occasion to celebrate the be shown in the present paper as wall. The envoy can be recognized coronation of a king among well, this is exactly the partition in the lower left part of the scene ancient Iranians. The hypothesis of the walls at Afrasiab, the only since he is wearing a robe is supported by some literary exception being the western one. embellished with so-called sources on ancient Persian habits, senmurv-like creatures. At present it is almost transmitted, however, only Considering that all the other unanimously accepted that the through Muslim authors (Ibid., foreign envoys are bringing scenes depicted in the ‘Hall of the 118-126). So, the lost figure in the tributes to be presented to the Ambassadors’ are part of a unique upper part of the western wall was figure that was depicted in the cycle. The western wall most likely most likely that of a king, possibly upper part of the scene, then most represents the initial stage of the Varkhuman himself. It is not likely the torque was intended for Sogdian Nawruz celebrated in 7th- excluded that he was probably a man and the necklace for a century Samarkand. According to represented together with his wife woman. On the western wall they the mobile Sogdian (and, more according to a scheme much can only be the Samarkand royal generally, Iranian) calendar, appreciated on 6th-century couple (Yatsenko 2004). In this during the 7th century Nawruz fell funerary monuments belonging to way, as will be discussed more in summer (Compareti and powerful Sogdians settled in China extensively below, the King and Cristoforetti 2005).4 Theand recently excavated in the area Queen of Samarkand could have fragmentary paintings enable us of Xi’an (China).5 On those counterbalanced the Chinese to recognize foreign delegates monuments the couple is emperor and empress on the shown during the presentation of represented under a canopy both northern wall. some gifts to an upper central in realistic and paradisiacal scenes figure that is irretrievably lost [Fig. (Marshak 2001), but it is not Boris Marshak has identified the 1]. The presentation of gifts (or, excluded that the two royal figures scene on the southern wall as the better, tributes) on the occasion could have been positioned at a final stage of the Nawruz festival, of Nawruz is a very ancient Iranian certain distance from each other. when the Sogdian sovereign custom, and, according to the In this case, a possible alternative celebrated a funerary ritual in interpretation by Roman explanation is Mode’s hypothesis honour of his ancestors in a temple Ghirshman and other scholars that the two rows of tributes- which — according to the Tangshu which was accepted by Silvi bearers were proceeding towards — was built on the eastern fringes Antonini, it can be clearly two different sovereigns of the town (Marshak 1994, 11- observed among the very ancient (Varkhuman and the Turkish 15).6 While the paintings are very reliefs of the Apadana at Khaghan) (Mode 2006). Also of fragmentary, the shape of an

Fig. 2. Southern wall, Afrasiab (after F. Ory and Grenet reconstruction).

33 on that occasion people feed fishes in order to prevent aquatic animals Fig. 3. Northern wall, Afrasiab (after F. Ory and Grenet reconstruction). from eating the enormous horse ridden by a ancient times when the emperor body of the poet and race in rivers person who was depicted larger was expected to perform a ritual and lakes on dragon-shaped boats than the other people around him hunt in a special part of the searching, ideally, for his corpse. can be discerned among the imperial park and kill evil animals Other people dive in the water to paintings of the southern wall [Fig. such as felines. After the hunt, look for his body which, needless 2]. It is highly probable that this members of the Chinese to say, was never recovered. It is person was king Varkhuman aristocracy went at a pond in the quite clear that the second part of moving in the direction of the same park to listen to musicians the ancient Chinese New Year temple of his ancestors. The and singers on boats shaped like Festival, as reported in poems, representation of this building birds’ heads, while some people and the Duanwu Festival very survived only partially in the left had to dive in the water in search much resemble each other. part of the scene depicted on the of animals such as fishes, turtles As is well-known, in Gregorian southern wall, almost on the and ducks. This is exactly what can calendrical terms, the Chinese corner with the eastern wall (the be discerned in the hunting and New Year Festival falls in January- direction of the royal parade aquatic scenes in the left part of February, while the Duanwu falls according to the Chinese sources). the northern wall. Also the around mid-June. The latter date Two people wearing ritual appearance of a dragon is constitutes an exact parallel with Zoroastrian masks (padam) in the recorded in Chinese poems in the Sogdian Nawruz which, during middle of the procession could be coincidence with a festivity the 7th century, was celebrated in considered in charge of the possibly to be identified with the summer. The artists in charge of sacrifice for the royal ancestors. New Year Festival and, in fact, a the execution of the paintings at In fact, they accompany a composite winged monster can be Afrasiab confused the two harnessed horse not mounted and discerned below the boat in the festivities because of their four geese probably destined to be aquatic scene (Compareti similarities. Possibly the artists sacrificed in honour of Iranian forthcoming). A person leading even confused them deliberately gods (Grenet 2005, 125). two horses in the water is probably in order to have a calendrical performing a Chinese ritual which coincidence between a local Chinese subjects appear on the has not yet been identified. As will northern wall exactly as reported Sogdian festivity and an important be observed below, the presence Chinese one (namely, the in the Tangshu [Fig. 3]. It is an of this last element is quite extremely complicated represen- Duanwujie) which could balance important for the comprehension the Chinese New Year celebration. tation which is divided in two of the whole cycle. parts, both of them connected with astronomical-astrological There is something more to be The Eastern Wall matters. It is beyond the aim of added as regards the aquatic At this point we turn our attention the present article to discuss in scene. One lady on the boat is to the eastern wall [Fig. 4, facing detail all the elements which led represented larger than the page]. Many scholars agree that to its general interpretation others, because she is possibly the this scene represents India mainly (Compareti and Cristoforetti 2005; Chinese empress. She is feeding on the basis of the passage in the Compareti 2006; Compareti the fishes just below the boat and, Tangshu, even though there is no forthcoming; Compareti and in fact, her left hand is opened as Turk representative depicted here. Cristoforetti forthcoming). Here it if to drop something into the water. Unfortunately, once more, the will be enough to say that the two Such an attitude calls to mind a Chinese source is not specific parts of the scene constitute an typical Chinese festivity, the about the subject of the scene, exact parallel with the western and Duanwu Festival, still performed and the fragmentary state of the the southern walls. In fact, most today around the summer solstice painting makes an identification likely, on the northern wall there to remember a poet who extremely difficult. is a representation of the Chinese committed suicide in ancient New Year Festival. Some Chinese times, during the Warring States The surviving fragments are poems report the custom of very period (453-221 BCE). Every year concentrated just in the lower part

34 archers shooting cranes could be part of the same scheme but, unfortunately, the fragmentary state of the eastern wall does not allow one to discern more. Among the different scenes on Fig. 4. Eastern wall, Afrasiab (after F. Ory and Grenet reconstruction). the eastern wall, the fragments of ‘teacher and of the wall. Starting from the left kneeling person appear among student’ with armilla and the part, one can observe two sitting fishes, turtles, water-birds and inferior parts of the horse close to people facing each other in a flowers. Grenet identified the the legs of a person are typical attitude of teacher and infant-archers as a multiple proportionately larger than the student. Between them is a round representation of Kama, the other figures in the same object which was probably Indian god of love who was composition. Possibly, this fact is intended to be an armilla used for reproduced according to an not to be neglected, especially in astronomical purposes. In a recent iconography borrowed from interpreting the scene identified paper, Frantz Grenet argued Classical art. His presence could by Grenet as fighting convincingly that this image be justified because of the ‘allusion Keshin, since on the other walls represents the transmission of to Krishna’s romances with the larger characters have very astrology from the Greeks to the cowgirls’ (Ibid.). However, as important roles. Indians according to an Grenet himself noted, Markus iconography rooted in Classical art Mode had already observed that In his most (Grenet 2003). Next to them is a those archers should be better recent paper rider on a horse but so far there is identified with pygmies fighting devoted to the no satisfactory explanation for its cranes exactly as described interpretation of meaning. After the entrance, on (although differently represented) the Indian scenes the right portion of the wall, a in Roman sources (Mode 1993, at Afrasiab, second enigmatic scene can be 98; Grenet 2006, 46-47). Mode’s Grenet produced discerned: a person wearing a intepretation would fit better given a 5th-century long robe is carrying a child while the fact that a source in Classical Gupta relief from two big birds spread their wings. art was proposed for the first Mandor The background is aquatic. Grenet scene on the left. Moreover, the representating proposed to identify this scene demon-crane Putana is one, while Krishna fighting with a representation of Krishna in the painting there are parts of against Keshin and his foster-mother, Yashoda, at least three birds. Unless there (Grenet 2006, fig. just before the attack of the crane- are new discoveries, the 2), although two demon Putana (Grenet 2005, interpretation of this scene will 128). Above them, fragments of remain open. Fig. 6. Panel of the an image of a horse and the legs Vahid Kooros Col- The long-haired man grabbing lection funerary bed of a person could be intended as (after Riboud 2004, the tail of a buffalo in the water another episode of Krishna’s fig. 25). youth, when he fought the horse- may recall an enigmatic scene demon Keshin (Ibid.; Grenet engraved on a panel of a 6th- 2006, 45) [Fig. 5]. On the right century funerary bed from China other specimens of Indian part of the painting, the which possibly belonged to a sculpture — one from a private background is still aquatic but Sogdian [Fig. 6].7 It is possible to collection and the other from infant-archers and a man grabbing recognize an archer shooting a Mathura — provide good parallels the tail of a bull together with a bird while sitting on an ox among which support his arguments waves, a scene which has not yet (Harle 1985, figs. 7-8). Lastly, a been identified. However, the black wax inscribed seal (possibly Indian (or, better, Vishnuite) Kushano-Sasanian) kept in the context of the panels of this Ashmolean Museum deserves to funerary bed, recently pointed out be considered [Fig. 7, next page]. by Penelope Riboud (Riboud 2004, The figure, which appears 46, fig. 24), may mean that it together with a Bactrian provides a good comparison with inscription, could be interpeted as the detail in the Afrasiab painting Heracles fighting the monstruous Fig. 5. Eastern wall, Afrasiab, detail even if rendered differently. Other horse of Diomedes or Krishna (after Al’baum 1975, fig. 26, detail). elements such as the pygmy fighting Keshin according to a

35 hypothesis of the Indian character to a sacred pond. When he of the eastern wall is correct and returned, the queen and if that fragmentary painting concubines had to embellish the actually represents the lower parts mane and the tail of the animal of a man with a horse, then one while praying. Then the horse was should expect to find also there choked in the northern part of the the depiction of an Indian festivity area designated for the sacrifice, or celebration connected with and the queen had to lie next to royalty when a kind of horse its corpse while the king and his sacrifice occurred. Such a ritual is companions performed an reported in Indian literary sources enigmas-competition. Only at this Fig. 7. Kushano-Sasanian inscribed explicitly and is described as the point, the dead horse, together black wax seal, Ashmolean Museum (after Harle, 1985, fig. 1). most important royal sacrifice that with other sacrificial animals, only important sovereigns could could be quartered in the presence common iconography which was have afforded to celebrate since of priests, nobles and common possibly rooted in Classical art : the ashvamedha people. (Ibid.).8 The interpretation is again (Dumont 1927).9 Ritual celebrations and other complicated, typical for objects of sacrifices in honor of Indian Central Asian provenance in which The aim of the , divinities such as Agni and Soma Greek, Iranian and Indian or ashvamedha, in ancient India were performed as well. In elements co-exist, exactly as in was the recognition of a king as particular, the ritual liquid Soma the painting at Afrasiab under an universal sovereign. It was also was solemnly offered on the third examination. a magical ritual with very ancient day of the ashvamedha, and, later, solar reminiscences celebrated in all the objects touched by it had In any case, in our opinion, it is order to ensure fecundity to the to be thrown in the water not so important to figure out the kingdom. In fact, the king was (Dumont, 1927, 227). On the exact interpretation for the detail expected to accomplish it at the fourth day a purification bath of the man with the horse. The end of his reign, when it was occurred for all the participants in very presence of this animal almost time for the succession of the ashvamedha, together with represents an interesting element. the designated new king (Ibid., the sacrifice of twenty-one sterile A reasonable hypothesis can be x). The preparation for the cows. Although we do not know offered to explain its inclusion in ashvamedha took normally one exactly the representation of that the cycle of paintings at Afrasiab year but, sometimes, even two. Indian ritual by the Sogdians (nor where, as already observed, a The sacrificial animal — which was by the Indians themselves), at funerary sacrifice in the presence chosen because of his color, speed least this part of the ashvamedha of royal characters is depicted on and other characteristics (Albright celebration resembles very much the southern wall as a continuation and Dumont 1934, 110-111) — the Duanwujie. of the Nawruz on the western wall. had to be ritually immersed in a On the northern wall the Chinese pond and later was set free The ashvamedha took place emperor and empress too are together with one hundred around February-March (but also performing local rituals connected castrated horses and obliged to in spring or summer; see Ibid., 9- with calendrical matters which move in a northeastern direction. 10) and had very clear calendrical correspond quite precisely to the The land crossed by the horse was connections: the wandering of the Sogdian events. In both the considered to be under that king’s horse around and outside the scenes of Sogdian and Chinese dominion. Thus this was a warning kingdom had the symbolic value rituals the presence of the horse to the neighboring kingdoms. of the annual movement of the sun seems to be very important, Young nobles, and among them which conferred to the king the although on the northern wall the the designated successor, had to legitimacy to govern on the land explanation is not yet fully clear. follow the horse in order to allow during the period of the year. Persian literary sources of the it to pass wherever it wanted and Furthermore, of considerable Islamic period explicitly indicate a prevent it from coupling with any interest is the fact that, according connection between the horse and mare for one entire year. At the to some Indian literary sources, water (Cristoforetti 2006). time of its return to the starting among the characteristics of the Moreover, in the painting on the point, a three-day celebration took designated sacrificial horse was a northern wall, two horses are place during which encomiastic spot on its body or a tuft of hair swimming, since the connection singing, music and offerings had on the forehead with a particular with the aquatic element should to be performed at court. On the shape representing the Pleiades have been extremely important for second day the sacrificial horse constellation. There is an exact the Chinese too (Riboud 2003; was attached to the royal war- parallel between such a Mao forthcoming). So, if the and led by the king himself characteristic of the horse of the

36 ashvamedha and a similar spot or representing Sogdiana and China, approximately during the tuft required for sacrificial horses where the sovereign was depicted ashvamedha, and the Duanwu, in ancient Mesopotamia. Possibly together with his queen, for the which fell around the Sogdian this was due to the association of celebration of the ashvamedha the Nawruz. a certain period of the year, when presence of the royal couple was the Pleiades were particularly required. The character of the It is not possible to find an exact visible in the sky, with phenomena Indian sacrifice concerned the contemporary parallel for the such as inundations by large legitimacy of a king, and at painting of the eastern wall since, rivers. In this way, the Pleiades Afrasiab the representation of unfortunately, the few elements could have been seen as a link to such a concept can be observed referring to the ashvamedha in the fertilization of the land on two opposite walls: the eastern Indian art are limited to the (Albright and Dumont 1934, 124- (or Indian) one and the western representation of the sacrificial 127). So here is another link (or Sogdian) one where the horse itself — for example, in at between horse and water in Nawruz is celebrated in con- least one sculpture and coins of connection with calendrical junction with the coronation of the Gupta period (Huntington matters. As is well-known, many Varkhuman. Finally, all the scenes 1985, 187-188; Lindquist 2003). elements coming from Meso- on the four walls present clear Nevertheless, hints of a horse potamian culture were accepted connections with astrological- sacrifice exist in Indian art, in such as, for astronomical matters which could although they date to a period example, the presence of the be considered reciprocally much later than the Afrasiab goddess called by Kushans and (although not exactly) balanced: paintings. These are the relief Sogdians Nana who, in the Iranian when a king decided to perform carvings of the great platform of milieu, should be possibly the ashvamedha, this had to the early 16th century Hazara identified with Anahita and, happen around February-March, a Rama temple at Hampi (ancient consequently, with Venus (Tanabe period of the year quite close to Vijayanagara) (Dellapiccola and 1995; Grenet and Marshak 1998). the celebration of the Chinese New Verghese, 1998).10 Almost forty Astral symbols seem to have Year Festival (January-February). years ago, the great indologist played a very important role in The Sogdian artists and their Hermann Goetz had already ancient Sogdiana too, and for this patrons were certainly aware of recognized among these reliefs reason the artists at Afrasiab were the astronomical-astrological some images of foreigners probably attracted by their common notions of ancient represented in processional rows presence also in other cultural ‘Westerners’ such as Indians, together with animals such as spheres. Specimens of Sogdian art Greeks and Mesopotamians, but elephants and horses (Goetz objects produced both in the they had to find also common 1967, 195-196, fig. 11). In motherland and in the colonies features with China that, in those particular, one relief is extremely along the so-called ‘Silk Road’ days, still followed a different interesting because of the pose of present quite often images of a system and only later — most one foreigner (possibly a Persian?) horse or a pegasus with a pole on likely through the Sogdians — holding the bridle of a recalcitrant its head embellished on its top would have adopted ‘western’ horse with one hand while the with a half moon containing a star features such as the division of the other seems to be beating the or a flower (Compareti 2003, 34). week into seven days, each one animal with a kind of dagger [Fig. Since much of the horse linked to a planetary deity 8]. Why would a person of possibly represented on the eastern wall (Chavannes and Pelliot 1913, 158- Iranian appearance have been at Afrasiab disappeared, any 177). For this reason they cleverly represented in this way? Could his attempt to find such astral opted for representations on the pose be considered the final part symbols is completely useless. northern wall of the Chinese New of a horse sacrifice? In the pre- However, as now seems likely, the Year Festival, which fell Islamic Iranian sphere there was horse was associated with the aquatic element and had astral relationships almost in every ancient culture; for this reason it could have been chosen to be represented on the walls at Afrasiab.

Other details of the eastern wall could be considered to have a precise parallel with elements in the other three painted scenes at Fig. 8. Relief carving, Hazara Rama temple, Hampi (after Goetz Afrasiab. Just as in the scenes 1967, fig. 11).

37 an important funerary horse people and animals can be notwithstanding the long period of sacrifice, the chakharom, which is observed already in very ancient time which separates the creation just alluded to, for example, on a Persian art (for example, at of the textile and the relief at Sogdian ossuary from Shahr-i Persepolis12), and it is well known Hampi, they resemble aston- Sabz (Uzbekistan) by the sole that the Achaemenids extended ishingly each other (Compareti presence of a harnessed horse their control on some parts of 2005, 37-40). The same could be (Grenet 1993, 61, n. 44).11 northwestern India, where they said for the earlier horn seal from However, if the people in the relief influenced local cultures. However, Takht-i Sangin. That fragmentary at Hampi are Iranians then they the processions of Persepolis do Persian textile offers a good, if should be considered in all not look exactly like the scene on enigmatic, parallel to the probability Muslims and not the Indian horn seal, where the specimens in Indian art. If ancient Mazdeans. What is needed is an man seems to stand in front of the Iranians knew the Indian example from Indian art dated to animal without walking and his iconography for the horse sacrifice a much earlier period. right hand seems to grab the hilt and had even adopted it, then it of the sword while with the left, could be considered likely that it As noted above, in Indian art possibly, he holds the bridle. is exactly something similar that there are very few specimens the Sogdians copied for the which can be identified as Since the temple at Takht-i representation of India on the representations of the Sangin is much older than any eastern wall at Afrasiab. The ashvamedha, and they are all date other specimen of Indian art hypothesis is hardly demon- to the Gupta period. Nevertheless, already considered in the present strable, but at least it can offer a an interesting horn cylinder seal study, then it seems to be likely possible alternative identification from the Greco-Bactrian site of that a pure Indian iconography is to the battle between Krishna and Takht-i Sangin [Fig. 9] which has involved at Afrasiab. In any case, Keshin. In any case, the depiction independently from the origin of of Indian subjects at Afrasiab Fig. 9. Indian the iconography, it is clear that the according to that iconography horn cylinder Iranians were aware of it. In fact, could be simply explained because seal, Takht-i it is possible to observe very the context there was obviously Sangin (after similar scenes in a problematic 7th- Rapin 1996, Iranian. fig. 29b). century (?) textile fragment acquired on the antiquarian been recently market embellished with nine An Indian King in the Paintings attributed to horses on three parallel lines with at Afrasiab? India (Bernard, people wearing caftans holding in 1994, 112-113) presents a scene one hand the bridles and with the We might, finally, propose a very similar to the relief of Hampi other one a weapon or a stick. The reconstruction for the upper part and, possibly, to the recon- position of those men indicates a of the eastern wall which was struction of that detail of the clearly hostile attitude towards the completely lost: probably also in Afrasiab painting reconsidered horses; for this reason the scene this scene there was a king here. It is not easy to give an exact of the textile could be intended as together with his spouse; it is not interpetation to the scene carved a representation of a sacrifice unlikely that the royal couple had on the seal, which was termed by (Kitzinger 1946, fig. 46; Trilling larger dimensions exactly as on Claude Rapin ‘an Indian myth’ 1982, pl. 17) [Fig. 10]. As the the other walls. As in the case of (Rapin 1996, 50, fig. 29b; Rapin present writer has already noted, Varkhuman and Gaozong on the 1995, 275-281); however, other walls, could this Indian what is really important to king be identified? It would consider here is the pose of seem that Harsha (606-647) the person standing in front is the most probable of the horse, which at candidate, since he was a Afrasiab as well might have very powerful sovereign of followed an established northern India in that period. iconographic formula. It is True, the Chinese pilgrim not possible to be too specific Xuanzang, who visited India about the pose of the man in the first half of the 7th with the horse on the horn century and was a respected seal since the scene is guest at Harsha’s court, depicted too sketchily and it recorded important Buddhist could represent just a rider festivities celebrated in that with his steed or even a Fig. 10. 7th century fragmentary textile, kingdom but gave no hints procession. Processions of Egypt? (after Trilling 1982, pl. 17). about the ashvamedha (Beal

38 1884 [1983], 206-224). Xuanzang References Belenitskii 1961 was a devoted follower of the Aleksandr M. Belenitskii. “Raboty Dharma, which could explain his Akhunbabaev 1987 pendzhikentskogo otriada v 1961 scant interest in his memoir in Khasan G. Akhunbabaev. g.” Arkheologicheskie raboty v religious customs extraneous to “Domashnie khramy rannesredne- Tadzhikistane, IX (1961): 53-75. Buddhism. However, this vekovogo Samarkanda.” In: Bernard 1994 explanation would not explain why Gorodskaia kul’tura Baktrii- Indian sources too, such as the Tokharistana i Sogda, Tashkent, Paul Bernard. “Le temple de Takht- Harshacharita, are silent about the 1987: 10-21. i Sangin en Bactriane: temple du ashvamedha during Harsha’s feu ou pas?” Studia Iranica, 23 reign, even though animal Akhunbabaev 1990 (1994): 81-121. sacrifices should have existed in Khasan G. Akhunbabaev. 7th-century India (Kane 1918, Sotsial’no-planigraficheskaia Chandra 1983 236). struktura kvartala znati na Lokesh Chandra, “Hellenistic Echoes in the Legend of Krishna.” In the second part of the 7th Afrasiabe i problema izucheniia In: Joachim Deppert, ed. India century, Adityasena, one of the rannesrednevekovogo Samar- and the West. Proceedings of a last representatives of the Gupta kanda. Samarkand, 1990. Seminar Dedicated to the Memory Dynasty (or Later Gupta) in Al’baum 1975 of Hermann Goetz. New Delhi: Magadha performed the Lazar I. Al’baum. Zhivopis’ Manohar, 1983: 149-154. ashvamedha (Auboyer 1965, 387; Afrasiaba. Tashkent, 1975. Asher 1983), a fact that definitely Chavannes 1903 Albright and Dumont 1934 created great sensation and Edouard Chavannes. Documents whose echoes, possibly, reached William F. Albright and Paul-Émile sur les Tou-Kiue (Turks) Occi- other regions outside India. For Dumont, “A Parallel between Indic dentaux. , 1903. this reason he could have been and Babylonian Sacrificial Ritual.” considered an appropriate Journal of the Royal Asiatic Chavannes and Pelliot 1913 candidate to appear together with Society, 54/ 2 (1934): 107-128. Edouard Chavannes and Paul Varkhuman and the Chinese Anazawa and Manome 1976 Pelliot. “Un traité manichéen Emperor Gaozong at Afrasiab. retrouvé en Chine.” Journal W. Anazawa and J. Manome. Asiatique, 11 sér., t. 1 (1913): 99- This last hypothesis — although “Korean Envoys Depicted in the 199; 261-394. highly evocative — is hardly Mural Painting from Ancient demonstrable. Despite the efforts Samarkand.” Chosen Gakuho, 80 Compareti 2003 of some students of Sogdian art (1976): 1-36 (in Japanese). to reconstruct the other Matteo Compareti. “Note fragmentary parts of the same Asher 1983 sull’iconografia del pegaso e del cavallo bardato nell’arte iranica.” painting with reference India, Frederick M. Asher. “Historical and In: Matteo Compareti and G. proof of the proposed iden- Political Allegory in .” In: Scarcia, eds. Il falcone di Bistam. tifications is still lacking (cf. Mode Bardwell Smith, ed. Essays on Intorno all’iranica Fenice/Samand: 2002). Gupta Culture. Delhi; ; un progetto di sintesi per il volo Patna, 1983: 53-66. del Pegaso iranico tra Ponto, Auboyer 1965 (1961) Alessandretta e Insulindia. Venezia, 2003: 27-37. Jeannine Auboyer. L’India fino ai Gupta. Milano, 1965 (original title: Compareti 2004 About the Author La vie quotidienne dans l’Inde Matteo Compareti. “Remarks on ancienne (environ IIe s. avant J.- the Sogdian Religious Iconography Matteo Compareti graduated C.-VIIe s.). Paris, 1961; in English in 7th Century Samarkand.” 2004: from The University of Venice ‘Ca’ as: Daily Life in Ancient India, from http://www.eurasianhistory.com/ Foscari’ in oriental languages and Approximately 200 B.C. to 700 data/articles/a02/422.html. literatures and in 2005 defended A.D. New York, 1965). his PhD in Iranian studies at The Compareti 2005 University of Naples ‘L’Orientale.’ Beal 1884 (1983) Matteo Compareti. I Popoli Iranici He is a specialist in art history of Samuel Beal, tr. Si-Yu-Ki. Buddhist e la navigazione nell’Oceano Sogdiana, especially pre-Islamic Records of the Western World. Indiano. Venezia, 2005. Samarkand, although his interests Chinese Accounts of India. include also Sasanian Persia. At Translated from the Chinese of Compareti 2006 present his research focuses Hiuen Tsiang AD 629. : Matteo Compareti, “A Reading of mainly on the iconography of Trubner, 1884 (Reprint New Delhi, The Royal Hunt at Afrasyab Based Mazdean divinities. 1983). on Chinese Sources.” In:

39 Compareti and de la Vaissière de la Vaissière 2006 Occasion of His 65th Birthday. 2006, pp. 173-184. Étienne de la Vaissière. “Les Turcs, Wiesbaden, 2003: 123-129. rois du monde à Samarcande.” In: Compareti forthcoming Grenet 2004 Compareti and de la Vaissière Frantz Grenet. “Maracanda/ Matteo Compareti. “On the 2006: 147-162. Meaning of the Dragon in the Samarkand, une métropole pré- Paintings at Afrasyab (Ancient Dumont 1927 mongole. Sources écrites et Samarkand).” Eurasian Studies, 6 Paul-Émile Dumont, L’Asvamedha. archéologie.” Annales. Histoire, (2006): 64-76 (in press). Description du sacrifice solennel sciences sociales, 5-6 (2004): du cheval dans le culte védique 1043-1067. Compareti and Cristoforetti 2005 d’après les textes du Grenet 2005 Matteo Compareti and Simone blanc. Paris: P. Geuthner, 1927. Frantz Grenet. “The Self-Image of Cristoforetti. “Proposal for a New Fedorov 2006 the Sogdians.” In: Étienne de la Interpretation of the Northern Wall Vaissière and Éric Trombert, eds. Michael Fedorov. “Returning to the of the ‘Hall of the Ambassadors’ Les Sogdiens en Chine. EFEO, Sogdian Incense-Burner of the at Afrasyab.” In: Central Asia from Etudes thématiques 17. Paris Late VII-Early VIII c. AD: A Por- the Achaemenids to the Timurids: (2005): 123-140. Archaeology, History, Ethnology, trait of Ikhshid Varkhuman?” Culture. Materials of an Interna- Iranica Antiqua, 41 (2006): 221- Grenet 2006 tional Scientific Conference 231. Frantz Grenet. “What was the Dedicated to the Centenary of Fowden 2004 Afrasyab Painting About?” In: Aleksandr Markovich Belenitsky, Compareti and de la Vaissière ed. Valerii P. Nikonorov, St. Garth Fowden, “The Six Kings at 2006, pp. 43-58. Petersburg, 2005: 215-220. Qusayr ‘Amra.” In: La Persia e Bisanzio. Roma, 2004: 275-290. Grenet and Marshak 1998 Compareti and Cristoforetti Frantz Grenet and Boris I. Frye 1954 forthcoming Marshak. “Le mythe de Nana dans Richard N. Frye, ed. and tr. The Matteo Compareti and Simone l’art de la Sogdiane.” Arts History of Bukhara. Translated Cristoforetti. “New Elements on Asiatiques, 53 (1998): 5-18. from a Persian Abridgement of the the Chinese Scene in the ‘Hall of Arabic Original by Narshakhî. Harle 1985 the Ambassadors’ at Afrasyab Cambridge, Mass.: Mediaeval along with a Reconsideration of James C. Harle. “Herakles Academy of America, 1954. ‘Zoroastrian’ Calendar.” Studia Subduing the Horse(s) of Iranica, forthcoming. Diomedes and Krishna Slaying the Goetz 1967 Demon-Horse Keshin: a Common Compareti and de la Vaissière Hermann Goetz. “Frühe Dar- Iconographic Formula.” In: Janine 2006 stellungen von Moslems in der Schotsmans and Maurizio Taddei, Hindu-Kunst.” Oriens, 18-19 eds. South Asian Archaeology Matteo Compareti and Étienne de (1967): 193-199. 1983: Papers from the Seventh la Vaissière, eds. Royal Nauruz in International Conference of the Samarkand. Proceedings of the Goossens 1993 Association of South Asian Conference held in Venice on the Roger Goossens. “Un texte grec Archaeologists in Western Europe, Pre-Islamic Paintings at Afrasyab. relatif à l’ashvamedha.” Journal Held in the Musées Royaux d’Art Rivista degli Studi Orientali, N.S., Asiatique, t. 217 (1930): 280-285. et d’Histoire, Brussels. Naples: LXXVIII, Suppl. n. 1. Pisa; Roma: Instituto universitario orientale, Accademia editoriale, 2006. Grenet 1993 1985: 641-652. Frantz Grenet. “Trois nouveaux Cristoforetti 2006 documents d’iconographie Huntington 1985 Simone Cristoforetti, “Afrasyab religieuse sogdienne.” Studia Susan L. Huntington, The Art of toponimo e Afrasyab eponimo: Iranica, 22/1 (1993): 49-67. Ancient India. Buddhist, Hindu, considerazioni sulla riemergente Jain, with contributions by John C. Grenet 2003 plausibilità di una lectio facilior.” Huntington. New York; Tokyo: In: Compareti and de la Vaissière Frantz Grenet. “L’Inde des Weatherhill, 1985. 2006, pp. 163-171. astrologues sur une peinture sogdienne du VIIe siècle.” In: Kageyama 2002 Dallapiccola and Verghese 1998 Carlo Cereti, Mauro Maggi, and E. Etsuko Kageyama. “A Chinese Way Anna L. Dallapiccola, Anila Provasi, eds. Religious Themes of Depicting Foreign Delegates Verghese, Sculpture at Vija- and Texts in Pre-Islamic Iran and Discerned in the Paintings of yanagara: Iconography and Style. Central Asia. Studies in Honour of Afrasiab.” In: Iran, questions et New Delhi: Manohar, 1998. Professor Gherardo Gnoli on the connaissances. Vol. I: La période

40 ancienne, ed. Ph. Huyse. Paris, Marshak 2001 Rapin 1996 2002: 313-327. Boris I. Marshak. “La thématique Claude Rapin. Indian Art from sogdienne dans l’art de la Chine Afghanistan. The Legend of Kane 1918 de la seconde moitié du VIe siècle.” Sakuntala and the Indian Treasure P. V. Ka n e , e d . The Harshacarita Comptes Rendus de l’Académie of Eucratides at Ai Khanum. New of Ba’abhatta (Text of des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres, Delhi: Manohar, 1996. Uchchhvasas I-VIII). Bombay, 2001, No. 1: 227-264. 1918. Riboud 2003 Marshak 2006 Kitzinger 1946 Penelope Riboud. “Le cheval sans Boris I. Marshak, “ Remarks on the cavalier dans l’art funéraire Ernst Kitzinger. “The Horse and Murals of the Ambassadors Hall.” sogdien en Chine: à la recherche Lion Tapestry at Dumbarton Oaks: In: Compareti and de la Vaissière des sources d’un thème A Study in Coptic and Sassanian 2006, pp. 75-85. composite.” Arts Asiatiques, 58 Textile Design.” Dumbarton Oaks Mode 1993 (2003): 148-161. Papers, 3 (1946): 1-72. Markus Mode. Sogdien und die Riboud 2004 Lindquist 2003 Herrscher der Welt. Türken, Penelope Riboud. “Description du S. E. Lindquist. “Enigmatic Sasaniden und Chinesen in Historiengemälden des 7. monument”, and “Quelques Numismatics. Kings, Horses, and remarques sur l’iconographie the Ashvamedha Coin-Type.” Jahrhunderts n. Chr. aus Alt- Samarqand. Frankfurt/Main etc.: religieuse du monument.” In: South Asian Studies, 19 (2003): Catherine Delacour and Penelope 105-112. Peter Lang, 1993 (= Europäische Hochschulschriften. Reihe XXVIII, Riboud, eds. Lit de pierre, sommeil Maitdinova 1984 Kunstgeschichte. Bd. 162). barbare. Présentation, après restauration et remontage, d’une Guzel M. Maitdinova. “K Mode 2002 banquette funéraire ayant interpretatsii zhivopisi Afrasiaba Markus Mode. “Court Art of appartenu à un aristocrate d’Asie VII v. n. e. (stsena v lodke).” Sogdian Samarqand in the 7th Centrale venu s’établir en Chine Izvestiia Otdeleniia obshchest- century AD: Some remarks to an au VIe siècle. Paris, 2004: 15-31 vennykh nauk AN Tadzhikskoi old problem.” 2002: http:// and 43-47. SSR, 2, , 1984: 20-27. www.orientarch.uni-halle.de/ca/ Schiltz 1994 Malville 2000 afras/index.htm, accessed January 15, 2007. Véronique Schiltz. Gli Sciti. VIII John McKim Malville, “The Cosmic secolo a.C.-I secolo d.C., Parigi, Geometries of Vijayanagara.” In: Mode 2006 1994. John McKim Malville and Lalit M. Markus Mode. “Reading the Gujral, eds. Ancient Cities, Sacred Afrasiab Murals: Some Comments Silvi Antonini 1989 Skies: Cosmic Geometries and on Reconstructions and Details.” Chiara Silvi Antonini. “The City Planning in Ancient India. New In: Compareti and de la Vaissière Paintings in the Palace of Afrasiab Delhi: Indira Gandhi National 2006, pp. 113-128. (Samarkand).” Rivista degli Studi Centre for the Arts; Aryan Books Orientali, 43 (1989): 109-144. International, 2000: 100-118. Motov 1999 Iurii A. Motov, “Izobrazhenie Sinor 1990 Mao forthcoming misterii prazdnika Mikhragan v Denis Sinor. “The Establishment Mao Min. “The Scene of the nastennykh rospisiakh afrasiab- and Dissolution of the Türk Bathing Horses at the «Hall of the skogo dvortsa.” In: Istoriia i Empire.” In: Denis Sinor, ed. The Ambassadors» in Afrasyab arkheologiia Semirech’ia. Sbornik Cambridge History of Early Inner (Samarkand): Its Iconography statei i publikatsii. Almaty, 1999: Asia. Cambridge: Cambridge Influence from China and Its 57-81. University Press, 1990: 285-316. Cultural Link with the Nawruz Festival.” Paper Presented to the Rapin 1995 Stein 1983 Second Conference on Turfan Claude Rapin. “Hinduism in the Burton Stein. “Mahanavami: Studies, Turfan, August 25th-30th Indo-Greek Area. Notes on Some Medieval and Modern Kingly Ritual 2005, forthcoming. Indian Finds from Bactria and Two in South India.” In: Bardwell Temples in Taxila.” In: Antonio Marshak 1994 Smith, ed. Essays on Gupta Invernizzi, ed. In the Land of the Culture. Delhi; Varanasi; Patna, Boris I. Marshak. “Le programme Gryphons. Papers onCentral Asian 1983: 67-92. iconographique des peintures de Archaeology in Antiquity. la ‘Salle des ambassadeurs’ à Monografie di Mesopotamia, 5. Smirnova 1970 Afrasiab (Samarkand).” Arts Firenze: Le lettere, 1995: 275- Ol’ga I. Smirnova. Ocherki iz istorii Asiatiques, 49 (1994): 5-20. 291. Sogda. Moskva: “Nauka,” 1970.

41 Tanabe 1995 the building as a temple too. This that the city of Hampi presents an Katsumi Tanabe. “Nana on Lion. does not seem to have been the urban plan which denotes a East and West in Sogdian Art.” case in Afrasiab where the ‘Hall of complex system of astral Orient, 30-31 (1995): 309-334. the Ambassadors’ has been relationships (Malville 2000). identified as the private space of 11. Other harnessed horses Trilling 1982 a prominent person, possibly possibly ready for sacrifice can be James Trilling. The Roman Varkhuman himself (Marshak observed in at least one painting Heritage. Textiles from Egypt and 2006, p. 75). at Panjikent and on a 6th-century the Eastern Mediterranean 300 to 4. Chinese sources also report the Sogdian funerary bed from China 600 A.D. Washington D.C., 1982. time of year when the Sogdian (Belenitskii 1961, p. 72, fig. 15; Yatsenko 2004 Nawruz was celebrated Marshak 1994, pp. 11-15). (Compareti and Cristoforetti 12. The motif was wide-spread Sergey A. Yatsenko. “The Costume forthcoming). Grenet noted that of Foreign Embassies and among many ancient cultures one of the Turk guards wrapped connected with ancient Persia Inhabitants of Samarkand on Wall his robe around his hips, probably Painting of the 7th c. in the ‘Hall of from very ancient times to the since the season was too warm Islamization of Iran and Central Ambassadors’ from Afrasiab as a (Grenet 2004, pl. B). Historical Source.” Transoxiana, 8 Asia. Processions of this kind can (June 2004): http:// 5. Recently Mikhail Fedorov be observed, in fact, at Pazyryk rd www.transoxiana.org/0108/ suggested that Varkhuman is the (3 century BCE; see Schiltz 1994, yatsenko-afrasiab_costume.html. person dressed like a warrior in p. 284, fig. 215) but also in some the left corner of the southern unpublished fragmentary wall, who is, however, depicted on terracottas from 10th-11th century the same scale as the other people Dvin (Armenia), directly observed Notes around him (Fedorov 2006). For a by this writer in the State Museum different interpretation of that of Armenian History. 1. In 630, during the reign of detail, see Compareti 2004. Taizong (630-649), the Chinese 6. It is not clear if this part of the defeated the Eastern Turk Empire celebration should follow or in Mongolia and used Turkish precede the Nauwruz (Compareti contingents in order to subjugate and Cristoforetti forthcoming). the Western Turk Empire in the Tarim Basin and Transoxiana. This 7. Unfortunately, the funerary task was completed during the monument was not excavated reign of Gaozong between 657- according to scientific criteria, and 659 (Sinor 1990, p. 310). Turk it is now part of a private collection guards can be observed (the Vahid Kooros Collection, everywhere in the paintings of the Houston). western wall at Afrasiab: they can 8. The same figure of Krishna be recognized by their hairstyle presents some traits borrowed and other facial traits such as the from Hellenistic culture (Chandra absence of a beard. In fact, 1983). Chinese literary sources describe 9. Also classical authors were them as having long hair and aware of the ashvamedha. In his plaits. They do not carry gifts in book on Apollonius of Tyana, the paintings, and for this reason Philostratus (1st century CE) gives they have been considered to be a description of an Indian horse guards in service in the territory sacrifice which could be only of their former empire after the interpreted as the ashvamedha submission to the Tang. (Vit. Apoll. Ty., 2, 19, 15, cited in 2. A possible similar scheme is, Goossens 1930). mutatis mutandis, in the famous 10. This is in all probability a early 8th century Omayyad representation of the Mahan- painting at Qusayr ‘Amra (Jordan) avami, a nine-days festival which (Fowden 2004). comprised also horse sacrifices 3. The king of that Sogdian region exactly as in the ashvamedha to (identified with Kushanya) went be held in March-April or into that pavilion to pray; so it September-October: (Stein 1983, would not be incorrect to identify 75-88). It is worth remembering

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