12 Doru POP Cinema studies

Doru POP

FEMINISM, FEMININE DISCOURSE AND THE REPRESENTATION OF WOMEN IN THE NEW ROMANIAN CINEMA

Abstract: The main research question of this paper 2006); movies about rape 4 luni, 3 săptămâni şi 2 zile is centered around the the possible connections between (4 Months, 3 Weeks and 2 Days, 2007), Katalin Varga the new Romanian cinema and the contemporary feminist (2009); and narratives concerned with power issues like theories. Are there any traces of a «women’s cinema» in Cea mai fericită fată din lume (The Happiest Girl in the the «Romanian new wave», is there any ideological link World, 2009), La source des femmes (The Source, 2011) between the changes of narratives and the return of the and Loverboy (2011). female protagonists in the contemporary moviemaking Key words: Women’s cinema, Representation of and the “first” and “second” waves of feminism? The female identity, Male gaze, Violence against women, paper follows three main aspects of this line of thought: Feminist theories, Rape in movies. the first one is discussing the problems stemming out of the transformations from a patriarchal society, dominated Feminist criticism by a “Father-Leader”, towards a society missing a well- and the new Romanian cinema-making established center; the second has to do with the changes of narratives and the troubled relationship between the There is a long tradition of women viewer and the subject; while the third questioning comes moviemakers in the European cinema, from the issues of «the look and the gaze», as generating many of them rewarded with public power relations. The author discusses both movies made and artistic recognition, unlike in the by female directors, like Ryna (2005) or Felicia înainte de toate (First of All, Felicia, 2009); productions dealing with Hollywood cinema industry, where homosexuality, like Legături bolnăvicioase (Love Sick, the first woman director was awarded an Oscar only in 2009, for a very “male centered” film (Hurt Locker 2008). Starting Doru POP with the remarkable example of the first Babeş-Bolyai University, Faculty of Theatre and Television, woman director, the French born Alice Cluj-Napoca Guy-Blaché, who directed over 750 movies E-mail: [email protected] during her entire career (both in Europe and across the Ocean) and ending with EKPHRASIS, 1/2011 authors like Agnès Varda and Sally Porter FEMININITY, FEMINISM AND FEMALE IDENTITY (Hurd 2007), one can witness the richness IN VISUAL REPRESENTATIONS pp. 12-37 Feminism, feminine discourse and the representation of women in the new Romanian cinema 13 of this tradition. European movie directors wave feminists”, discussing the myths made various films, from promoting and the myth-making functions of cinema. radical feminist views, to movies simply Last, but not least, there is the concept of “made by women”, or from movies the gaze, stemming from the Lacanian addressing specific women problems to psychoanalysis, which was developed movies presenting profound experiences by Laura Mulvey’s classical studies of womanhood, like maternity or sorority. (Mulvey 1975, 1989). While the male In a predominantly “male business” gaze is voyeuristic and it is used as an and a patriarchal view of the world, with instrument of controlling and dominating heroes and subject matters portraying women, both on screen and off the screen, men as prominent, the women were regardless if it belongs to the movie-maker representatives of alternative cinema- or to the spectator implied, the female look making, not only from the point of view of has more to do with observation before movies being made by women, but also in anything else. All these elements form the terms of looking for different stories and theoretical support of this analysis. different perspectives, not yet exploited by men directors. Can we speak It is also relevant that some of the about a women’s cinema? most important concepts in recent film A first terminological clarification must practice came from feminist practitioners be stated from the very beginning of the and theorists. Three of these I believe to be discussion. There are no “feminist” traits fundamental in understanding the recent in the contemporary Romanian cinema as Romanian moviemaking. there is no feminist filmmaking movement First, there is the problem of the in the Romanian cinema, before or after ideological shift from a patriarchal society, 1989. Even the new Romanian cinema dominated by a Father-Leader, towards a is dominated by male directors and society missing a well-established center; producers. At the most, as it is in the the second is the question of changing cases of Cristi Puiu and Tudor Giurgiu, narratives and the troubled relationship the director’s spouses are involved in the between the viewer and the subject, while moviemaking business as co-producers. the third stems from the issues of “the look Even in this case, apart from being a and the gaze”. successful “family business”, the situation The issues of ideology and authority does not evolve to a conscious effort of come from the so called “first wave building into their productions women feminist” theories, mainly criticizing the related subjects and themes. traditional Hollywood narratives, built Still, even though there are not many around a presumed male spectator, and women cinematographers in the young his desires. The dis-centered narratives generation, with a few worthy exemptions, have to do with the new forms of feminist issues and approaches are subjectivity, proposed by “the second transparent in some of the most important 14 Doru POP movies of the decade. Also, one can say addressed to, or concerned with women, that there is a feminist predisposition of or all three” (Butler 2002), and thus the contemporary Romanian films, which should not be restricted to cinema made can be traced to the feminist film theories by women. Following this understanding developed in the ‘70s, involving especially of women’s cinema, as that type of concepts like the male gaze, the power moviemaking concerned with violence relations and the male aggression against against women, abuse of women by men, women. Also, some of the key subjects, or authority conflicts and alteration of put forward by the feminist theories and women’s lives, this paper looks for these practices in world cinema, are present elements in the new Romanian cinema. Of in the so called “new wave” Romanian the above mentioned themes, several are cinema. ominously present in the kind of cinema As previously noted, there is no the young Romanian movie makers are counter-cinema, in the understanding creating: domestic and sexual abuse, of the term Claire Johnson developed, sexual taboos and awareness of sexuality, since there are no women film-makers women as victims of individual or social expressing the values and principles violence and women’s identity within the of such a paradigm (Johnson 1979). social hierarchy. Although there is no “women’s cinema”, These traits are explicitly present in in terms of a cinematic alternative to the some of the most representative movies male cinema, and no women have tried of the new Romanian cinema, and this (yet) to establish another type of cinematic analysis will discuss productions like work or approaches to cinema making, the Ryna (2005), Legături bolnăvicioase (Love young Romanian directors have explicitly Sick, 2006) 4 luni, 3 săptămâni și 2 zile (4 expressed their intentions to break with Months, 3 Weeks and 2 Days, 2007), Katalin the “old” ways of making movies, and Varga (2009), Felicia înainte de toate (First this has strong ties with the patriarchal of All, Felicia, 2009), Cea mai fericită fată din attitude towards storytelling in cinema. lume (The Happiest Girl in the World, 2009), A further explanation is necessary here. La source des femmes (The Source, 2011) and In my attempt to define the possible lines Loverboy (2011). Of these movies, only of what one may call women’s cinema, I two have women directors (Ruxandra was confronted with two possible options: Zenide and Melissa de Raaf), while all the first would be the concept of cinema the others are made by male directors. made by women creators and the second Accordingly, a first question stemming one would take into consideration movies from analysing the intentions of the that tackle feminine and feminist issues. directors of these movies would be to I chose to follow the definition of Alison explain the relationship between the new Butler. According to this view, women’s Romanian cinema and feminist theories cinema is the type of cinema “made by, (the gaze, scopophilia, objectification), Feminism, feminine discourse and the representation of women in the new Romanian cinema 15 the feminist themes (abortion, lesbianism) Bratu’s Tudor, 1963; Sergiu Nicolaescu’s and the feminist practices in moviemaking Mihai Viteazul, 1971; Constantin Vaeni’s (change of narratives) and understanding Buzduganul cu trei peceţi 1978, Malvina their impact in each of them. Even if Urșianu’s Întoarcerea lui Vodă Lapușneanu, there is no “feminist” trend in the new 1980 and ending with Mircea Mureșan’s Romanian cinema and these movies are Horea, 1984), were deeply rooted in a neither explicitly targeting a specific patriarchal view of society, stemming feminine public, nor oriented towards a out of the social control practiced by specific feminist outcome, their “feminine” the authoritarian regime of Ceaușescu. predisposition is nonetheless important. History was made by powerful male figures, and the women around them The “old cinema” were just background helpers or sources dominated by phallocentrism of comfort (domestic and social) and Most of the movies in the Romanian pleasure (visual and physical). cinema, until the appearance of the new Another contention that stems from generation of young directors (1989-2000), here is that we can talk about a “phallic even more so in the case of the produc- domination” (Kaplan 1983) in the Roma- tions made during the Communist regime nian cinema, one that was not only (1948-1989), were either directed by centered around the male hero, but it men, or had men as main protagonists. was also oriented towards the belittlement This meant that there was a pervasive of women. It is here that the national symbolic representation of men as fathers, chauvinism meets male chauvinism. or authority figures, or simple heroic More so, as it was in the case of another characters, all of them placed in powerful popular movie series, made by Mircea and representative situations, while wo- Mureșan, and entitled Toate pânzele men were second rank characters. This has sus (Full Sail, 1976), the women were an ideological consequence, following the described either as burdens for men, or suggestions of Luce Irigaray, that femininity simply objects of desire. In the above was represented as secondary, adjunct mentioned movie the only woman in the and even dependent of the male source of main cast, played by Julieta Szonyi, was signification (Irigaray 1977/ 1985, 69). visually described as an object of desire, Some of the most popular movies yet at the same time depicted by the male made during the Communist time, like the characters as a “danger” for their sailing international co-production movies about enterprise. In a certain sense, she fulfills the Dacians (Sergiu Nicolaescu, Dacii, both the archetype of the unknowning 1967; Mircea Drăgan, Columna, 1968), or child who needs protection and that of the later heroic depictions of the national the menacing mermaid who endangers history in the series about the Romanian the sailors by means of her seductive kings and heroes (starting with Lucian power. The stereotypes about women 16 Doru POP and their role in society, with caricature- communism and later, for the prevalent like formulas, designed to understand the aesthetics of social realism, where one of role of women in history, were leaning the major type of discourse, that pervaded heavily on this kind of depiction. For the field of all arts, including film, was example Șapte băieţi și o ștrengăriţă (Seven the idea of realistic depiction of society, Guys and a Gal, 1967), directed by Pitt with the intent of creating a phantasy-like Popescu, an international co-production view of the world, filled with ideological with Romanian actors, gathering about 6 connotations. Such discourse typically million viewers in Romania only, seems foregrounded narratives of national to directly exemplify the concept Laura identity, using the epic heritage of history, Mulvey has put into the debate about but it proliferated a type of history that the representation of women in cinema was almost an illusion, having more to do (Mulvey 1989). The movie presents the with an idealized socialist future, than that woman as an object materialized only in of the real historical events. the gaze of the implicit male spectator, so The dividing line between the socialist that his desire for the woman becomes hero-worker and the heroes of movies like a pleasure source which is accepted as those made by Dinu Cocea between 1966 norm and even a social reality. While the (when the first installment of the Haiducii/ woman is only a spectacle for the eyes The Haidouks or The Outlaws was made) of the intended males, both on screen until 1993, when a last version of the series and off screen, the movie is filled with was created (by the cinematographer of gratuitous naked scenes, male aggressions Mihai Viteazul, Mircea George Cornea, against women and frivolous women Doi haiduci și o crâșmăriţă, 1993) was very behaviors, inherently turning the male thin. The “haidouks” were outlaws with (and female) viewers into a voyeuristic Communist ideals, they were against the captive audience. rich and were giving to the poor, but in the On the other hand, it is not too much to same time they were representations of the characterize the nature of cinema-making Communist illegal operations before the industry in Romania as patriarchal, first war. In the mean time, titles like The rape and foremost because the business was of the virgins (Răpirea fecioarelor, 1968), under the monopoly of male directors. or Zestrea domniţei Ralu (The Treasure of If we look at the statistical data, of the Princess Ralu, 1971) speak for themselves hundreds of students graduating from as far as the male chauvinism of these the Film Academy in Bucharest since movies is concerned. the 1950s, over 90% of the directors who Another way of re-writing history managed to make their way to financing was using the nationalist past as a tool of and public awareness were male. These propaganda for the Communist present. male directors were mostly responsible, Movies like Sergiu Nicolaescu’s Mihai during the early years of Romanian Viteazul (1970) or Mircea Drăgan’s Ștefan Feminism, feminine discourse and the representation of women in the new Romanian cinema 17 cel Mare (1974) represented key cinematic example, in 1985 there were 4.699 rape moments in the nationalist-communist of detainees, while in 1990 the number heroic integration of historical figures of those convicted for the same offense into the Romanian public conscience. The was 2.454, and in 1992 it was about ideological function of this type of cinema 3.717 (Mungiu 1995, 191). The statistical served not only the dominant view of the data seem to indicate a link between the Party, but also the dominant patriarchal cultural attitude towards women and the view of society, where Nicolae Ceaușescu social behavior of men. was installed as the “Father of the nation”. The paradoxical reunion of the “Monarch” The Mother, the Witch and the Whore and of the “Dictator” was centered around in the Romanian cinema the “phallic as powerful” representation of Other movies made during the Commu- the Leader. For this ideological purpose of nist time illustrate, on the other hand, mythical proportions of the male leader, a some of the most common stereotypes type of cinematic discourse was generated about femininity. The characters in the where domination over women and its vast majority of films made until 2000 (and subsequent submissiveness became a after that, mostly by representatives of the norm. One of the few female characters of “old” cinema) portrayed womanhood Communist cinema, depicted also by Dinu either as “The Virgin/ Saint” archetype, Cocea, was the heroic figure of Ecaterina as “The Mother”, as “The Monster/or The Teodoroiu (1978), praised for disguising Whore”. herself as a man, in order to fight for the Of course, the Romanian cinema had country during WWI. its share of women cinematographers, un- These typical patriarchal representa- fortunately authors like Luminiţa Cazacu, tions of power go together with the male Angela Buzilă, Letiţia Popa, Cristina centered narratives in cinema. As Laura Nicolae never made it beyond a couple Mulvey suggests in her seminal study of unremarkable movies. Still, two of the about the relationship between “visual best examples for “women’s films” made pleasure” and the narrative cinema, there during the Communist time are Elisabeta is a strong link between the patriarchal Bostan and Malvina Urșianu, some of narratives and the formation of social the few women filmmakers to have their structures, and even more so of social productions financed by the authorities. order (Mulvey 1975). Cinema is connected They managed to be successful during to male desire. Women are objects viewed the Communist regime. Elisabeta Bostan and viewable by the implicitly male took a very personal and clear turn in spectators. Interestingly enough, during the Romanian moviemaking, as she gave the Communist time there were more maternity and motherhood its best and cases of sexual violence against women biggest narratives. As Lucy Fisher noted than in the post-communist decades, for in her study on the relationship between 18 Doru POP cinema and maternity (1996), showing din copilărie 1964, Pupăza din tei 1965) that motherhood is a common theme or fairytales about childhood (Tinereţe fără in various cinema genres, motherhood/ bătrâneţe 1970), or an edulcorated reality, maternity plays a fundamental role in where people live in a dreamlike world, understanding how sexual politics are in an un-realistic innocence (Unde ești generated by narratives and cultural copilărie? 1988). forms. Bostan’s most popular movies, like While in this kind of cinema women Mama (1979), Veronica (1972) and Veronica were vehicles of positive social role taking, se întoarce (Veronica returns 1975), used some of the “partners” of men in these the prescribed gender role of the woman movies were “dark women”, distributed as caretaking Mother. In the center of these in gender-biased roles, opposing those movies there was the positive feminine of mothers and/or housewives. It is not figure, who was supposedly fulfilled by only the case of Aniţa, the inn keeper performing this social activity as her pre- from the Haiducii series, played by established duty. Here the cinema also Marga Barbu, the wife of one of the most played an ideological purpose, since the important figures of cultural propaganda idealized “mothers” of the communist in Communist Romania, or the partner time were epitomized by the wife of the of Florin Piersic in the Romanian urban- Party leader, Elena Ceaușescu, who was westerns from the “Mărgelatu” series. entitled “the most beloved mother and Just like her, feminine characters existed consort” in all the cultural representations only because men around them acted (poems, public displays and, of course (a certain way). It was even in Bostan’s media). It is relevant that the theme of movies, designed for a young public, the Mother was most often connected and integrating elements of the musical with that of the orphan (as it is the case fantasies of the Western cinema-making, with Veronica, a little girl living in a that the two opposing archetypes of foster care institution) who is nurtured feminine identity, the virtuous and the by dedicated “social apparatus”, obvious vicious, were ominous. For example, in representations of the Communist state’s one of the most viewed children’s movies institutions. (like Veronica), this opposition is non- So the ideal woman was, on one had, exclusive, since the angel and the demon manifesting herself by submissiveness and coexist in the same figure. Elisabeta Bostan passivity, since she w as described g enerally uses the same actress (Margareta Pâslaru) as “faithful wife and devoted mother”. to play both the severe educator and the Women were “nurturers and caregivers”, angelic fairy, to represent the inflexible and Bostan’s movies illustrate this Matriarch of the ants colony and the predisposition for “family” or “children’s loving character of the Mother. movies”, since most of her productions are In this very biased view of womanhood, either memories of childhood (Amintiri the good and the evil woman were never Feminism, feminine discourse and the representation of women in the new Romanian cinema 19 compatible, there was no middle ground but only to fulfilling her duty, and then between the two. These representations to return. of women in the Communist era movies In this typology, femininity could not corresponded to patriarchal stereotypes escape the bias of being either domes- deeply rooted in society. For example ticated or monstrous. If the mother was in the Haiducii series, the portrayals of absent, than the seductress and the vamp women were also divided among the two took its place. Again, as Fisher puts it in stereotypes: the dark voluntary, devouring Cinematernity, the powerful mother is woman (usually played by Marga Barbu), an expression of the fears of the male- and the blonde innocent, the victim of the child. Barbara Creed (1993) calls this desires of men (played by actresses like representation of women in cinema “the Aimee Iacobescu). These representations monstrous-feminine”, as it is the product of women as adulteresses, sexually immo- of male anxieties and fears, caused by the ral, or having an insatiable sexual appetite realization of sexual difference. While correspond to the depictions made by the public propaganda around social Kaplan when she described the dominant roles was always positively charged, it cultural discourse as founded on the expressed what Mary Ann Doane calls opposition between the “angelic Mother” “masquerading”, it was just an excess of and the “evil Witch” (Kaplan 1992). representation, which lead to a distance Another type of wife in the cinema of between what it was “seen” about women, that time was the solitary widow. One of the and what was described as natural and most important examples is the character normal (Doane 1987, 40). In this case, the remarkably played by Leopoldina misrepresentation of women was also a Bălănuţă, in the Mircea Veroiu’s episode manifestation of oppression. It is obvious from Nunta de piatră (The Stone Wedding that, although the official ideology was 1974). Fefeleaga is a woman working claiming equality among sexes, the in a stone quarry, a vision of the tragic gender issues were almost inexistent in condition of the woman pulled out of the the Romanian cinema, and more so there private space, doomed in the absence of a has been no marxist-feminist approach to man, condemned by society to a Sisyphus- cinematic themes before 1989. like effort to raise her child. Another such Regrettably’, this kind of attitude to- character is to be found in Baltagul (The wards women continued in the movies Axe 1970), by Mircea Mureșan, where made after 1989, especially visible with the story centers around another strong the ceremonial belittling of women in woman, Vitoria Lipan, who was played “screwball comedies” like A doua cădere by the Italian actress Margherita Lozano. a Constantinopolului (The Second Fall of Here the main character, who searches for Constantinople 1994), a movie considered her husband’s murderers, is also forced to be a huge success of the box office, by society to get out of the private space, since the director claimed to have had 20 Doru POP

1,5 million viewers (uncertified), where depiction continues the style of movies the story was degradingly presenting Danieliuc programatically made in the young Romanian women (Loredana likes of A unsprezecea poruncă (The 11th Groza) going to Istanbul to “earn money”. Commandment 1991), a metaphoric Mircea Mureșan, who directed one of the cinema in the style of Pasolini’s Sodom first rape scenes in Romanian cinema (Ion, and Gomorrah, where brutal aggression Blestemul pâmântului – Blestemul iubirii, and senseless macabre were totally out 1979), “specialized” himself after 1990 in of rational explanation. Later, in Această these low budget, low humor, low quality lehamite (Fed-up 1994), Danieliuc tells the of representations films like Miss Litoral story of an unborn child, who still lives in (1900) or Sexy Harem Ada-Kaleh (2001), his dead mother’s body - then in comes the based on female nudity, sexploitation, alcoholic father of the baby (named Bebe!) mocking transvestite episodes, and other who decides to keep the baby only to get vulgar male chauvinism filled produc- an apartment from the Mayor’s office. tions. Mureșan, who made a name for The final sex scene of the movie is also himself for adapting for screen one of degradingly nonsensical. Bebe, completely the most powerful women in Romanian drunk forces himself on the young doctor literature, Vitoria Lipan (1969), and also Vali, in a car, in the middle of the highway, got an Opera prima prize in Cannes in 1966, while the music in the background is the for Răscoala, ended up depicting women national anthem: “Deșteaptă-te române!” as “fatal” hitchhikers, populating men’s (Wake up Romanians!). dreams in alluring outfits, and zooming on The “femme fatale”, embodied by body parts in a disgusting manner (where Marga Barbu in several movies made touching breasts while she puts his hands during the Communist regime, was a between her legs is considered to be a constant in the post-1989 cinema. Sergiu natural expression of the male character). Nicolaescu’s latest movie Poker (2010), a Other cinematic productions made production with a budget over 1 million after 1989, like Patul conjugal (The Conju- euros (while 4 months... had only half this gal Bed 1993), Mircean Danieliuc’s second budget), is on one hand an example of the movie after 1989, present specific femi- relationship between the “old” and the nine issue (abortion), in some of the “new” cinema-making, since the director most degrading pictures about human is constantly mocking the ability of the life and human relationships. Known “young directors” to do movies in the for his “miserable” representations of “editing room” out of anything which was Romanian society, Danieliuc builds a previously filmed, but it is also a chauvinist grotesque scene, where the woman wants male portrayal of women, where the main to have an abortion, but does not have the character, played by Jojo, is a Moldavian money, so the husband makes her jump hooker, represented simultaneously as a from atop of a drawer. This monstrous sexually predatory woman, yet one who Feminism, feminine discourse and the representation of women in the new Romanian cinema 21 knows and accepts her lower role in the and her carefree way of life being far social hierarchy of men. from realistic. In a dialogue with one of The victimization of women and the the men surrounding her, she asks: “Are attribution of social roles for females you scared by my new decision”, as we see being typified and belittled, represented her stereotypically presented as changing as commercial sexual goods were the her mind suddenly and often, while the dominant narratives about femininity. The man answers: “A positive hero is never “new cinema” will go against these types scared by anything”. The comparision of representations, which show women as with Agnès Varda’s Cleo is far fetched, objects of desire, as well as will use this while her evaluation of their roles in counter-narrative as a form of critique society is nothing but misogynistic; he of society, better understood if seen in does the “thinking”, and she has too much opposition with the “old” biased stories. “charm”. Even here we have a typical narrative of the male dominated cinema Looking (without finding) – the dismissal of subjectivity, and the for other (alternative) narratives creation of a separation of genres based According to Căliman (2000), the first on sexual prejudices. attempt to bring new characters in the For other critics (Modorcea 1979), the Romanian moviemaking history was made “new narratives” in Romanian cinema under the influence of the “French new exist since the 70s, when the first experi- wave”, using the models of Godard and ments with the narratives took place, Truffaut (and even Agnès Varda), and was as an example was the movie Nunta de made by Lucian Bratu (screenplay written piatră, where two directors told the same by Radu Cosașu). Presented as an example story from two different points of view, of a “new narrative”, since it was centered apparently with no connection between on a young woman, even adolescent, Un them, yet intertwining. This “fresh” wave film despre o fată fermecătoare (A movie of cinematographers were, of course, about a charming girl, 1967), starred influenced by the Western experiments Margareta Pâslaru, a rising star in popular in cinema-making, but de-centering the music at that time, and her portrayal of an patriarchal narrative and introducing “a aspiring movie star. The production was woman’s story” did not happen in the immediately criticized by the Communist Communist Romanian cinema. press as showing a superficial way of life Even the women directors took the typical for the capitalist society, “strange path of their male counterparts. When to the communist morals” (quoted in in 1968 one of the few women directors Căliman 214). Yet the film presents the of the time, who relevantly enough same stereotypes about womanhood, did not graduate the Film Academy in some of the views of the world expressed Bucharest, made her debut, she was by the young aspiring actress Ruxandra supposed to represent a new chance of 22 Doru POP the “auteur” cinema (Căliman 267-272). is characterized by an all-male, masculine Malvina Urșianu’s movie Gioconda fără authority, patriarchal imaginary. This surâs (The Smileless Mona Lisa) was paradigm, together with the dissolution of awaited as a break through in Romanian the male authority, is put into questioning moviemaking. But the fact that Urșianu by the new wave after 2001, explicit in the was writing and directing her own way the screenwriters and the directors movies did not generate a “women’s were looking for new narratives, for other cinema”. Irina, the main character in the types of discourse and were interested movie, in an engineer, who gave up her in discovering different approaches to sentimental life, sacrificing it for the social reality, other than those of the cinema success. Although Malvina Urșianu is an before them. example of a woman director who tries to find a personal voice, her movies (Serata Going against 1971, Trecătoarele iubiri 1974 or Liniștea din the “patriarchal” narrative adâncuri 1981) deal nothing more than Even if the cinema industry remained with couple issues and with emotionally a “male dominated” business, after 2000 damaged relationships, and I would argue several Romanian women directors that this type of cinema is closer to what had their movies selected or awarded Mary Ann Doane called “a woman’s in international film festivals. Some film”, that is a cinema responding to authors, like Luiza Ciolac, who started to the masochistic identification of women make movies immediately after 1989 (Un spectators, fulfilling their desire for pas spre Vest, 1991), took the path of the emotional comfort, of identifying with documentary filmmaking, as it was the the characters on the screen. The idea of case with Anca Damian, Cristina Ionescu, women always sacrificing themselves or Iulia Rugină, Ana Vlad (Metrobranding part of their existence remained a topic 2010, with Adi Voicu). The documentary for Malvina Urșianu, her last movie, Ce moviemaking seemed less oppressive and lume veselă 2002 (What a Happy World more pervasive to women in the field. 2002)continuing the same discourse of Others were striving to make it in the women’s sacrifice for social success, in the fiction filmmaking business, newcomers logic of woman’s film as trying to describe like Ruxandra Zenide (Ryna) and Ioana a feminine subjectivity punished by male Uricaru, old timers like Cristina Nichituș social order (Doane 1987). and Malvina Urșianu, joined by foreign Either by using the identification with filmmakers like Fanny Ardant (Ashes and the male hero, acting on behalf of the Blood/ Cendres et sang 2009) and Melissa viewer, portraying the male as active, De Raaf (with Răzvan Rădulescu). A while the female as implicitly passive, couple of even younger women directors requiring confirmation from male like Adina Pintilie (Oxygen, 2010), or counterparts, the “old” Romanian cinema Ruxandra Ghiţescu (Urban Groove, 2010) Feminism, feminine discourse and the representation of women in the new Romanian cinema 23 were slowly confirming their place in this from the control of their families, of society new cinematography, mostly with short and of men, in particular. Another change and medium length films. And they were was in the way men looked at women, all competing for the meager financial and the way domination was generated resources available. by cinematic discourses. Even if this was Of these moviemakers three stand not a political manifestation of feminism aside clearly: Ioana Uricaru (directing or feminist identity, the changes of the “Legenda activistului în inspecţie” a male gaze and the represented women segment from Tales from the Golden Age, shows that these were not simply movies 2009), Ruxandra Zenide (Ryna, 2005) about femininity, or representations of and Melissa De Raaf (although a Dutch an ignored typology of women and their director, she belongs to the new Romanian role in society. These movies indicate cinema), and their accomplishments show clear changes that go beyond the female that women directors can confirm their portraits, they are narrative changes, place in contemporary cinema. Beyond focusing on the transforming of social this gender based description of the imaginary (Mulvey 1975/ 1989). struggles in the industry, what became Being in search of a new rhetoric, the even more explicit after 2000 was the cinema of the last decade provides some fact that there were signs of a cinema of the most challenging use of female forming in opposition to the traditional characters and depictions of men’s roles. style of narrative, directly contradicting In this respect the new Romanian cinema the dominant codes of storytelling of the operates fundamentally in similar way as patriarchal narratives. One explanation the feminist criticism of the mainstream can be stated in terms of the women’s Hollywood cinema functioned. Defining cinema theory: we witnessed a search the “old cinema” as a hegemonic- for new narratives which coincided with patri-archal narrative, centered around looking for narratives that were able to the male hero (be it the Party activist move away from the patriarchal, all- or the historical figure of nationalist- knowing author model. While there are no communism), the young directors of the theoretical references to a distinct feminist/ “new wave” showed a clear interest / in feminine attitude towards storytelling, the experiences and filmmaking practices the young Romanian cinematographers that were not deemed interesting by their were integrating in their moviemaking predecessors. some of the cultural elements that were One explicit manifestation of this “new put forward by feminist theories. narrative”, was, on one hand, the return of One profound change was at the level the female protagonists and plots dealing of the representation of womanhood. with the problems of women identity, of More and more women were described representing female subjectivity. And as being in search of their independence this came from depicting problems that 24 Doru POP were specific to women, womanhood and of the character of the mother, is based on feminine in a different way than they were a deeply psychoanalytical consequence. represented in the cinema made before the As Christian Metz argued, the cinema “new wave”. is fundamentally about the relationship between the infant and his mother, by Two institutions under criticism: the relationship generated by seeing and Motherhood and Marriage being seen (Metz 1977), and thus the There are several instances in the abandonment of the child by the mother new way of making cinema where the has to do with the lack of visual relevance role of the “Mother” is critically re- of the infant, or as Vicky Lebeau (66-67) evaluated. One of the first examples is developed Metz’s idea, it is finally a failing in “4 months...”, where the role of Adi’s of the representation. The child is unable Mother, the weak boyfriend of Găbiţa, was to discover who he is because he lacks the played by another “darling” of the new mother to tell him just that. Romanian cinema, Luminiţa Gheorghiu - In Călin Peter Netzer’s movie Medalia first casted in Puiu’s Marfa și banii, (Stuff de onoare (Medal of honour 2009), another and Dough 2001), also as the Mother. In wife and mother, Ion’s wife, is punishing Mungiu’s movie Adi’s mother is only her 75 years old husband with silence, preoccupied with the quality of her ignoring him as if he did not exist, and this cooking, of serving the guests, and of has been going on for more than six years. the welfare of her offspring. Gheorghiu, A simple years count show that, if he is unlike the role in Stuff and Dough, becomes to be awarded a WWII 50th anniversary here an archetype of all the mothers in medal (by mistake, as is the case), this the new Romanian cinema, who move silence has started in 1989, just before the beyond the edulcorated view of the benign Romanian anti-Communist revolution. mother, nurturer and protector, towards Ion Ion, a name so generic that it stands a more realistic, albeit detached and cold, for about any male in Romania, has depiction of motherhood. denounced his son to the Securitate, the This is even more troublesome in the secret police of the Communist regime, case of Florin Șerban’s character from Eu while trying to escape abroad during the când vreau să fluier..., where the mother last year of Ceaușescu’s dictatorship. Ion (played by Clara Vodă) is not only seen is a man who has lost his moral value as causing psychological damage to and his social role, and now he looks for her children, but also as the source of a way to regain his authority. Although he abandonment and of the subsequent publicly behaves like a local “patriarch” in lack of identity. While the relationship front of his neighbors of the block-of-flats of the mother with her sons is externally compound, his private life is completely conflictual, they are internally destructive, void of significance and power. And, here the development of the negative view when he tries to get his honor back, he Feminism, feminine discourse and the representation of women in the new Romanian cinema 25 does it in a completely immoral way, by daughter. The idyllic image of the family stealing the medal rightfully belonging to depicted in mainstream cinema (from the another man, Ion J. Ion (brilliantly played Repas de bebe, of the Lumiere brothers, to by another “classic” of Romanian acting, the movies made by Bostan) is replaced Radu Beligan). At the end his son returns by a totally opposite image. The family home, but his family is nothing Ion Ion is now broken and we emotionally has hoped for, he has a black wife and a know that after the movie ends their life black son, who cannot speak Romanian together will end too. Everything in the and who have nothing to do anymore with storytelling is built around the climatic the problems and tragedies of a family moment, shot in a ten minute long take, scarred by Communist past. specific to the new Romanian cinema’s The mother in Felicia înainte de toate approach to visual narrative, when the (played by Ileana Cernat) represents husband reveals to his wife his infidelity, another typology of Mothers, the clinging and we are made witnesses, by means of and demanding mother, who does not the observational cinema, to the dramatic understand her child and who demands dissolution of her personality (admirably emotional reactions on her terms. Felicia is played by Mirela Oprișor). trapped between her own obligations as a Tudor Giurgiu’s is also tackling these mother (her sick child and the husband in issues, his first fiction film, Legături Holland) and the emotional pressures of bolnăvicioase (Love Sick 2006) is centered her mother. This incapacity of dealing with around the dissolving of the traditional identity and the impossible identification family relationships. Breaking the taboos between mother and child belongs to of incestuous love, a brother, Sandu the feminist/ feminine re-drawing of the (Tudor Chirilă, a pop singer at that time), subjectivity. falls in love with his sister, Kiki (Maria As far as the marriage is concerned, Popistașu), at her turn in love with her two of the most important movies made best girlfriend, Alex (Ioana Barbu). The by Radu Munteanu take on a critical “disease” that is used as a catch phrase view from their narrative plotting. Both in the title, is not the homosexual love, in Boogie (2008) and in Marţi după Crăciun but the monstrous nature of traditional (Tuesday, After Christmas 2010), we family, who alters identity and ignores are witnessing not only stories about personality. Later, Giurgiu followed this relationships, but also tragedies stemming critical view with a documentary, entitled out of the impossible marital success. Nunţi, muzici și casete video (Weddings, In Marţi după..., Paul Hanganu (played tapes and video tapes, 2008), presents the by Mimi Brănescu) is trapped between universe of the wedding video “business” his wife and his mistress, and manages in Romania, having as a background the to destroy his relationship with all the remarkable histories of weddings all over women in his life, including his young the country. The wedding becomes only a 26 Doru POP social representation, a show to be put on the character of the maid, Juana, to dis- for the benefit of being recorded. empower representations of patriarchal society. Men are dependent of fetishism, The homosexual love incapable of natural relationship, while as social criticism she is a lesbian draining the violent While Hollywood was projecting a impulses of such men. In his movies, negative perspective on homosexual homosexuality becomes an instrument of women, by constructing the character of political critique, following a very much psychopathic killer lesbian, the European feminist view of social relations. cinema has developed some of the most This is the same in the Central Euro- important representations of lesbianism. pean cinema, where several directors dealt One of the most important films on this with these issues, treating them as being subject matter was directed by Luis politically relevant. It is the case with Buñuel. In Belle de Jour (1967), based on Karoly Makk’s movie Egymásra Nézve the novel by Joseph Kessel, we have an (Looking at One Another, 1982), where account of lesbian love, between Anais expressing sexual rebellion, especially and Séverine/ “Belle de Jour”, which homosexual behavior, was a form of marks the beginning of her change into expressing dissident political views. Freud a prostitute, and the end of her career. It has developed this idea in his classical was this “abnormal” relationship which essay on “Totem and Taboo”, where he was the most normal human contacts analyses the connection between authority of Séverine, since her erotic life borders issues and sexual taboo-breaking (Freud masochistic desires and Buñuel here uses 1913), while placing the homosexual homosexual love as criticism of society’s predispositions of the child before the faults and conventions, since all the other incest. encounters of the main character is filled The first level of understanding lesbi- with fetishist representations. anism in cinematic narrative would be at Another important European director the choice of subject matters; if you are in has used lesbianism and transvestism search for ‘the different’, then the lesbian as social criticism is the Spanish Pedro story is at hand. In order to abandon Almodovar. In his first feature long film, the stereotype of devouring sexuality of Pepi, Luci, Bom y otras chicas del montón women, posited in sexually voracious (Pepi, Luci, Bom 1980) he uses the same postures, threatening men and manifesting approach as Bunuel, of criticising social aggressive violent drives, homosexuality stereotypes, through the homosexual love assures this necessary reversal. Yet the between a rebel teenager and a marginal same sex relations between two women and typical housewife, challenging the becomes a form of critical evaluation of restrictions of the former political regime. the abnormality of society when seen In later movie, Kika (1993), Almodovar uses in connection with incest. As Otto Rank Feminism, feminine discourse and the representation of women in the new Romanian cinema 27 has put it in his classical chapter on “The Based on the namesake novel of Cecilia relationships between siblings”, incest has Ștefănescu, the movie’s “sick relations” to do with power relations, more than just are not between the same sex lovers, but with sexual intercourse (Rank 1992). The those that prevent them from fulfilling incest, as Herbert Maisch has put it, is their identity, where the stifling family not caused by the family disintegration, relations, and the taboos coming from but a symptom of the defected family, these artificially built bonds, become a especially of the “positive paternalistic” source of emotional incapacitation. family, where the father is supposed to be a protector of his offspring, and not Representing and accepting violence a sexual predator of his own children against women (Maisch 1973). The Romanian media (and the inter- Tudor Giurgiu’s movie, Love Sick, came national press) publicized many cases of out as one of the most taboo-breaking aggression towards women in contem- stories of the recent Romanian cinema, porary society, and this violence is not only and at this time remains the only feature taking place in poverty-stricken groups, long movie dealing with homosexual but is widespread in society. The case of relations in the new cinematic storytelling. the Health Minister Ovidiu Brânzan, who Although there are several organizations was accused by his wife, Dana Războiu, a supporting gay rights in Romania and well know television anchor, of physically also a Gay Film Festival organized each abusing her, became notorious. She called year in several cities, a cooperation with the police to their house and reported the International Gay Film Festival, there the physical assault, and later divorced are no feature films dealing with these him. In this context, it is relevant that the issues in the Romanian cinema (old marital rape became a crime in Romania and new). The singularity of the movie only in the 2000, after it was introduced as is doubled by the singularity of story. a change in the Criminal Code. There is more to the film than just the love Some of the statistics made public between two women – in a not so good by the National Agency for Family development the plot develops towards Protection (Agenţia Natională pentru the representation of the twisted dynamics Protecţia Familiei, all data from http:// of sentimental relationships inside the anitp.mai.gov.ro) show that the number family. Breaking the social taboos, Kiki’s of cases of domestic violence in Romania brother, Sandu, falls in love with her, was increasing in the period 2004-2009, while she is experimenting other sources and about 60,000 cases were recorded of sexual pleasure for her girlfriend, Alex. nationwide, of which 778 resulted in This is more than just a story of incest death. In contemporary Romania one in and/or lesbianism, it is a story about the three women recognizes she has been pressures of socially prescribed roles. physically or verbally abused by a male, 28 Doru POP and the same records show that 69 women an estimated 500,000 women were forced died from domestic violence in 2006 alone, into prostitution in recent years. This and another 69 in 2007, while the the trend phenomenon was recently “exported” in is increasing. Women are also more often Romania too, according to the same data victims of crimes, in 2006 from a total of provided by The National Agency Against 9.372 deaths, 5.160 were women, and in Human Trafficking, usually a handsome, 2007 from a total of 8.787 deaths, 5.794 well to do man is pretending to fall in love were women, again a surge in aggression with girls, who are picked from marginal and violet behavior against women. groups, or from families with difficult A national research launched in 2003 by material situations, and then are sold for the Partnership for Equality indicate more prostitution abroad. This was recently a dramatic numbers: 827 000 women have part of a nation wide Police awareness suffered domestic violence frequently campaign, conducted under the name “The in various forms, 739,000 women were man with two faces”, because, according insulted, threatened or humiliated, and to the statistics of the Romanian Police, more than 70,000 women have been abused most girls who fall into the trap of these in many forms, including sexual. The data recruiters are between 16 and 25 years old concerning the exploitation of women, in and come from rural areas, mostly from the the first semester of 2010, indicate that poorest counties in Romania, mostly from almost 100 girls of ages between 14-17 the East and South East of the country. It were trafficked for sex, and over 75 of is relevant that the General Inspectorate ages 17-25. In 175 cases the recruiter for of Romanian Police, the National Agency sexual benefits was a friend or a person Against Trafficking in Persons launched known by the victim. 74% of these women the campaign designe to prevent sexual victims were being exploited this way in exploitation of women on July 7, 2009, the streets, in homes, clubs and brothels. when Mitulescu’s movies was on the It was in 2010 that, for the first time in project phase, the production itself started the last 20 years, the internal trafficking at the end of 2010. was higher than the external trafficking Unfortunately Mitulescu’s movie of women for sexual exploitation. can be summarized by the slogan of the The second feature film made by Cătălin campaign run by the Police: “Human Mitulescu, Loverboy (2011), is based on this trafficking can hide behind a friendly context, using real life situations, happening face”, since his take on the plot is similar in many Eastern European countries, where to the awareness film made for the project young women are drawn into prostitution of trafficking prevention. It is more than by means of a technique known as “the obvious that the story takes place in a lover boy” method. The statistic of the context similar and even identical with European Commission show an increased that from the official statistics. Luca (the trafficking of women in Eastern Europe – “Loverboy”) lives in Hârșova, one of the Feminism, feminine discourse and the representation of women in the new Romanian cinema 29 poor cities in Dobrogea, and his job is to Marlon Brandon with a local twist - but seduce teenage girls and then to place fails to maintain a long-term character them in a network of prostitution. The unity. Hence his actions, which are not technique of exploitation is simple and always justified in terms of the central also copied from the Politice statistics. The plot, do not allow us to understand so called boyfriend is using the feelings his social dynamics. For example, it is of his victim and is convincing her to not clear what is Luca’s position in the prostitute herself in order to save him hierarchy of traffickers, which are his deep from a hopeless situation. Luca pretends motivation for all his actions, and which to be “in love” with Veli, then inflicts some is the boundary between consciousness wounds on himself, by faking a scooter and immorality. Without taking the accident, in order to get his girlfriend’s viewer into the depths of the emotional cooperation. mechanisms that make boys accept that it Mitulescu, who was the producer of is “cool” to sell you girlfriend, the woman Florin Șerban’s Dacă vreau să fluier..., uses you love, as a slave, the movie gives a as main narrative engine the “chemistry” primitive depiction of woman sexuality, between the two main actors from that as conditioned by of passion “of the heart” film. If the duo George Piştereanu / Ada and dependent of male fulfillment. When Condeescu seemed to function very well asked by Luca: “Why do you fuck”, she as the eternal impossible lovers in the answers “Because I like it, and because previous movie, here the two actors don’t you taught me to”, and even worse, when seem to be able to overcome the Romeo later Luca’s best friend, Zvori, has the first and Juliet “made in Romania” look. Their intercourse with Veli, she is portrayed in a relationship is fractured and impossible to stereotypical manner, as getting sexually follow and the film fails to be convincing aroused by this non-emotional sex. mainly due to Piștereanu’s inability to Piştereanu tries hard to bring forward a support a complex and ambivalent role. “double faced” character – half bad, half Luca, the hero of Loverboy, is portrayed good, a little of both, but is none of these by Piştereanu, who managed to work with together. The man without scruples, who Florin Șerban towards one of the most only wants to get money, from the opening memorable roles in recent cinema, does not scene, which presents Luca in a police line- have sufficient resources to be more than up, where he is supposed to be recognized one of the “hottest” young actors. Playing by one of the girls he previously sold in the role of a local deceiver of minor girls sexual slavery, and when the girl fails to and gang member, Piștereanu portrays a turn him in he manages to get away from character in a blend and unstable manner. the police, and asks his fellow recruiters His character construction is nothing but to “get rid” of the girl, who later shows a mix of cliches, he is either James Dean up dead in the morgue, becomes in love, with scooter, slum dog Elvis Presley or and then gets back to his initial behavior. 30 Doru POP

The best performance belongs to Ada better mood and sentiments than does Condeescu – who is very mature for the the hero actor. Yet this indicates one role she has been distributed in, and of the bottlenecks that seems to be the proves not only an undeniable acting downfall of the “new wave” in the talent, but it also shows the weak point Romanian cinema. This inability to make of Mitulescu’s approach. Instead of going a believable and universal character and the distance and telling the story from a the inability to follow a complex story, woman’s point of view, it remains fixed with multiple plot points and characters. and focused on the male character. Under The secondary characters in Loverboy are these circumstances, Ada Condeescu suffocated by their own sketchiness and manages to foray deep into the psychology are incompletely developed, almost to of the character, presenting us with great the limit where we do not understand the finesse and human understanding, the dynamics between them and the central drama of Veli, a girl who falls in love and story. And this becomes bothersome in the than accepts to prostitute herself for her secondary plot point, built around another lover. With this natural insight into the female character, “Mrs. Savu”, who is a character, worthy of a dedicated actor, waitress in the bar at the shores of the Condeescu presents Veli’s transformation Danube river (played by Clara Voda m from an initially reluctant girl, then a the mother in “Eu când vreau... “), who woman in love, and then a prostitute does not have any status or contact with completely overtaken by her own destiny, the main action, it is just an accessory in from which she cannot escape, by building staging of the principal plot point. Still, it gradually into the story of all the girls the movie manages to push Romanian seduced and sold for money. It is here cinema beyond chauvinistic depictions that actually the main character builds, of sexual exploitation as an acceptable but regrettably the movie was not built phenomenon. around her and this proves to be fatal to the story. Rape and social abuse In terms of cinematography there are in cinema-making several remarkable elements Loverboy. As Sarah Projansky has demonstrated Marius Panduru’s camera works and the so eloquently in her study on the original music by Pablo Malaurie bring relationship between popular culture forward an atmosphere full of emotional and the representations of rape, that images, each frame having a composition sexual violence against women is often perfectly suited to the story. A desaturate depicted as acceptable and even desirable Dobrogea, cold and sometimes sinister, in the history of cinema, starting with the sometimes hot to almost to suffocation, famous scene in Birth of a Nation (1915), is the background on which we place the by G. W. Griffith and continuing with figures of Luca and Veli, often suggesting Gone with the Wind (1939), because there Feminism, feminine discourse and the representation of women in the new Romanian cinema 31 is a narrative functionality to it, rape and sexual violence is an instrument for the violence help the story to move forward moviemakers to criticize political power. (Projanksi 2001). Rape is also one of the The cinematic representation of rape most pervasive themes and narratives (Wolfthal, 1999) was one of the most about women in, both in mainstream important topics in the feminist critique cinema and in experimental moviemaking, of all cultural products, and the cinema as it conveys multiple significations, from is no exception. The depiction of violence questions of control, manipulation, power against women, which is not described relations, morality, character and so on, in a derogatory, allows us to say in with a very easy transfer into social and this context that we can find signs in political issues. the Romanian cinema showing that it For instance Kurosawa’s Rashomon integrated elements from the women’s (1956) posits the question of how rape cinema. For example one of the Romanian is viewed, assumed and relevant for the directors who was perceived by the young social dynamics, while in Alain Resnais’ generation of moviemakers as their L’année dernière à Marienbad (Last Year at model, Lucian Pintilie, used in his first Marienbad 1961) rape is used to represent film made after 1989, Balanţa (The Oak the delicate power balance in society, not 1992), the rape as symbolically charged only in the relations between the sexes. social criticism. Surrounded by violent Obviously, the rape narratives have strong and abusive men, and trying to escape bonds with ideological references and one the void of a missing father, Nela (played of the most relevant contexts can be found by Maia Morgenstern), is raped by some is in the Spanish cinema, where social unknown workers on an industrial facility. changes (from dictatorship to democracy) This rape, never solved by the Militia, is have transparent symbolical connections only a reference to the social rape made with the violent relationship between men acceptable by the Communist regime. and women. Almodovar’s movies, who This use of the rape as symbolically depict several cases of rape and violence charged plot point is recurrent in the new against women (Kika 1994; Atame 1999; Romanian cinema. One of the most relevant Hable con ella 2002), although are brutal of these movies is 4 luni, 3 săptămâni..., portrayals of coercive sexual acts, they are where the continuous masculine verbal also forms of representation for the lack abuse is used as an external representation of independence and of social freedom of of the mechanisms of fear designed by the women. The rape is linked with powerful regime, meant to put both women and political relevance, since it puts forward men under its control. The repressive some of the key issue in feminist criticism, regime of Ceaușescu, never present in an like the vulnerability of women in their explicit way in Mungiu’s movie, becomes relationship with institutional oppression, an absent presence by the repressive or, as Dominique Russell suggests (5) instruments of the males on screen. The 32 Doru POP violence, verbal (and soon physical) relationship with her. This becomes an put into place by “Mr. Bebe”, is silently over statement, since the rape of the “old accepted by the two young women, in a world” was explicit from the very moment similar way that the social violence of the the Soviet truck carrying Communist regime was accepted by women and men made movies arrived in the remote alike throughout society. The most cruel Romanian village, which moves by other sequence of the movie, its narrative climax, rhythms and other reasons. is marked by the request Mr. Bebe makes Still, both scenes described are in clear to the two girls – a demands to make sex opposition with the women defined as with him, besides the regular payment sexuality tempting and naturally alluring, for the illicit abortion. The innocent and inciting men to sexual acts. In these naive woman, Otilia, and the voluntary movies women are nothing if sexually and independent woman, Găbiţa, are “perverse”, or requiring violence. In 4 both victims to the brutal exploitation of luni, 3 săptămâni..., one of the women is a man who is beyond their social status raped while going through an abortion and personality traits. Although tacitly while in Kino Caravan the school teacher is accepting the violent act, and, of course raped by the Party activist when she gets being the strongest of the two characters, ready to elope with him, with no sexual Găbiţa, who is raped only for being there innuendo and no stimulus for the male for her friend, is an visual/ cinematic characters. Just like in Almodovar’s movie, extension for the same type of relationship Kika, male violence becomes equivalent that the Communist leadership had with with the institutional “rape”, the male’s society: enforcing on the body of the power over the woman is symbolically social group, the Communist leadership equivocated with the power of Party considered the silent acceptance as an act institutions over the individuals, since of submission, yet was confronted with imposing Communism on the Romanian a silent disgust, manifested by the tacit society was often described as a rape. resistance. One of the first movies to deal explicitly Other movies make this connection too with these issues, and the single movie explicit, and do not manage to provide made by a female director, is Ryna. The more than a reversed propaganda. This movie, produced by the film production is the case with Titus Muntean’s Caravana company started by Mitulescu, Strada cinematografică (Kino Caravan 2009), Film, deals with clear feminist themes: where, in the final scene, after a terrible subjectivity, identity, aggression and social anti-Communist discursive elaboration, oppression. Ryna (played by Dorotheea the young teacher of the village where Petre) is raised by her father as a boy, and the Communist movie caravan arrived, this false identity bears heavily on the is raped by the Party activist, until then young girls. Still, even so, her father uses in love with her and trying to develop a “the boy” as helper from early childhood, Feminism, feminine discourse and the representation of women in the new Romanian cinema 33 since he cannot let go of his patriachal There are also movies dealing with need for a boy heir, ans is more concerned rape in contexts where women’s sexuality with his need for having a working hand is reduced to objectified manifestation of in the garage. Poverty, social depression dependence on men. For example the rape and exploitation relations are the deeply scene from Loverboy, when Luca forces emotional backdrop for Ruxandra Zenide’s himself onto Veli, in order to gain control film, dealing with complex psychological over her, is presented in a sexist manner, traumas produced by the mentality of a since she is seen as wanting the sex act, father who wants to change the life of his besides the fact that immediately after we child. Ryna is story about sexual identity discover that she was a virgin, which is the linked with the problem of social identity, only fact bringing into Luca a somewhat because discovering the place of a woman human attitude towards the girl. Her in society coincides with discovering the virginity is what makes her “special” for power relations, and overcoming the iden- him, and this also her acceptance of the tity crisis coincides with discovering the moral crisis of society. She is essentially a violent sex act transforms her into a docile captive of a world where women are not emotional partner. the equals of men, even if they behave Another example comes from the and act like men. Her only way out is movie made by a British director who the power of the gaze, and this is why, worked his way into the “Romanian new- suggestively enough, Ryna is portrayed wave”, writer of the screenplay, producer as being preoccupied with photography. and director of Katalin Varga (2009). Her passion for making photos coincides Katalin Varga is the typical “rape with the story”, where a “young wife”, from the In one of the most symbolically charged rural Transylvania, is chased away by her scenes of rape in contemporary Romanian husband, together with her teenage boy, cinema, Ryna is being abused by the Mayor due to the discovery of a terrible secret. of the village while her father lays drunk The secret which pushes Katalin to kill is outside the van he was supposed to drive that ten years ago two rapists traumatized her home with. When Ryna is brought to her, and she has a child procreated after the hospital, everybody around her tries this aggression. Insufficiently treated, the to cover up what happened, while the drama of the main character in does not Mayor starts to buy her father’s silence by justify in any way her actions, who are offering him social rewards. Here Zenide inconsist with of the situation. Together finds an very much feminist solution to with Orban, her young boy, Katalin starts the narrative, when Ryna offers them all an excuse, inventing a false rapist, and a long voyage in order to find those who then leaves the patriarchal world behind, assaulted her, yet the motivation is not walking away with the photo camera on profound enough to generate emotional her shoulder. connections with the character. 34 Doru POP

While Katalin Varga is played by the The most important visual and narra- excellent theater actress, Hilda Peter, tive piece of the film, Katalin telling her who has made outstanding roles at the story to Antal and his wife, while they Hungarian Theatre in Cluj, the other are rowing on a boat, on a lake, when characters are caricature-like figures. the rain pours on them out of the blue – The secondary actors have very poorly has no narrative continuity. The plot just developed roles, while the rapist who happens, there is no construction towards left Katalin pregnant, played by Tibor this point and we do not understand Palffy, another very good stage actor, has why the three get on that boat and why, the look of a Leonardo da Vinci from the suddenly, Katalin starts talking about the Balkans. Some scenes are unparalleled rape, and even why the do not react to by their frightening artificiality, as is the any of her declarations in the sequence. scene in which Antal lies nakes in bed, The camera work is also aberrant, when then stands naked in the kitchen, as if he Katalin is speaking the camera takes 380 is an actor in a movie and not a peasant in degrees rotation, as if the boat would the country side. Katalin herself is placed spin in a circle, and then we move to in a very uncertain space, she is neither in counter shots with her interlocutors, while the rural environment, nor in the urban the camera moves to the rhythm of the world. Katalin and Orban are most of the boat. Another insufficiently developed time sleeping, rather than developing narrative is that of Orban’s wife who relationship, and are portrayed arriving commits suiced after she finds out what in various hamlets in Transylvania, rather her husband has done in the past, without than interacting. any tension, internal and external to lead The movie relies heavily on the us to this point. Also following Katalin’s shooting, which gives it a very presump- trail is a team of Romanian police officers tuous look of the “new wave style”, only who, ultimately kill her, or the family of to become annoying, when some shots are Gergely kills her, the narrative is totally repeated ad nauseam as we see, over and vague. over Katalin and her son passing through Without going deeper into the discu- the hills and forests of Transylvania in ssions about the narrative inconsistencies, their cart, without any narrative support. there is an important monologue, where In most situations the camera movements Katalin compares herself (and, impli- are unwarranted, and when Strikland’s citly, all the women going through a rape movie gets heavy on mythical-magical experience) with Christ, putting some elements, such as trees whose presence fundamental questions: what is forgiveness is purely random, the narrative appears and how can it be obtained in such trauma, to be a mimicking of classic scenes from where does an external act end and where Andrei Tarkovsky’s cinema, who were the subjective, internal nature is modified insufficiently processed by a director by it, how are we defined by powerlessness overly anxious to confirm. in violent contexts? Feminism, feminine discourse and the representation of women in the new Romanian cinema 35

Women and power – femmes (The Source 2011) proves to be empowering women clearly constructed in the logic of women’s The Romanian contemporary cinema cinema. The story of the women in a shows very few instances where the North African village, demanding their women characters are socially strong in husbands to provide for the water they and of themselves, where they not pushed use to be forced to bring, is clearly taking around and treated as objects of desire, after Aristophanes’ play. Yet the retelling or where they clearly assert their identity. of “Lysistrata” in a modern context has In most of the movies, as is the case with a strong link to contemporary women Cea mai fericită fată din lume (The Happiest issues. It was always a woman’s job to Girl in the World, 2009), directed by Radu bring the water from the distant well, yet Jude, women are represented in their the women were able to impose a love vulnerability. “The Happiest Girl in the strike, just as in Lysistrata, in order to World” is supposed to be Delia, who wins force the men to decide to do this work a prize in juice labels contest, yet cannot themselves. The power of women – as enjoy her winning because everybody they organize a sit-in – comes from their around her is trying to force her do solidarity, a solidarity threatened by something she does not want to. She is mindless violence (a husband is beating passively “resisting” to the power imposed one of the strikers), or by brutal social on her by men, her father, the advertising conventions (another woman risks to be director, the marketing managers and so outcasted). This “battle of the sexes” has an on, while authority, manifested in the ideological outcome, as Radu Mihăileanu form of male authoritarianism, becomes is reportedly to have told Leïla Bekhti, the explicitly comical and parodic. main character of The Source: ‘You are a Like the actions of Otilia and Găbiţa, contemporary Joan of Arc; you set off a who can be performed as forms of revolutionary movement, about love and rebellion against an authoritarian regime, women’s place in the world” (Dupont imposing on women a behavior (sexual 2011). And this is clearly one of the most and reproductive) that is considered powerful statements about feminism and unacceptable, there is another example its influence on women’s cinema. Cinema- for this type of woman’s resistance against making must go beyond its entertainment male authority, in the most recent movie purpose and fulfilling a social role of made by Radu Mihăileanu. La source des awareness and conscience raising.

References Butler, Alison, Women’s Cinema. A contested Screen. Wallflower, London, 2002. Creed, Barbara, The Monstrous-Feminine: Film, Feminism, Psychoanalysis. Routledge, London and New York, 1993. 36 Doru POP

Doana, Mary Ann, The desire to desire: the woman’s film of the 1940s, Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987. Erens, Patricia. “Introduction”, Issues in Feminist Film Criticism. Patricia Erens, ed. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1990. Fisher, Lucy, Cinematernity: film, motherhood, genre, Princeton University Press, 1996. Fisher, Lucy, Shot/Countershot: Film Tradition and Women’s Cinema, Princeton University Press 1989. Freud, Sigmund, Totem and Taboo: some points of agreement between the mental lives of savages and neurotics. Authorized translation by James Strachey, New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1952, original edition 1913. Irigaray, Luce, Ce Sexe qui n’est pas un, This Sex Which Is Not One 1977, (Eng. Trans.), New York: Cornell Unviersity, 1985. Johnston, Claire, “Women’s Cinema as Counter Cinema”, in Sexual Strategems: The World of Women in Film. Patricia Erens, ed. New York: Horizon Press, 1979. Jones, Amelia ed., The Feminism and Visual Culture Reader, London: Routledge, 2003. Kaplan, Ann E., Women and Film, Methuen, London, 1983. Kaplan, E. Ann, Motherhood and Representation, London: Routledge, 1992. Kristeva, Julia, Desire in Language: A Semiotic Approach to Literature and Culture, New York: Columbia University Press, 1980. Lauretis de, Teresa, Alice Doesn’t: Feminism, Semiotics, Cinema, Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1982. Metz, Christian, Le signifiant imaginaire: Psychanalyse et cinema, Paris: Union Générale d’Editions, 1977, available http://www.idixa.net/Pixa/pagixa-0609030919.html. Mulvey, Laura, Visual and Other Pleasures, Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1989, original essay “Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema”. Screen 16 (3): 6–18, 1975, available online https://wiki.brown.edu/confluence/display/MarkTribe/Visual+Pleasure+and+Narrat ive+Cinema. Neroni, Hilary. The Violent Woman: Femininity, Narrative, and Violence in Contemporary American Cinema. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2005. Lebeau, Vicky, Childhood and Cinema, London: Reaktion Books, 2008. Modorcea, Grid, Miturile romanești și arta filmului, București, 1979. Hurd, Mary G., Women directors and their films, London: Praeger, 2007. Alina Mungiu, Românii după ‘89, București: Humanitas, 1995. Maisch, Herbert, Incest, London: Andre Deutsch, 1973. Martín-Márquez, Susan, Feminist discourse and Spanish cinema: sight unseen, New York, Oxford University Press, 1999. Projansky, Sarah, Watching rape: film and television in postfeminist culture, New York: NYU Press, 2001. Rank, Otto, The Incest Theme in Literature and Legend: fundamentals of a psychology of literary creation, trans. Gregory C. Richter, with an introductory essay by Peter Rudnytsky, Baltimore : Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992. Russell, Dominique, Rape in Art Cinema, New York: Continuum, 2010. Sue Thornham, Feminist Film Theory: A Reader, Sue Thronham, ed. (New York: NYU Press, 2006. Wolfthal, Diane, Images of Rape: the “heroic” tradition and its alternatives, New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999. Feminism, feminine discourse and the representation of women in the new Romanian cinema 37

Online references „Lover Boy – o nouă metodă de a păcăli tinerele să plece în Occident”, available June 2011, http://www.newsiasi.ro/eveniment/actualitate/loverboy-noua-metoda-de-a-pacali-tine- rele-sa-plece-in-occident.html. http://www.violentaimpotrivafemeii.ro/datesistatistici/trafic/. http://anitp.mai.gov.ro/. Joan Dupont, With ‘The Source,’ Radu Mihaileanu Looks at the Battle of the Sexes, may 16 2011, http://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/17/arts/17iht-dupont17.html?_r=1. http://www.hotnews.ro/stiri-film-8598942-interviu-catalin-mitulescu-merge-loverboy- cannes-traim-intr-zgomot-general-care-temele-super-derizorii-sunt-foarte-importante- iar-temele-adevarat-importante-nu-exista.htm.