Of Marshal Ion Antonescu in Post-Communist Romanian

CEU eTD Collection THE ‘RETRIAL’OFMARSHALIONANTONESCU INPOST-COMMUNIST In partialfulfillment oftherequirements forthedegree of ROMANIAN HISTORIOGRAPHY ROMANIAN Second Reader: ProfessorMichaelStewart Supervisor: Professor ConstantinIordachi Nationalism Nationalism Studies Program Central EuropeanUniversity Budapest, Hungary, by ChiriacBogdan Master ofArts Submitted to May 2008 CEU eTD Collection Key-words transform the wartime ruler intoa patriot and anti-Communist of almostmythical proportions. the magnitude of Ion Antonescu’s‘undeservedly’ put on trial and ‘unjustly’ sentenced to death. Iargue that these attempts to lessen crimes are was that takeover Communist in ‘victim’the of of a role former the ruler the and cast part of a wider rehabilitationshift attention away from the real content of the charges that were brought against Ion Antonescu trend that The andits behind was theseerrors allegedprocedural ‘politicization’. real motivation efforts to aims to major of discussions over thetrial 1946)withof warcriminals thepurpose (May uncovering the the reopened Antonescu Ion of apologists present-day the how analyze to intend I Specifically, Ion Antonescu and hisauthoritarian regime inPost-Communist Romanian historiography. Abstract The purpose of this study is to examine the remarkable turnabout in of examineinterpretation of turnabout The purpose this isthe study to remarkable the : Ion Antonescu, political trial, historiography,manipulation of history, rehabilitation. 2 CEU eTD Collection comments helped meimprove both structurethe and the contentof this paper. the entire writing process. I owe a special debt to Professor Michael Miller, whose useful Iordachi and Michael for their Professor Stewart, invaluable andguidanceassistance throughout Acknowledgements I would like to likeI wouldexpress tomysupervisors, Professorlikemy Constantin to togratitude V.S.L.M. 3 CEU eTD Collection BIBLIOGRAPHY CONCLUSIONS CHAPTER 4-ION ANTONESCU’S REASSESSMENT AFTER 1989 CHAPTER 3- ION ANTONESCU’S IMAGE IN THE COMMUNIST HISTORIOGRAPHY CHAPTER 2- HISTORICAL BACKGROUND CHAPTER 1- LITERATURE REVIEW AND METHODOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK INTRODUCTION Acknowledgements Abstract 4.6. Ion Antonescu’s historical reassessment beyond and 4.5. Reactions to thetrend rehabilitation 4.4. The rehabilitation of Ion Antonescu: continuity and change 4.3. The main promoters of the rehabilitation trend 4.2. The premises of rehabilitation the trend 4.1. The legacy of the Communist historiography 3.4. The Ceau 3.3. The period ofrelative liberalization (1964-1971) 3.2. The anti-national64) phase (1947-19 3.1. The manipulation of the past for political and ideological ends 2.4. ‘The greatest political trial of our 33 time’ and the birth of the myth of ‘unjust treatment’ 2.3. The trial of Marshal IonAntonescu and his close collaborators (May 6-17 1946) 2.2. The Ion Antonescu regime (September 6,1940-August 23,1944) 2.1. Ion Antonescu, the ‘Providential Man’? 1.2. Methodological framework organizationand of the study 1.1.2. Re-evaluating the past and the debates about the Holocaust 1.1.1. The deconstruction of a historical myth 1.1. Historiographical debates over Ion Antonescu and his regime ú escu regime and and the ‘recuperation’of the national discourse (1971-1989) TABLE OFCONTENTS TABLE 40 63 60 58 56 55 51 49 48 47 40 38 37 36 26 22 20 20 17 13 10 10 10 5 2 3 4 CEU eTD Collection Romanian and Western scholars, specialists and ‘untrained’ historians alike. Driven by the desire from approach sympathetic amore receive began to Antonescu of Ion career controversial the World War II period and ushered in the ‘semi-rehabilitation’ of the former of Romanian ruler. interpretation in the turnabout remarkable a determined discourse national the of ‘recovery’ Antonescubecamefigure ofIon last in decades the obvious rule, when Communist the of the the of ‘politicization’ This manipulation. political to susceptible particularly proven also has but way in which he facedhis strong disapproval death foror ethnic his towards attitude minorities), dignified the and patriotism his for admiration sincere (either view of point a partisan reflect to notonly tends topic this on production historiographical the years. Asaresult, overthe attracted has Antonescu Ion figure of the that massive attention for the may account leader, wartime repulsion mixture withfascination whichmanyRomanianssympathy,strange or regard the of Powers and finally, the deportation and near destruction of Jews, Roma and Innochentists. Axis Soviet the Germany, onthesideof in Union the waragainst country’s the participation the events associated1940-1944; asmuch a hasresult, of debate the toestablish attempted Marshal’s the role inthe between history Romanian thatshaped events in the role a key played ally wartime Hitler’s withWorld WarII.Marshal AntonescuIon (1882-1946),Romanian head (1940-1944) of and state this troublesome in and causes,nature of participation far-reachingconsequences Romania’s the about the the period, especially Romania’s alliance with Nazi This rehabilitation’‘backdoor pales in towhathappenedcomparison after1989,when the with coupled the andmilitary decisions, political of controversial these effects The lasting heated debateamongscholars and Western hasbeen decades, there Romanian Over last the INTRODUCTION 5 CEU eTD Collection Macmillan, 2006), 269. 1 that were brought against him inMay 1946 against broughthim were that minimize errors and his military validity achievements, and political question of charges the the his memory,haveexaggerate former they the completely to beeninclined dictator’s rehabilitate ‘compensate’to for biased the interpretation Communist of Marshal Antonescu andto about hisabout rehabilitation. Antonescu The apologists of werenot only producea to determined bringto liessupporters employedhowever, byhis in strategies case’, the ‘Antonescu present-day of ‘revisionist’the Antonescu the extendedregime trend to itself. singularity the The of judgmentssoften on Antonescu figure and distance the havetended and ideas the of time to Ion ensured that historical upon him immediate the judgments and his be regime would harsh ones. frustration and humiliation national amidst regime, Antonescu of the fall of the circumstances condemnedPhilippe Pétain, Ferenc Szálasi for ‘warGermany and left behind a ‘stained’ war record. Ion Antonescu suffered a similar fate as Marshal crimes’, with collaborated Nazi that figures andmilitary political controversial certain debates on ‘crimes againstconcerns to the controversy on the proper course of development that Romania should follow. political thedebates onlarger,from issues, reflected Antonescu topical ranging self-interested peace’ of critics and the apologists the between dispute the extent, a certain To affiliations. cultural and crimes and choices political their proponents’ reflected which interpretations historical divergent against of crystallization led tothe Antonescu of Ion errors merits and the over debate ensuing and the humanity’. The Dennis Deletant, As in the case of the above-mentioned personalities that collaborated with Nazi Germany, A similar trend of rewriting the contentious history of World War II also sparked heated Hitler’s Forgotten Ally.Ion Antonescu andHis 1940-1944 Regime: and Monsignor Jozef Tiso: shortly shortly and 1945,hewas Jozef Monsignor after Tiso: and tried 1 . This ‘revisionist’ trend has not gone unchallenged gone not has trend ‘revisionist’ This . (New York: Palgrave York: (New 6 CEU eTD Collection anti-Communism in order to cast the former dictator in the role of a ‘victim' that was put on 1944. The promoters of rehabilitationthe nationalism stressedIonAntonescu’s strong drive trial and in his from Augustafter in 23, Antonescu’s‘unjust toemphasizetreatment’ fall order power Ion against Marshal the hisand close collaborators would alsobe dismissed as‘unjust’. of trial of the major war criminals wouldbe discredited, the substance of the accusationsbrought ‘fairness’ the and legality the once that hoped They government. Groza Communist-dominated as by its trial’a ‘political to pointing allegedflaws procedural and the interference of the and his regime. The apologists of Antonescu focused their efforts on portraying the trial of 1946 leader former the of influenced the rehabilitation major warcriminals interpretation the of the Antonescu andhis instead, myregime; investigation focuses on waythe in which changesthe in not attempt influenced his rehabilitation inposthumous Romanian post-Communistdoes historiography. It to provide Antonescu and his a close collaborators of 1946,full also known as the trial of the major war criminals account of the strategies a widerreflect in rehabilitation trend Romanian historiography? present-day significancethe inhis ‘retrial’ courtoflaw?And of Antonescu’s the Ion finally,does and methods What in themain is favour What politicization? are of arguments Antonescu’sIon rehabilitation? used to exonerate to made itso susceptible and trial that Ion Antonescu’s career Whatwas thereabout questions: Ion criminal’. Considering the complexity of situation,the present the study addresses thefollowing reverse in judiciary ‘war put pressure hisconviction on 1946and Romanian the as system to books. They also went at great length to discredit the content of the charges brought againstmore Antonescu him interpretation sympathetic his inon history bring about Ion and the reappraisal My analysis will start from the hypothesis that the concept of a ‘politicized’ trial was used The aim of this study is to analyze the way in which the debates around the trial of Ion 7 CEU eTD Collection Studies Graduate Center/ City University of New York Socialand Science Monographs, 1997), 349-410. and Ukrainian Jews during the Antonescu 5 4 Holocaust Studies Graduate Center/ City University of New York andSocial Science Monographs, 1997), 332. The Destruction of Romanian and Ukrainian Jews During theAntonescu Era and abroader of acquired past the wentbeyond reinterpretation issueof the ‘unbiased’ the as an alternative political model for contemporary Romanian society Romanian contemporary for model political alternative an as serve and heroes national of pantheon the in place ‘rightful’ to restored officially be could ruler WorldWar beforeformer tackle Second legacyof the had the theAntonescu troublesome to connected with the trend to rehabilitate the wartime dictator. First of all, the apologists of Ion his fascist orientation and his responsibility for ‘the disaster that had befallen Romania’ 3 2 conceptualizing the language of language build around IonAntonescuconceptualizing of the discourse the in akey played role National GreatTreason’ the of As ‘TheTrial aresult, enemies. ideological justify itsand elimination political in to of instrumentof order the propaganda anti-fascist shaping Ion Antonescu’s image in Communist historiography in impactbe hadaconsiderable known May on during Communist, collaborators to 1946 came ‘The Trialimage asawar justifies criminal the attention itthat received in historiography. post-Communist of the Great Nationalquestionable objectivity,influenced the‘historical’ vindication AntonescuIon of andhis regime. behind Antonescu’s by Ion apologetic articlesconviction, promoted andcertain books of Treason’, reasons the of oversimplification this which in way the analyze to intend I Union. Soviet the as the in for joined having waragainst the AxisPowers the governmentas by apunishment Groza the trial of Ion Antonescu and his close Michael Shafir, ‘Marshal Antonescu’s Postcommunist Rehabilitation. Cui bono?’ in Lucian Boia, Lucian VladimirTism Ibid.,245- 261. The post-1989 debates The thearound ‘fairness’ have post-1989 ofthe of trial beenclosely 1946 Toa certain extent, the role played by the trial of May 1946 in shaping Ion Antonescu’s History and Myth in Romanian Consciousness ă neanu, ‘Fascism, Anti-Semitism and Mythmaking inEast Central Europe’ inRudolf Braham ed., , ed. Rudolf L Braham (Boulder: The Rosenthal Institute for Holocaust for Institute Rosenthal The (Boulder: LBraham Rudolf ed. , (Budapest:CEU Press, 2001), 255. 2 . The Communist regime used the used regime Communist The . (Boulder: The Rosenthal Institute for Institute Rosenthal The (Boulder: 5 . Secondly, these debates these Secondly, . Thedestruction of Romanian 3 , which emphasized 4 . 8 CEU eTD Collection Antonescu’s career. Antonescu’s ideological orientations and political motivations inobscuring glorifying or of certain aspects Ion ‘reassessment’ the of place the trend, rehabilitation this of emergence the of to contributed the that factors trial of 1946 in theirBetrayal’ Romanianin historiography.examine the post-1989 I will to By doing so, attempt the overall strategy ‘The National Trial to Great andwere ascribed the of that various interpretations comparing the the role played by entirehistoriographical onIonAntonescu’s focus Iwill production rehabilitation. Instead, on the various Antonescu. of Ion prosecution 1990s, being accused having collaboratedof tacitly with in Communists the apprehension,the Romania and the ‘historical’ parties became theof target king of former theirthe I, full-scaleMihai rivals. attackspolitical in their the early discredit and discourse legitimizing own their nationalistmonarchist ralliedfigure or groups the Antonescu behind of tostrengthen inorder Ion anti- Certain efforts. political linkedto directly became Betrayal’ National of Great the ‘Trial the of reassessment andthe case’ ‘Antonescu of the re-evaluation the as the significance, Constraints of length will not allow me conduct an to exhaustive investigation on the 9 CEU eTD Collection Communist rule, this tendentious interpretation interpretation Communistwas partially this revived rule, tendentious Ceau the during end tohis contributed hero’. Obscured further as a‘national portrayal decades the during first of during actions trial the and majorwarcriminals the of faced dignified wayinwhich the he his 1940 andleading its Romania rightful to In addition,place. manner the in which he defendedhis in by country the suffered ‘injustice’ the correcting statesman the‘providential’ him portrayed as that interpretation a simplistic to lifetime own in his rise gave Bessarabia and Bukovina 1.1.1. Thedeconstruction ofa historical myth minimization and denial of the Holocaust in Romania. distinguished among complexity: this deconstruction the historicalof myths and the be may, nevertheless, interpretation frames Some broad of are farfrom subjectthe exhausted. Romanian Civilization the Marshal’s early political career to his controversial trial of 1946 of trial his controversial to career political early Marshal’s the an yetimpressive,produced literature. They biased dealtwith a variety rangingfrom topics, of have career military and political Antonescu’s Ion surrounding debates in the engaging been have that scholars majority of vast The 1946. May of trial the to was attached that importance interpretations on AntonescuIon in the post-Communist Romanian historiography and the onIonAntonescuregime 1.1. Historiographicaldebates and his 6 Paul E. Michelson, ’In search of the 20 The success of Ion Antonescu’s work in restoring internal order and recovering northern andrecovering internal order in restoring work Antonescu’s of Ion The success Before proceeding to the main section of the thesis, I will briefly examine the various the will briefly examine main I section of thesis, tothe proceeding Before CHAPTER 1. LITERATURE REVIEW ANDMETHODOLOGY CHAPTER 1.LITERATURE REVIEW , III/2 (Fall-Winter 1994): 72- 99. th century: Marshal Antonescu and Romanian history- areview essay’, 6 , and still the arguments on ú escu 10 CEU eTD Collection 10 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1998), 9. narrative grand- historical Romanian the with associated myths certain of continuity the and emergence facts the anddistorts obscures further This out,favored historical emergence asDennis Deletant pointed the trend, myth of a that and himintoa staunchand turned incorruptible leader mythicalpatriot of almost proportions. Marshal the around aura a‘pseudo-sacred’ of development the to contributed trend rehabilitation out,the have historians Asseveral pointed more1989. after popularity even regime andgain 9 8 describe but to imagine a reality in accordance with certain political interests.’ political certain with imagine areality butin accordance to describe to ‘is not main function Their self-image. nation’s with the are ‘compatible’ that those emphasize and deemed‘shameful’ aspects eschewcertain to tend that answers’ ‘canonical they provide of because order rolethings present and‘justifying’ the inexplaining Myths playasignificant provide ‘canonical answers’ major to questions and hypothesis regarding Romanian history. factthe mythsdistorted historical that also perceptionshistorical over refer to factsthat tend to andintoAndrei stressed facts knowledge. scholarly however, common translate Pippidi, writing myths‘formative important play an role’ because they the facilitate understandinghistorical of for historical that example, argues Vultur, meaning. its Smaranda precise on agreement general Ion Antonescu.Although the is concept by many historians,currently employed thereis no aroundfigure the aura’created of before analysis proceeding tothe ‘pseudo-sacred order the of 7 Vladimir Tism Vultur, ‘New Topics, New Tendencies and New Generations of Historians in Romanian Historiography’, 251. Deletant, Boia, Lucian Boia provides a good theoretical methodologicaland for framework analyzing the A few general remarks regarding the definition and functions of ‘historical myth’ are in myth’ are ‘historical of andfunctions definition the regarding remarks A few general History and Myth 10 Hitler’s Forgotten Ally . His detailed analysis of mainhistoriographical the duringCommunisttrends times ă neanu, Fantasies of Salvation in Romanian Consciousness. , 5. 7 . . Democracy, Nationalism, andMythPost-Communist in Europe 9 11 8 CEU eTD Collection ‘dispel’ the ‘pseudo-sacred aura’ surrounding heroic figures of In the case figures aura’surroundingheroic of past. the of Ion ‘pseudo-sacred ‘dispel’ the to attempt anyserious suspect legitimization myth renders and elite between political relation to the glorification of certaintheir replacement with ‘nationalist and anticommunistauthoritarianlegends’. In many cases, this trend has led and anti-Communist figures of the past. The strong 12 Tism Semitism, seen as a central motif of the scapegoating and national homogenizing myths. other the on nation, the of glorification and martyrdom of narratives the of re-emergence the and hand, one on center’, Moscow the to subordination their of result a as region the in nations all by experienced humiliation national of feelings entrenched deeply in ‚the be found is to attitudes myths historical that triggered past theresurrection of factors of Post-Communist the societies and extremely complicated. ‘historical task of truth’ the restoring symbols in consciousnessthe most Romanians,of which still retain theirinfluence andmake the Communist and discourse inimprinting resurfaced nationalism number certain ofimages and of memory’) associated with the ‘Jewish problem’ (‘traps interpretations stereotypes and in certain creating andpresent between interplay past the present-day historiography.He exploresissue this in hisone of articles the negativeabout role of influences still history of manipulation overt Communist the of legacy the how illustrates amply ed., 11 Tism Idem. ‘A Idem. historiographical controversy: Jews the duringof Romania the Second World War’Manuela in Dobre, Istorie ă 13 The past still represents a viable source of political legitimization, according to according legitimization, political of source viable a represents still past The Vladimir Tism 12 ă neanu, which determined the demise of certain Communist class-based mythologies and mythologies class-based Communist certain of demise the determined which neanu, . A significant part of his study . A his is social partof significant study tothe andpolitical dedicated functions of anti- neanu, . He argues that the origins of this mythological revival of nationalism and anti-Jewish ú i ideologie Fantasies of Salvation [ Historyand ideology ă neanu offers one of the most detailed descriptions of the ‚overall confusion’ . ] (Bucure ú ti: Editura Universit 11 . He emphasized the role of the official ăĠ ii din Bucure ú ti, 2003). 12 CEU eTD Collection 2002), 934-947. 16 2004), 75-76. Transnistria: The Issue of the Holocaust. Historical and comparative perspectives] (Bucure perspectives] comparative and Historical Holocaust. the of Issue The Transnistria: Communist stereotypes associated with the Antonescu regime and present a more accurate regime with present and Antonescu the associated stereotypes Communist deep-seated break-down the main isto aim direction: their fallow adifferent historians’ magnitudedenying ofhis the ‘cosmopolitans’anti-Jewish policy. The or‘Westernized anddiscourse strive toglorify Antonescu byminimizingIon much as as orsimply possible Romanian historians to splitin two major camps. The ‘patriots’ have (re)embraced the nationalist and caused of Romanian Jews andnear destruction with issues deportation the associated other hand, argues that the fall of the Communist regime ushered in a renewed interest in the gives primacy to internal political factors and Ion Antonescu’s role Antonescu’s and factors Ion internal political primacy gives to which one, ‘intuitionalist’ the Jewsand Romanian the of in destruction the factors external the two major trends of interpretation: the ‘functionalist’ trend, which emphasizes the identifiedfor example, or Iordachi, role Constantin trends. groups betweenconflicting discussions played by topic haverecently in prominence gained historiography ledRomanian and to polarization the of regimeinAntonescu minorities. of deportation andethnic destruction the overlapped with a more general discussion of the delicate1.1.2. Re-evaluating thepast and the debates about theissue the Holocaust problem of the responsibility of the eds., Holocaustthe inRomania andTransnistria. HistoriographicalDebates] Viorel in Achim andConstantin Iordachi Romanian national dignity, tooffend their honor and senseof blacked their past Antonescu, the attempts to ‘demystify’ his actions are classified as efforts to diminish the 15 14 13 Irina Livezeanu, ‘The RomanianHolocaust: Family Quarrels,’ Constantin Iordachi, ‘Problema Holocaustului înRomânia Ibid., 13. Ibid. ,6-7. România The debates on the reassessment of Romania’s fascist and authoritarian past partly past andfascist authoritarian of Romania’s reassessment the on The debates ú i Transnistria: Problema Holocaustului. Perspective istorice ú i Transnistria- Dezbateri istoriografice’ [The issue of East European PoliticsandSociety 15 . Irina Livezeanu ú i comparative this on debates The ú ti: Editura Curtea Veche, Curtea Editura ti: 14 . [Romania and , vol.16 (Fall 16 , on the on , 13 CEU eTD Collection 19 of restoration]. wars the and ofRomania Marshal 18 blame persecution the for and destruction of Romanian Jews wasGerman deflectedon troops andthe distorted was systematically Holocaust memory the of when the period, Communist consequences of deportationthe policy. aboutideological causes the andthe of ‘revisionist’ ramifications this discourse dramatic and Antonescu anti-CommunistIon tothe political and‘honorable’ patriot andpointed asan of the Jews and Roma during situation imageonthe more accurate provide a to has attempted scholars, historians Western and World War II. They criticized the recent attempts to rehabilitate Moldova:Ia anti-Communist that was even castinto the role of ‘the savior of the Romanian Jews’ for Ion Antonescu’s biased Communist appraisal turned the former wartime into a patriot and Gheorghe Buzatu Gheorghe by edited regime Antonescu on the documents of collection The minorities. ethnic of destruction regime that minimizes or even denies the former ruler’s responsibility in the deportation and near historians. Thesehistorians putforwarda‘revisionist’ have discourse about Antonescu the periodsand may post-1989 immediate bebroadly belongingclassified ‘patriot’ as tothe minorities. ethnic of destruction near and deportation in the role Antonescu’s to Ion in respect havescholars adopted certain prominent that assess position the to taxonomy I will Livezeanu’s paper, useIrina the in Throughout Holocaust Romania. the about picture 17 The works of these two authors will be analyzed in greater detail in chapter IV. Iosif ConstantinDr Gheorghe Buzatu ed., The roots of as Rudolf The roots ‘revisionist’this back the Braham discourse, to argues, go The ‘liberal’ by interpretation, supported a smaller of‘Westernized’ group Romanian Most of Most of literature the Antonescuon Ion in produced Romania during the lateCommunist ú i, 1992). 17 ă and Iosif Constantin Dr Constantin Iosif and ganed., Mare ú alulAntonescu fa în Antonescu.Mare Milan: Nagard, 1986. ú alul României ă Ġ gan a istoriei 18 illustrate how this drive to over-compensate to howthis drive illustrate [MarshalAntonescufront of in history] (Editura ú i R ă zboaielereîntregire de [Antonescu. The [Antonescu. 19 . 14 CEU eTD Collection Polirom, 2000). de Est ‘Competitive martyrdom’ represents a form of trivialization by comparison that seeks to present seeks to that by comparison aform trivialization of represents martyrdom’ ‘Competitive casting uniquenessthe doubton and of of authenticity plightthe Jewsduringthe World WarII. Germany and its alliesmurdered 6million byNazi Jews were around factthat the of ranging from rejection open the during World War forms, in many comes II ‘revisionism’ factthat the stresses countries European East contemporary to ‘disguised’ strategies and methods that aim at been also explored by Michael Shafir Michael by explored also been itsimilaritiesforms shares denialwith inthat other of Holocaust have Post-Communist countries main behindreasons this drive. Romanian historiography nationalism,and arguedthat anti-Semitism and opportunism are the in regime perception Antonescu the of distorted lessdeliberately more or the regarding Union Soviet the against campaign and the Nazi Germany with alliance his policy, anti-Semitic his of consequences the and reasons the ‘rationalizing’ or rehabilitationfew tothe exceptions, Antonescu. of hope toachieve by They Ion thisaim denying of former with very 1990s historiansCommunistbeenare usually work the have that committed, stressesauthor most thefactthat of ‘revisionist’the in studies published beginningof the the The Antonescu. Ion around built discourse’ ‘exculpatory an of emergence the of analysis critical persecutionthe Jewsthe of WorldWarduring IIin historiography Romanian further details this stationed in RomaniaRomania’s oron neighbors 22 Graduate Center/ City University of New York and Social Science Monographs, 1997), 271-302. Jews during Antonescu the Era 21 Accounts 20 Michael Shafir, Viktor Eskenazy, ‘Historiographers against the Antonescu Myth,’ in RudolphL. Braham, The influencegrowing of ‘revisionist’the in discourse Romanian historiography and the [BetweenDenial and Trivialization: Holocaust Denial inPost-Communist East Central Europe] (Ia (New York: Columbia University Press, 1998). Între negare Romanian Nationalists andtheHolocaust: ThePolitical Exploitation ofUnfounded Rescue ú , i trivializare.Negarea Holocaustului în , ed. Rudolf LBraham (Boulder: The Rosenthal Institute forHolocaust Studies 22 . His comparative study on Holocaust denial in 20 . Viktor Eskenazy’s article on the treatment of The Destruction ofRomanian andUkrainian 21 . Eskenazy questions raised critical Ġă rilepostcomuniste din Europa central 15 ú ú i: i CEU eTD Collection ‘Trial of Marshal Ion Antonescu] (Bucure M. Nijhoff,Ciuc 1983). 24 Graduate Center/ City University of New York and Social Science Monographs, 1997), 349-410. Ukrainian Jews duringtheAntonescu, in Romania immediately after the end of War endWorld the II of after immediately in Romania ‘the victor’s justice’ and casting Ion Antonescu in the role of victim. was far from being impartial played a significant part in associating the events of May 1946 with justice administered Communist the that belief strong the and sources first-hand to access limited the with coupled warcriminals, major the of trial the of analysis abalanced The lackof War II. World of aftermath in the in Romania power to came Communists the in which context political efforts to link the discussion‘patriot’ historians and the ‘cosmopolitan’ scholars. The nationaliston historiansthe made serious reassessment of the trial Romania. ofcontemporary May 1946 for with ‘model’ political a and values the anti-Communist and nationalistic legal his for sacrificed and right-wing political groups that have gone togreat length to present the former ruler as a ‘martyr’ connection between some of the most prominent apologists for the Antonescu regime and certain record wartime his whitewash and policies anti-Semitic Antonescu’s Ion ‘rationalize’ to drive recent the shaped distinctively has history of manipulation and nationalism resurfaced interests, political between relation intricate the that Heargued trend, minimization Romanians thatequals oreven surpasses the plight of Jewsthe duringWorld WarII. of the ‘Holocaust genuine 1945asa after people Romanian by suffered injustice the the 23 Rudolf Braham, Rudolf Idem, ‘Marshal Antonescu’s Postcommunist Rehabilitation. There are very few contributions to the way in which ‘the politics of retribution’ functioned retribution’ of politics ‘the inwhich way the to contributions few very are There the between debates of the part became soon Betrayal’ National Great the of Trial ‘The and denial Holocaust the of implication political the on focused also Shafir Michael Genocide andretribution : theHolocaust inHungarian-ruled Northern Transylvania ă , ProcesulMare ed. Rudolf L Braham (Boulder: The Rosenthal Institute forHolocaust Studies ú ti: Editurati: Lucman, 2005). ú alului Antonescu. Ioan Dan, ‘ Cui bono 24 and even less dealing with the way in way the with dealing less even and ?’ in ?’ Procesul’ Mare The destruction ofRomanian and 23 . He shed light on the ú aluluiAntonescu (Boston: [The 16 CEU eTD Collection contributions interpretmyths the historical the helpme emergence andon of evolution will proponents of Ion Antonescu’s rehabilitation. Lucian Boia’s Lucian rehabilitation. Antonescu’s Ion of proponents close be of will perceptions scrutiny. regarding‘unfairness’ trial to the the subjected of majorthe May warcriminals strong anti-Communist1946. Theirof rhetoricandcommon have andway that trial books a significant discourse the about Antonescu the articles shapedin pro- several of analysis discourse in-depth an include will research this in employ shall I production andhistorical oncontroversialof political figuresThemethods discourse past. the of 1.2. Party. Communist Romanian the of ends advancing and political ideological for the served asatool Union,supervised bythe Soviet 28 gain for popular support comingthe elections parliamentary and the anti-fascistpurges as a screen for ‘vilifying’its past and presentpolitical adversaries and trial usedthe instruction, actingUnion’s Sovieton the government, Groza Communist-controlled after 1945 in ‘the of retribution’ Eastern of Europe politics scholars whohave topicsthese dealtwith generally tend toregard the of trial May 1946as part 27 Aftermath 26 which Post-Communist historiography reinterpret thetrialssought to warcriminalsthe of (Bucure 25 Boia, Deletant, István Deák, Jan T. Gross and Tony Judt eds., EduardMezincescu, Methodological framework, sources and organizationofthestudy I will also examine the background and possible ideological or political affinities of the of affinities political or ideological possible and background the examine also will I the of nature complex the stresses and thematic and chronologic both is approach My ú History and Myth in Romanian Consciousness . ti: EdituraArtemis,ti: 1993); (Princeton: PrincetonUniversity Press, 2000). Hitler’s Forgotten Ally Mare ú alul Antonescualul , 245-259. ú i catastrofa României The Politics of Retribution in Europe. World War II and its [MarshalAntonescu andRomania’s disaster] 26 27 . Dennis Deletant, argues that the that argues . DennisDeletant, . The ‘de-Nazification’ campaign, ‘de-Nazification’ . The 28 and Vladimir Tism Vladimir and ă neanu’s 25 . The . 17 29 CEU eTD Collection Trial. Documents]. 3 vols. (Bucure Eminescu,Marcel 1946). Dumitru-Ciuc (Bucure Government] Antonescu the on Tribunal People’s ofthe records the betrayal: national great the of Antonescuof Ion duringtheCommunistfocusing on regime, way inthe variations whichthe in intreated Romanian historiography. 3 discusses Chapter in detail manipulation the of figure the Jews and Roma) and the way in which they were presented during his trial. Axis Powers and participation in the campaign against the Soviet Union and the treatment of his internal foreign and thepolicies (his relation Guard, Romania’swith Iron the alliance with the focusing of onthemajor May1946, Antonescu’s directions career and histrial examines Ion of 2briefly Chapter former ruler. the on shaped discourse apologetic the that factors complex wartime regimeandbrings methods into discussion the be in will that used assessing the examinesmain ininterpretation historiographical the the Antonescutrends of his Ion and the cametoregard of trial May 1946. contemporaries Antonescu’s proceedings of trialthe helped me gain understandinga deeper of in mannerthe which Ion trial the attending participants of recollection tr 30 Special attention was given to the records of the ‘Trial of the Great National Betrayal’ Antonescu’s damnation a‘waras criminal’remarkable his and rehabilitation 1989. after Communist Romania betweenrelation nationalismpolitics, in and historiographical Communistdiscourse and post- in orderparadigms and by introduced terminology Finally, pro-Antonescu works. these at look Iwill the to assess how the ‘politicization of the past’ influenced Ion 29 ăGă There records of trialthe of ‘Antonescu group’ of May 1946 were published in two editions: Tism ri na The next two chapters deal with the way in which Ion Antonescu and his regime were regime his and Antonescu Ion in which way the with deal chapters two next The 1 hasdriven also organization of The methodological study. Chapter the the approach Differenttypes of sources were usedinprimary pursue order to aimsthe my of research. ă neanu, ‘Fascism, Anti-Semitism and Mythmaking in East Central Europe’. Ġ ionale:Stenograma desbaterilor de laTribunalul Poporului asupra Guvernului. Antonescu ú ti: Editurati: Saeculum, Editura Europa Nova,1995-1998). ă ed., Procesul Mare 31 . The analysis of several articles reporting the reporting articles several of analysis The . ú alului Antonescu. Documente [MarshalAntonescu’s Procesul marii [The trial of trial [The 30 ú ti: Editura ti: and the and 18 CEU eTD Collection of Antonescu’ ‘the case behind ‘politicization’ of the Antonescu reasons discourse and the on post-1989 Ion the and Communist the between discontinuities the and continuities the explore will I conclusions, anda’martyrtakeover inCommunist Finally, Romanian of people’. the to section dedicated the the trial of 1946 of as reassessment usedthe Antonescu of in way apologists the beto which given will attention a means to vindicate image.Special Ion andAntonescu’s in politicizing and ideological trends reconstructing the former ruler on interpretationthe Antonescu by various role andassesses the of Ion played political groups and present him changes Post-Communist of the ontheimpact 4concentrates as Chapter ideological purposes. and a victimpolitical to according past the of reinterpreting of process the wider the reflected discourse official the 31 Dr ă gan, ed. Antonescu. Mare ú alul României 19 CEU eTD Collection during Worlddiscipline for respect his as well as Warinitiative, and determination remarkable I. his proven has In the early 1920s that an career officer austere 1946), (1882- Antonescu General Ion his towards turned attention he served as a military attaché in Paris,(The Treaty of Craiova- 7,1940). September London and Bulgaria 1940)andHungary southern DobroudjaAugust Second Award- to (The 30, Vienna northern Bukovina totheUnion Soviet1940), northwestern 26-28, (June Transylvania to Romanian country’s the Bessarabiaalmost third revisionistterritory to and neighbors: one of Russianeighborsgive failed. and revisionistforced Romania’s he Consequently, to was up foreign policy with The Third Reichin foraformal return German assurance against Soviet the mercy the andof theSovietUnion Germany Nazi fallthe of France in June the1940 left support country the without of its WesternAllies and at lineinternational the in with developments War affairs,ofWorldbut outbreak recent the IIand in policy foreign country’s the reoriented and Italy Fascist imitate to tried regime authoritarian (also known as the Iron Guard) and King Carol Royal Guard) andKing(alsoCarol II’s dictatorship (1938-1940) knownastheIron Depression, the rise of the extreme rightmovements, such as the notorious Legionary Movement Economic by Great the undermined beenseriously hadalready system Romanian parliamentary 2.1. General Ion Antonescu: the‘providential man’? Hitchins, 32 For a general overview of the political life in Romania during the interwar and World War II period, see Keith The circumstances required an authoritarian figure at the helm of the state and Carol and Carol II state the of helm atthe figure authoritarian an required The circumstances Ion Antonescu came to power in a time of great crisis, when the uncertain bases of the Romania 1866-1947 CHAPTER 2. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND (Bucure ú ti: ti: Editura Humanitas, 1996). 33 . Carol II’s desperate efforts align his to efforts . Carol II’s desperate 32 . This new 20 CEU eTD Collection his son, Mihai on September 6, 1940 and left Romania on the same day and unable to draw any support fromking should abdicateNazi and leave Germany, the country immediately. FacedCarol with a strong internalII renounced opposition Antonescu Ion Bucharest, the demanded that andtheGerman democratic parties Legation of the throne in favor of and leaders havingconsulted of the with reluctantly accepted following day,after the the prime-minister only on condition that Carol II would grant him dictatorial powers. The king of mandate the accepted Antonescu his Ion regime. towards adversity and ambition Antonescu’s underestimated be hehadseriously because tofatal proved decision Carol II’s unwise andorder savehisHowever, him restore help throne. would German of the Bucharest Legation with ‘connections’ andhis Party) Peasant’s National the and Party Liberal National (the parties with Guard andpopularity the Iron ‘democratic’ amiablerelations the thearmy,within the responsible. domestic and international itsituation faced in 1940,for which he hold Carol II personally disastrous saving from Romania the he capableof one only wasthe that becameconvinced also He dictatorship. Royal the andof corruption inefficiency the with his increased dissatisfaction earnedhim and admirers tomodernize both his failed enemies the Romanianand attempts army 1934) and Defense Minister(1937 and 1938) Warof (1927andin 1930),secretary Ministry War,the of Chief of General the (1933 and Staff Brussels and held several positions after his return in Romania: commander of the Higher School 34 Europe, 33 For a balanced analysis of Ion Antonescu’s early stages of his career, see Deletant, career, ofhis stages early Antonescu’s ofIon analysis balanced a For Bucur,‘Carol Maria, IIof Romania’ in In early September 1940, Carol II called on him to form innew him his form hopethat government In 1940,Carol a to on II called early September ed. Brend J. Fisher (West Lafayette: Purdue University Press, 2007), 87-117. Balkan Strongmen. Dictators andAuthoritarian Rulers ofSouth Eastern 34 . His uncompromising attitude . Hisuncompromisingcorruption attitude towards Hitler’s Forgotten Ally 35 . , 37-51. 21 CEU eTD Collection Studies of Bucharest University, 2003), 19-41. History, ‘GoldsteinGoren’ Diaspora ResearchCenter, Tel AvivUniversity, ‘GoldsteinGoren’ Centerfor Hebrew Contemporary Significance 1940- August 23, 1944). Sociopolitical and Ideological Dimensions’ in satelization], Bucure CaleaAntonescu - spreRomâniei Statul satelit Antonescu government] (Bucure 38 (Columbus: Ohio State University Press), 261-264. 37 Romania, September1940-January 1941] (Cluj-Napoca: Editura Dacia. 1976). Auric Antonescu an inauthoritarian regime whichsenior tookordersdirectly andministers officers from Ion anew his and undependable partners government. eliminate create Legionary 1941) onlyafter rebellion he 21-23, Hitler’s(January approval hadreceived to crush tothe his troops ordered Antonescu and conflict in the role a decisive played arbitration Antonescu of byforce Iron culminated tooust the Guard tried with attempt the that vision. situation an Thistensioned intorapidly deteriorated andstruggleopen rivalry for power show signs of great leaderGuard began ‘nominal’ Sima, andHoria of Iron the the careerofficer to uncompromising strain after it becameas vice-prime-minister Guard, Iron the clear that the two did not share the same political problem of international fascism],trans. by andCornelia Delia E international September 13, 1940, with Ion Antonescu as ‘Conduc September Ion 13,1940,with 2.2. Legiunea "Arhanghelului Mihail". Mi War: 1939-1945 36 35 Dan Banco Dan VladGeorgescu, For a general overview on the National-Legionary state, see Dinu C. Giurescu, C. see Dinu state, National-Legionary the on overview a general For Ibid., 48-50. The Antonescu Regime 6,1940- 1944) Antonescu(September The Regime August 23, ă The National-Legionary state was abolished on February 14, 1941 and was replaced with replaced and 14,1941 was February wasabolished on state The National-Legionary The abdication of Carol II led to the establishment of the National Legionary State on Simion, 38 [The ‘Archangel Michael’ Legion. Social movement and political organisation. A contribution to the ú . Although it adopted some trappings of Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy, the new , Regimul politic înRomânia înperioada Septembrie 1940-Ianuaria 1941 Social , trans. by Elena PopescuEugenia EastEuropean (Boulder: Monographs), 2000.ArminHeinen, The Romanians. AHistory ú ti: Editura Machiavelli, 1996. FlorinMuller, ‘The Antonescu Dictatorial Regime (September6, ú i national înpolitica guvernului Ion Antonescu , ed. Mircea Soreanu (Bucure ú ti: Editura Eminescu,2000).Gheorghe,Ion ú care social [An unhappy [An dictator: marshal Antonescu path –Romania’s towards , edited by Matei C by Matei edited , 36 ú ă . This uneasy alliance between Ion Antonescu, an Antonescu, Ion between alliance uneasy This . i organiza ú ti: Institute forPolitical Studies of Defense Militaryand ă Ġ ie politic tor’ (leader) and Horia Sima, the leader (leader) of tor’ andHoria Sima, the ú ianu (Bucuresti:Ed. Humanitas, 1999),401-424. ă linescu, translated by Alexandra Bley-Vroman by Alexandra translated linescu, [Social and national inthe policy of Ion TheHolocaust andRomania.History and ă . O . contributie laproblema fascismului Un dictator nefericit: Mare Romania in the Second World [The political regime in regime political [The 37 . Germany’s ú alul 22 CEU eTD Collection and Eastand EuropeanStudies (London: University College 2003),143–161.London, RaduIoanid, ed., Haynes Rebecca in Research”, of Recent Light the in Overview An Transnistria: in Holocaust ‘The Deletant, Dennis 2001). Shoah întimpulregimului Antonescu (1940-1944) Romania's Jews, 1940-1944],2ndedition, editedby LyaBenjamin (Bucure 1991). Mathias Carp, Pă 41 (Boulder: Social Science Monographs, 1997), 10. Overview’ in 40 Editura Univers Enciclopedic, 1997), 394. Romania of Jews and Roma and creating an ‘ethnocentric’ state and public‘Romanize’ order to economy the partof morewere a ambitious project of ‘purifying’ maintain to ‘need’ the in which life, economic and social country’s the of restructuring the for plans his presented Antonescu Ion occasions, several On minorities. ethnic towards policies of picture meetings reveals actual behindMinisters’ the his amore comprehensive reasons the professions.the and economy the of ‘Romanization’ the of guise the under laws anti-Jewish new enacted and A closer look Legionary under State National Carol kingII’ s dictatorship andthe Semitic measuresadopted at Antonescu’s causticall in costs. at lost 1940 territories anti-Semiticthe regain and economy the strengthen order, internal restore to moment: the of imperatives commentsfollowed the ideology, but mass or wasnotbasedon a political party regime authoritarian in the Councilin several thathis factor he declaredon decisivethe occasions and politics Romanian of statehood Romania’s a symbol of into it transformed and prerogatives important its most of monarchy amilitarydeprived was in The fact, regime was, dictatorship. ambivalent 39 For a more detailed discussion, see Lya Benjamin ed., Benjamin Lya see discussion, detailed a more For Lya Benjamin, ‘Anti-Semitism as Reflected inthe Records of the Council of Ministers, 1940-1944: AnAnalytical FlorinConstantiniu, rturii Although there was no fascist party in power, Ion Antonescu’ s rule consolidated the anti- Antonescu’s treatment of the Jews living in Romania and the liberated territories was [The plight of the Jews inRomania, 1940-1944. Documents and testimonies] (Bucure Moldova Bessarabia,Transnistria. Occasional Papers inRomanian Studies 41 The Destruction of Romanian andUkrainian Jews duringtheAntonescu Era . The anti-Jewish measures began to take a more systematic course after 1941, after amore systematiccourse began to take measures anti-Jewish . The Cartea Neagr O istoriesincer ă . Suferin ă apoporului român Ġ eleevreilor din România.1940-1944 [Shoah during the Antonescu regime (1940-1944)] (Ia Martiriul Evreilor din România,1940-1944. Documente [A sincere history of the Romanian people] (Bucure people] Romanian the of history sincere [A ú 40 ti: Editura Diogene, 1996).Carol Iancu, . [The black book. The plight of 39 . Ion Antonescu became Antonescu Ion . , Nr. 3, School of Slavonic of School 3, , Nr. , ed. Rudolf Braham ed. Rudolf , ú ti: Editura Hasefer, The Holocaust in ú i: Polirom,i: ú 23 ti: ú i CEU eTD Collection (1941): a controversial(1941): a decision] (Bucure Florin Constantiniu, IlieSchipor, Hitler, Stalin 44 Romania-German Relations 1938-1944], trans. Stelian Neagoe (Bucure Carol Germany, 1936-1940] 1999). Rebecca Haynes, 43 42 International Publishing Company, 1998. soldiers took part in the attack against in1941 Union partin Soviet the took attack the soldiers contributed Germanto the war with rawmaterialsoil and other 600, 000Romania andalmost away with ‘the Soviet threat’ also played a role in bringing Romanian to the Axis’ side. Romania provisions of SecondViennathe his Award. However, anti-Communism andhis desire to do revise the Hitler to convince Bessarabia and Bukovina and ofnorthern lost provinces regain the 2000). Alex Mihai Stoenescu, economic, diplomatic and military alliance with Nazi Nazi Germany with alliance and military diplomatic economic, Nazi death camps in Poland. sendinghalt Jewsthe Antonescuthe postponed deportationsthe other and to decidedto regime deportations, against the protests international and internal the and battle the Stalingrad of after situation in of military changes asaresultthe the minorities: ethnic towards policy Antonescu’s their lives ‘under Romanian jurisdiction’ living000 Jews lost conditions, and around250,000-290,between 10,000and20,Roma appalling the and diseases executions, summary of asaresult disastrous: were consequences Kingdom the newlyacquired The provinceTransnistria. of to BukovinaRoma Old the from and northern and Bessarabia from population Jewish the of segments large of deportation the Russia and ordered Soviet regime waragainst Antonescu joinedthe reaching its peakwhen the Romania: Du Ion Calafeteanu ed., Deletant, Ġ u, Alexandru ed., ú Ion Antonescu inherited the Axis alignment from Carol II and further strengthened the strengthened further and II Carol from alignment Axis the inherited Antonescu Ion i Mare the destruction of Jews andGypsiesunder the Antonescu regime, 1940-1944 Hitler’s Forgotten Ally, ú ú alul Antonescu i România , Români laHitler trans. by AboboaieCristina (Ia Romania in World War II.1941-1945 [1941. Hitler, Stalin andRomânia], (Bucure Politica României fa . Armata, maresalul si evreii Rela Trecerea Nistrului (1941): Odecizie controversat 2. Ġ iile româno-germane 1938- 1944 [Romanians meeting withHitler] (Bucure ú ti: Editurati: Albatros,Jipa,Rotaru 1995). others, and Ġă de Germania între1936 42 . The year 1943markedaturningin point Ion ú i: Ed. Polirom,i: Ed. 2003). Andreas Hillgruber, [The army, the marshal and the Jews]. Bucure Jews]. the and marshal the army, [The (Bucure [Hitler,King Carol and Marshal Antonescu. ú ú ti: ti: Editura Humanitas, 1994). ti: ti: Sylvi,1997). Florin Constantiniu, ú ti: Editurati: Univers Enciclopedic, 2002). 44 ú 43 i 1940 . The defeatat Stalingrad. The and . His paramount aim was to ú ti: Editura Univers Enciclopedia, ă [The crossing of the Dnieper of the crossing [The [RomanianPolicy Towards (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, Mare ú alul Antonescu Hitler, regale Hitler, ú ti: RAO ti: 1941. 24 CEU eTD Collection ù Mihail E. Ionescu, Romania. Ionescu, E. Mihail Romanian insurrection of August 1944](Cluj Napoca:Editura Dacia, 1978). Ilie Ceau Preliminariipolitico-diplomatice ale insurectieiromane din august 1944 45 RomanianStudies, 1996). victory] (Bucure Romania of country’s overthe military andhad situation political,repercussions considerable and diplomatic Western political forces and the rising Romanian Communist Party Communist Romanian rising the and forces political Western pro- struggle between traditional becamethe scene country desperate Afterthe the 1944the of faded away. soon occupation from a Soviet the country save would defeatof Germany the Nazi to Army Romanian the of contribution the and forces Allied the with alliance new the that hopes relations with Nazi Germany and joined theAllies’ side fightto against the Axis Powers. But the opposition planto his overthrow in August 1944 ‘democratic’ of the leaders the with in collaboration I, Michael determined armistice terms better frail that hope Sovietthe advancement could behalted long enough sothathe could negotiate negotiations with the Allies. However, his reluctance to break away with his German ally and his armistice secret initiated Antonescu Ion and collaboration military German-Romanian before subsequentthe advancing the serious Axisretreat troops put strains Soviet onthe influence over the internal affairs of the country was soon turned into the main instrument used instrument main the into turned soon was country the of affairs internal the over influence considerable Command High (Soviet) Allied the gave that Agreement Armistice the However, status. foreign cobelligerent Alliestorecognizepolicy Romania’s country’s determinethe would the in change drastic the and Antonescu Ion of reversal the that hoped parties ‘democratic’ the of la Odessa,Grandoarea tiin For a more For detailed discussion on theevents thatled to the 23August Ġ ific The ăú i Enciclopedic coup d’état 46 . Thenew S ú ti: Editurati: Paideia, 1999). Kurt Treptow ed., ú i am ă of 1944 led of August 23, fall tothe Antonescuof regime pro-German the , 1984). ăUă 23 August 1944.Two Hundred DaysSpared from World War II ăQă ciunea uneivictorii tescu government, appointed by King Mihai I, broke off broke by appointed diplomatic government, Kingtescu Mihai I, [Marshal Antonescu in Odessa. The grandeur and rancor of a rancor and grandeur The Odessa. in Antonescu [Marshal 45 . Romania and World War II [Political and diplomatic premises to the 47 coupd’etat . King Mihai and the leaders ú escu,Florin Constantiniu and (Ia , see Auric (Bucure ú i: The i: The Center for ú ti: ti: Editura ă Simion, 25 CEU eTD Collection Stoenescu, (Mihai Antonescu, Constantin Z. Vasiliu, Constantin Pantazi and Mircea Elefterescu), also Elefterescu), Mircea and Pantazi Constantin Z. Vasiliu, Constantin Antonescu, (Mihai degree of insupport Romanian the army,Antonescu Ion andfour ofhis close collaborators some enjoyed still regime former the that Fearing militia. Communist a by custody into taken 2.3. postpone the implementation of ‘The Final Solution’ represent two sides of the same coin. his minorities,of halt decision in1943and aswell religiousdeportations ethnic and to the and near destruction in deportation the role Antonescu’s Ion regime. the aspectsof controversial most of the one represent minorities fate of on the ethnic The debates Front. Eastern SovietUnion,Antonescu notcommit Ion did entirethe in army campaign thisdestructive on the military in independence.fight hesentnumerous Even troops to though campaignagainstthe the of some and forms Germany economic alliance with andeconomic preserving diplomatic from benefitsmaximum his the situationinternational andmaneuvered betweendrawing current Axis allies, the Antonescu regime tried to pursue its own interests within the framework of the 49 48 47 Publishing House, 1998),145. Studies inContemporary Romanian history to extend the Soviet sphere of influenceto extendsphere Soviet the of over Romania punishto thoseheld for havingresponsible theinvasion launched SovietUnion againstthe and extent, the complex and contradictory personality of the of personality contradictory and complex the extent, 46 Sorin Alexandrescu, Sorin Ibid. Ibid., 145-146. Maurice andPearton Dennis Deletant, ‘The Soviet Romania,in 1944-1948’ Takeover in ‘ The Trial The Trial of theGreat National Betrayal’ Ion Antonescu and several of his close collaborators were arrested on August 23, 1944 and 1944 werearrested 23, on August andAntonescu his collaborators Ion several of close The ‘balance sheet’ of the Antonescu regime isfull of inconsistencies that reflect, to agreat Armata, maresalul si evreii Paradoxulromân , 482-483. [The RomanianParadox] (Bucure , eds. Maurice Pearton and Dennis Deletant (Bucharest: Encyclopaedic (Bucharest: Deletant Dennis and Pearton Maurice eds. , 48 . Conduc ú ti: ti: Editura Univers, 1998), 151-156. ă tor 49 . As in the case of other Romania Observed. 26 CEU eTD Collection 53 52 51 secure its influence over the executive and make the necessary ‘preparations’ for the trial for the ‘preparations’ thenecessary andmake executive overthe its influence secure custody as the and supervisetheir Communistas soon Romanian able prosecution Party to was includingEurope, Romania punishmentthe of suspected ‘Fascist and collaborators’ in ‘warcriminals’ liberatedall parts of anew the Alliessupervised and Thevictorious took warcriminals trial suspected seriousness. later at onusedby prosecutor were Nurembergdeclarations the Soviet Trials the inquiry inquiry of SMER membersCommunist of sympathisers in ofjudges panel the from Bucharestthe People’s Court criminals government underway. Groza also The took ofnominating ‘precaution’ the docile war suspected the of trial for the get preparations the to steps necessary took the Groza, by Petru government, Communist led happened1945 when appointed newly the dominated March 6, on new laws and setup special known courts, as People’s Tribunals in Cluj-Napoca and Bucure crimes. Tothis purpose, Romanianthe modified government the legislation,existing enacted war of accused persons those of prosecution and apprehension in the Command High Allied signed with Allies the onSeptember 12,1944,Romania collaborate with wasrequired to the transported to the Soviet Union Soviet the to transported known ‘the as Antonescuwere handed group’ military overtoSoviet forces August 31andon Counter Intelligence ( Intelligence Counter (September during by 1944-April 1946), which interrogated Military they were Sovietthe 50 Ioanid, ed., István Deák, Jan T. Gross, and Tony Judt, eds. Deletant, Radu Ioanid , ed The Soviet Union was planning to return return in UnionThe membersthe Antonescu Soviet Romania group was planningto of the After capitulation the of Germany in May discussionshow 1945, about punishto the Hitler’s Forgotten Ally Lotul Antonescu înancheta ù , Moscow,, 1944-1946], trans.Radu P . Lotul Antonescu în ancheta Smert Spionam Smert 52 , 247. . According toArticles 13 and 14of Armisticethe Agreement 50 ù . Their detention in Russia lasted for almost 19 months in. Their19 for lasted almost Russia detention MER or ù ù ù MER The politics of retribution in Europe. , 31-32. MER ù , Moscova, 1944-1946 ă ù rp , meaning ‘Death Spies’).to Extracts from these ăXĠă (Ia ú i: Editura Polirom, 2006), 27. [The Antonescu group under the 51 . 53 . This ú ti. 27 CEU eTD Collection in Romania; president of thecommission: Elie Wiesel four key members of formerthe Antonescu regime,including the Marshal himself Communist propaganda into the ‘mainbourgeois collaborators’ of Antonescuthe regime. by the were turned Party National Liberal the respectively, and Party National Peasant’s 57 56 55 Bukovina into a Bukovinainto subjecttaboo beforeof conduct and Sovietthe the issue warandturned the after of Bessarabia andnorthern aspects ‘troublesome’ to toavoid any reference made efforts prosecution beginning, very the the From witnesses. andthe evidence the of andexamination selection, with presentation entrusted secondedprosecutor, Constantin by publicthe prosecutors Dobrian and S Dumitru judicial madelittle teamwas the chief background. orno Vasile upof Theprosecution Stoican, institution was headed byAlexandru Voitinovici and included people’seight other judges with and censored those newspapers that made public facts considered ‘inconvenient’ madefacts considered public newspapers that those and censored and present enemies. To this end, Iuliu Maniu and Constantin C. Br C. Constantin and Maniu Iuliu end, this To enemies. present and Antonescu, C. Pantazi and C.Z. Vasiliu in Romania to stand trial Union informed theRomanian onAprilauthorities its 1946aboutsend decision Ion andto Mihai confident that the new government could carry on the punishment of war criminals, the Soviet 54 the juridical system to legitimate the system to juridical the use whoplannedto government, of Groza the interests media. from Thissuited the the attention itis elections, surprising not trial the major that warcriminalsharnessedthe considerable of Tuvia Friling, Radu Ioanid, Mihai E. Ionescu eds., Ibid., 249. Deletant, Ion Antonescu promoted himself to the rank of marshal in August 1941. August in ofmarshal rank the to himself promoted Antonescu Ion The beganonMay6,1946andbroughtbefore Bucharesttrial the Courttwenty- People’s In an environment that was already highly ‘politicized’ by the coming parliamentary coming the by ‘politicized’ highly already was that environment an In Hitler’s Forgotten Ally , 247- 249. 57 . coup d’état coup Final Reportof theInternational Commission on theHolocaust (Ia ú i: Editura Polirom, 2005) 320-321. of August 23, 1944 and openly discredit its ofAugust23, 1944andopenlydiscredit past 55 . ă tianu, the leaders of the of leaders the tianu, ă racu and was 54 . Feeling 56 . This . 28 CEU eTD Collection thousands of Jews both within Romania andin occupied territories another major count of the Act of Indictment. The prosecutors constantly referred to the to referred constantly Theprosecutors of ActIndictment. the of major count another represented Union’ ‘friendly the aggression Soviet against inthewarof Germany alongside Mission ‘oppresing’ Romanian-German economicand the Romania’s treaties. participation, military andfor economic ‘the disaster ‘occupation’happen. The prosecution went atgreat length to portray formerthe ruler as mainthe responsible that befell hishad what version arguments of of and reacttothe present prosecution the opportunity the to theof country’,the country a Communist under thecliché guise used ofto thedesignatepogroms German of Ia the Military Germanhumanity’,against whichincluded exploitation economic the of Jewishcommunity,the the 59 motivated by greed and racial hatred and by hatred formermotivated the racial greed and Antonescu’s asbeing anti-Jewishpolicy population was described Ion war prisoners. and civilian the against were committed that war crimes the and Nazi Germany cooperation with ‘peaceful’inclose the planning, Union,aggression war of andwagingagainst Soviet preparation in the Antonescu Ion by played role the stressed prosecution The Powers). Axis the with of bringing alliance forresponsible for country’ the (Romania’s the disaster ‘responsibility upon by membersperpetrated heldthe Antonescu regimethe and of Antonescu Cabinet directly the and against ‘crimes humanity ‘war crimes’ peace’, ‘crimes against be prosecuted: to crimes of maincategories support the to 58 Ciuc Ibid. (my translation). (my Ibid. Ion Antonescu’s cross-examination played a key role during the trial because it gave him gave it because trial the during role key a played cross-examination Antonescu’s Ion The Act of Indictment, read on the firstday of the trial, presented a broad range of evidence ă , Procesul Mare ú i and Odessa, the forced deportations to Transnistria and the extermination of ú alului Antonescu 58 . The prosecution painted a vivid picture of avivid atrocities painted the prosecution . The picture . vol.1, Doc 3, 54-103. Conduc ă tor 59 . was charged with ‘crimes 29 CEU eTD Collection claiming he that was following ageneral military principle: march Armyto theGerman faralongside AntonescuIon himself by as asStalingrad, defended him determined reasonsthat aboutthe When asked northern in1940. Bukovina Bessarabia and of occupation andthe relations Soviet-Romania strainedthe about Court the He also reminded notrisk of standing alone Soviet Union. country Romania the any against and could European territories 1940. Inthebeginningof of war,Germany’sthe military strength was unmatched by lost the recover need to the and circumstances international by the was dictated also itwas reign; murdershe and presided,exceptthe lootings: the ofthe regime anderrors’ all for achievements the responsibility need. took of hour He greatest her in it defend and country his serve to best his did who a politician not soldier, a as himself saw He Indictment. of Act the of counts main the from himself distance to sought he which ‘warcrimes’: for numerous army accountable campaign Sovietthe againstUnion as ‘a warof glory nor noideals’and andheld the Romanian 60 Ibid., 76 (my translation). The Romanian-German alliance,political parties allegiance he argued,Mister was President,was to onemy country,of the I wasmain whichnot legacies a politician,I have ofalways Carol I consideredII’swas not part toof beany above political the Crown party and inabove the old sidein acompletely defence of Antonescu’sdifferent presented story, Ion vigorous the days. My effects… catastrophic had history in crime unprecedented This people. Romanian the with collaboration peaceful a wanted this criminal association/ comradeship withthe Germans against the great SovietUnion neighbor, who thereby breaking one of the fundamental rules of international law. They are responsible forgoing into the SovietUnion, without a declarationon of war, only and attack by this order:surprise ‘I ordera youwaged to cross Prut!’the ofhaving crime the for responsible are government his and Antonescu Ion 61 60 30 CEU eTD Collection pogrom pogrom by shifting the responsibility on Germanthe stationedtroops in area the carried out andcarried out his entireencourage policy notdid any massacres: of kind benot think‘repressive’ wouldhe actually order ‘unwritten’ this did war. However, laws of having theanti-Jewish ordered reprisals arguingOdessa, of this that by measurewasdictated the he and lapsesofmemory to evasive However, admitted instances. answered in claimed several gave Antonescu massacres, Ion and deportations his admit inthe to role public prosecutor life his in person asingle of extermination the hehe hadneverordered arguedthat safety’, military andfor their‘forreasons own between 000 tohavingJews admitted the deportation 000- 170, of to Transnistria 150, ordered intentionsbehind hisactions, especiallyin case the hisAlthough he of anti-Jewish policy. 65 64 63 62 61 Ibid, 206 (my translation). Ibid., 240. Ibid., vol. 1, Doc. 6, 197. translation). (my 205 Ibid., Ibid.,Doc. 7, 189 (my translation). of a single person of massacres. And you will never find asignal from me for the massacre, not of thousands of people,guiltybut not is and others he if are.even He is therefore responsibility, entire accountable...Althoughthe accepts he loses, he when and I gave his, not the are order, merits the I havewhen neverbeen infavour this. I have spentmy approvalgave I formy reprisals war. to of be whole rules taken. Ialso normal the stipulated under the figure. I accept unacceptable theentire life measures responsibility adopts enemy the for when law oninternational the basis that thecommand leader, of the Odessawhen OctoberWheninsector,victorious, 1941 there whathappened happened,is that blowingthe entire upof the military I was asked gainsto approve all thethe taking glory, of reprisals. even There is provision for in real the on any suspicion cast would that aspects those eschew to tried Antonescu Marshal one stopped atthe frontier, but they pursued and destroyed armies put into practice been from has the and times of importance the Romans to strategic the present. major of Look principle at history amilitary is It youand war. willthe see win to that no and forces enemy’s When a country commits itself to a war, the country’s army must go to the ends of earth to crush the 65 . 63 . He also triedavoid to any responsibility for the Ia 62 64 . Pressed by the 31 ú i CEU eTD Collection harsh winter conditions for the high number of among deportees: highthe of number the casualties for conditions harsh winter ‘liberated territories’, assigned blamingthetroops carry to out thedeportations and orders the lines responsibilitybehind He thefront totake refused for ‘horrors’ occurredthat in the the hands of were Germanthe that movinglinetroops thefront towards andGuardistsympathizers the at faith’ ‘a terrible save from to them intended Heactually reasons’. safety and ‘military by were dictated he argued, from Bessarabia, Jews the of deportation the behind The reasons population. Jewish measures taken against the includinghis regime, the aspects of controversial Bucharest the to amemorandum submitted Antonescu People’s Ion cross-examination, during the arguments Tribunal on May 15, 1946, in which he tried to shed light on reason behind deportation the moreof than 20, 000Roma toTransnistria: several main the curfews, represented during andotherin towns anti-aircraft commited the Bucharest cities. To his opinion, ‘pressure’ the of publicopion,the distressed bythelooting andmurders justified this drastic measure by reduce needthe to thealarmingly high rate of criminality in the 66 Ibid, 246 (my translation). winter also played arole, inflicted and early manyand casualtiesharsh The time. also ofthe among the belligerantattitude armies dominating and the the of Russian becasue mostly despicable, was execution them hand to overus asked all Germans (the the Jews ofthe Jews deportations the to determiend take had that them reasons the to are These Germany and use them as forcelabour. We refused. However, the presenthavehe Claiming the didnotand opportunity histo develop and time that the what I have done Transnistria. Ithasbeenmy andorder Iassume the responsibility forthis matter. And Ijustify myself for All the Gypsies attacks. these committing were and warweapons who with armed even were some hadof whom Gypsies, were been displaced…some opinionwas hadme to asking Afterprotectmuch research inquiry, […]. and it they found wasout it that as public and much murders and thefts were as there cities 17 other in and sentencesBucharest in black-out, of the Because each. I displaced them to Ion Antonescu also took responsability for the deportation of the Roma to Transnistria and 66 . 32 CEU eTD Collection time’ 1946 and the press of the time occasionally referred to it as ‘The Greatest Political Trial of the 2.4. Vasiliu and Gheorghe Alexianu) at wereexecuted Jilavathe onJune prison 1,1946. C.Z. Antonescu, Mihai Antonescu, (Ion death to sentenced been had that defendants the of forwardedhim to Antonescu’s on behalf. havingIon After receive failed to four a royal pardon, towards his country and the only judgment acceptable to him was the one of theposterity of him theone was to acceptable judgment andtheonly his country towards firm his hisby faced thathis actions of duty end expressed conviction werejustifieda sense Lucre pardon forpunishment crimes, intervention butthe of Communistthe Minister of Justice, AccordingKing Constitution Mihai.tothe monarchreduce of had1923, or to the right heturnedto Tribunal beingrejected, decision People’s the against and after the Bucharest of appealed Antonescu Ion May 17,1946. death on to Cristescu) Lecca and Eugen Pantazi, Radu Constantin Alexianu, Gheorghe Vasiliu, Constantin Antonescu, (Mihai defenders other six and him sentenced and guilty Antonescu Ion found Tribunal People’s the proceedings, of days However, the judgment of judgmentHowever, the of his wasblurredby contemporaries of ‘politicization’ the trial the and 68 67 See Buzatu ed., Ibid., vol. 2, Doc. 20, 175-176. The ‘greatest politicaltrialof thetime’ and birth ofthe of ‘unjustmyth treatment’ 68 Contemporary observers were fully aware of the political implications of the trial of of trial May the of implications fully political the of were aware observers Contemporary His final plea did not influence the outcome of the trial in any significant way. After ten After way. significant any in trial the of outcome the influence not did plea final His those charged with the implementation, because they did not stop the colums populationthat was fleeing towards the Ural mountains as a result of the invasion[...] The fault lay with Ġ iuP . IonAntonescu’s stance ‘heroic’ during thein trial and manner the dignified he which ă tr ăú Mare canuhim turn down for determined been clemency to appeals the had that ú alul Antonescu înfa Ġ a istoriei , vol., 1,Doc.167, 365. 67 . 69 33 . CEU eTD Collection 71 70 expediency of the entire proceedings left some aspects of the Antonescu regime unexplored, the unexplored, regime of Antonescu the aspects leftsome proceedings entire of the expediency the Although factors. political international and internal of realignment by the way, a negative consequences of the military and diplomatic alliance with the Axis Powers. defendants’ Soviet againstthe of inwagging role war aggression Union and the negative to a certainpoint verdict the influence to in order executive the of interference ‘politicization’ ‘veiled’ the and sensibilities’ The jargon the avoidanceused in might the of court, certain topics upset ‘Soviet that of the trial influence:sphereto theSoviet of Allies Western the by ‘abandoned’ was that nation entire an by suffered injustice the embodied Ion Antonescu that feeling general the strengthened verdict way the‘guilty’ in the which Rueben Markham,foreign a present duringcorrespondent the proceedings of trial,the described Soviet ‘punish’ Union to him and the entire nation for having invadedits territory in 1941. justice’‘victor’s and explained Antonescu’saway as indictmentIon an madeattempt by the favored to crystallization of a popular mood that associated the trial with a disguised form of factors these Instead, regime. theAntonescu of anddownfalls achievements the debate on a real emergenceof encourage the not did which Army, Soviet ‘liberating’ presencethe of the 69 Ibid., 250. Deletant, Final Report of theInternational Commission on the Holocaust in Romania Marshal, and that it was they who were being tried, derided, condemned. derided, tried, being were who they was thatit and Marshal, agents of Russia […]. Most Romanians at that moment felt that they were in the Russian trap, along with the country. They saw the judges as dupes The Romanian nation felt he [Antonescu]of was being tried by RussiaRussia, whose army was occupying the and that the two [ The procedure, the character and the outcome of the trial of May 1946 were influenced, in andtheoutcomeinfluenced, character the the of May 1946were trial The procedure, of A closer analysis may reveal that the trial of the war criminals was never an end in itself. Hitler’s Forgotten Ally , 259-260. 71 . Accordingly, the prosecution’s case focused onthe . Accordingly,case prosecution’s the sic ] Communist prosecutors were fanatic were prosecutors Communist ] 70 , 319. 34 CEU eTD Collection role of ‘popular pressure’ and the exigencies of Nazi Germany in influencinghis policies. incidental ‘by-products’ of thantheresult warrather the of central to the planning and pointed as massacres explain away the to He tried minorities. against ethnic perpetrated atrocities implementation of his ethnic policies, Ion Antonescu refused to assume responsibility for the in the involved reduce agencies complex of the to prosecution the of intention the Faced with support evidencehumanity’. of ‘‘crimes count the to against abundant provided prosecution 35 CEU eTD Collection including Ion includingAntonescu. Ion past, of and pre-Communist the events personalities certain inof ushered rehabilitation the shift influence aboutin past the and from amajor the interpretation determined Romania Soviet resurface of nationalism in the early 1970s and NicolaeCeau 1970sand in early nationalism the resurface of interpretation history.Romanian of Special attention will be giventothe way in which the the Communistduring underwent Antonescu regime Ion of figure the that changes the explores andanalysis following The the way they reflected the of past. the of ‘politicization’ ‘victims’ this first of becameone the Antonescu regime the that major shifts in the larger framework of War II and the in World Romania’s particularly participation received attention, power Party’s rise special to Communist Romanian with the connected were directly that events The ends. political Party’s the suit to reinterpreted was history Romanian entire the legitimization, symbolic of vehicle main the became As thepast holdpower. on legitimate their to needed leaders new the and country befell thecountry’. that disaster for ‘the former ruler’s responsibility instead the emphasized the early regarding especially rule, Antonescu’s of stagesIon aspects certain to obscure efforts made sustained government Groza ofCommunist-dominated The Antonescu. Ion of flaws Romania’s and merits the about participationmajor warcriminals inMay impeded1946 further the emergence of open and balanceddebate the of trial the surrounding atmosphere politicized The difficult. exceedingly regime Antonescu in the controversialcampaign issuesagainst associated the withSoviet the World Union War II periodand rendered the assessment of the CHAPTER 3. REWRITING THE PAST UNDER THECOMMUNISTREGIME CHAPTER 3.REWRITINGTHEPAST UNDER This situation was further aggravated after the Communists took complete control over the lacunaein andthe As it the primary sources inwas shown chapter, the previous the coup d’etat of Augustof 1944. Under 23, these itcircumstances,was no surprise ú escu’s intention distance intention to escu’s 36 CEU eTD Collection Leninist reductionistLeninist paradigms andthe alleged century-old‘friendship’ Romanian-Soviet history Marxist- restructured the around entirethe Romanian thethat interpretationpast of historiography’line of the Communist Party, but also closely monitored the wasaccess to archives. Once the ‘nativeeither bookshops of ‘fascist’ writings, which included all books didfollow that those not theofficial suppresseda toolfor ideological and political Thedomination. new regime notonly ‘purged’ libraries and into historiography of transformation the to led or Party the of control the under ‘recycled’,historians bring to the Party wasbe (re)constructed. able to was people Romanian the of identity the how to determine and legitimacy own its imposestrengthen to Party Communist the of aim its overall the of part was history of manipulation the second, own policies; necessaryfuturehistorical developmentprovidesguidelinesfor andtherefore, the adopting of direction of the foreseeing the facilitates past the of understanding a suitable holds that theory Marxist ishistory,materialism, the first, tohistoriography dialectical attached of twofold: production control historiographical the complete togain over efforts the Communist Party’s past dueto period ideology, free representsabreak post-1947 from the influencethe national the of with the culturehistoriography. andAlthough interpretation has the been rarely of past the completely 74 (Berkley, Los Angeles, London: University of California Press, 1991), 215-216. 3.1. 73 72 Papacostea,‘Captive Clio’, 181-18 Katherine Verdery, Katherine Papacostea,‘Captive Clio’, 181. The The manipulation ofhistory forpolitical and ideological ends The importance that was attached to the interpretation of the past and the subsequent efforts and subsequent the past of the interpretation was attached tothe that importance The The half-century of Communist rule strands as a distinct stage in the evolution of Romania 72 . By and large, the explanation for the significance that the Communist Party Communist the that significance the for explanation the large, and By . 73 National Ideology UnderSocialism.Identity andCultural Politics in Ceau ú escu’s Romania 74 . 37 . CEU eTD Collection no. 10 (October2002) apprehension apprehension of sensibilities upsetting Soviet authorities’ Romanian and the of materialism precepts dialectical by Warshaped both the IIwas The Historythe RomanianPeople’s ofRepublic 76 bourgeois-landlord Romanian parties, namely the National Peasant and National Liberal Parties Liberal National and Peasant National the namely parties, Romanian bourgeois-landlord described as an unpopular ‘dictatorial’ rulethatbenefited from supportof the leadersthe the of the first edition of Mihai Roller’s Mihai of edition first the 3.2. cult the of Ceau with for independence strive and continuity, unity nationalismwhich (1971-1989), combined the exaltation of Romanian nation’sthe origins, of exacerbation the finally, culture; Romanian the of Russification ofthe effects damaging limitthe and national past’ the to‘recover attempts marked regime’s by the (early 1964-1971), downplaying of genuineelementsthe of Romanian the relativeculture; the liberalization phase and the approach Stalinist an uncompromising of adoption by the was characterized in evolution the Communistthe the of discourse: anti-national (1947-early period 1960s), which entire field ofcultural intellectual and Lucian production. Boia distinguished mainphases three the over reverberated discourse Communist in the direction’ of ‘changes These foreign policy. attempts made by leadersjustify Communistthe to theyin course the adopted domestic and 77 75 Florin Constantiniu, ‘O faz ‘O Constantiniu, Florin Deletant, Boia, The anti-national The period (1947- 1964) This canonical interpretation of the history of in fully of 1947, when interpretation Romania This history of was articulated the canonical However, the interpretation of the past did not follow a linear course and reflected the follow andnot reflected did alinearcourse interpretation past the the of However, History and Myth Hitler’s Forgotten Ally http://www.itcnet.ro/history/archive/mi2002/current10/7_11.html in Romanian Consciousness ă sumbr , 263-264. ă a istoriografie române istoriografie a Istoria României , 64-82. 77 ) waspublished . Consequently, the Antonescu regime was regime Antonescu the . Consequently, ( ú ti: perioada rollerist perioada ti: The History ofRomania 76 ú escu’s personality escu’s . The interpretation of World of interpretation The . ă (1947-1958)’ in (1947-1958)’ , latter on changed in changed on , latter Magazin Istoric 75 . 38 , CEU eTD Collection prevail in allsubsequent textbooks, as Adrian Ciofâlc with the general persecutionRoller the persecution and deportation of ethnic and minorities wasreligious lumped together of the politicalRomâniei contestants Roller’s Mihai example, For 1946. late in visible already of was policies the anti-Semitic his regime. of nature the Thisminimize to a tendency ‘imperialists’, appraoch and ‘fascists’ as regime his and Antonescu came to Ion usedtodescribe thesamejargon was though Even isrepresentative. very criminals the past that did not suited its aims. The case of of the topics ‘posterity’ sensitive certain of with the trial indealing of Party the major Communist war the of ‘selectiveness’ the illustrates like the loss of Bessarabia and northern Bukovina sentiment’, anti-Russian revive might and thesis Marxist-Leninist the fit not did which Union conveniently aspectsRomania’s regime ofthe prelude those to warwith to overlook Soviet the Romanian Antonescu.strategy ‘capitalists’ and and ‘fascists’, Ion theRomanian ‘allowed This the ‘criminal war against the Soviet for Union’ responsibility was onerous placed the and on the shoulders exploitation’ and bondage of ‘economic the of form ‘imperialists’, a as denounced the intoa ‘fascistAxis Romania’sin Romanian alliance state’. with Powerswas turning the Holocaust under Ceau 79 78 Adrian Ciofâlc Ibid., 262. sentiments that did exist in their own directions.’ own their in exist did that sentiments arousing avoid to partly notes, the hostility accusatory any of populations aboutstriking to undergo communization,avoided Holocaust and partlythe on to channel whateverdiscourse guilty Their project. genocidal of the perpetration in the implicated were states of these some since particularly Europe, Eastern in Shoah the around amnesia encouraged Soviets The nations. of specific that into vanished it Forthe communists, whenJewish martyrdom was not assimilated to the general martyrdom of mankind, World about The discourse Warand minorities of deportation II the and destruction ethnic made only passing reference to Ion Antonescu’s anti-Semitic policy. In fact, Mihail ă , ‘A ’Grammar of Exculpation’ in Communist Historiography: Distortion of Historythe of the ú escu,’ The Romanian Journal of Political Sciences 79 78 . ă arguesin followingthe passage: , no. 2 (2004), 33. Istoria 39 CEU eTD Collection (1965- 1989)redoubled tostrengthen efforts Communist the monopoly Party’s on the 3.4. personalities to their position of honor, within the limits of the Marxist ideology. Romanian restore made influence in and Roller’s of field historiography attempts to the the Mihai of decline the was communist’ ‘national new this of A sign letter. the to line Party’s always followed the did not of historical interpretations that events provide more accurate ‘new course’This life. gave cultural and intellectual risein the changes certain about to brought a new control ideological orientationParty’s in the field of history, as scholars were allowedand disseminationto of such traditional values as posed no direct threat to its authority.’ rehabilitation, ‘recovery, of a campaign into turned discourse ‘internationalist’ the and language Romanian the of Russification the down toning of initiative a timid as began What culture. adopted a ‘new course’ in domestic affairs that brought about significant changes in the sphere of Party Romanianthe CommunistSecretary General of early the Gheorghiu-Dej, 1960s, Gheorghe influence. distancefrombegan Khrushchev Romania In tothe Soviet overwhelming and the by Nikita policy promoted advantage of of détente the inconsistencies the Communisttook Party the1950s.throughout in However, after Stalin’s death Romanian the leadersof 1953, the 3.3. 80 Georgescu, TheCeau Theperiodof relativeliberalization (1964-1971) After the death of Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej in 1965, his successor, Nicolae in 1965,hissuccessor, Ceau After deathof Gheorghiu-Dej the Gheorghe Communist the in relaxation the place, took liberalization political genuinely no Although The Soviet Union served as a model for all the Eastern European Communist satellites The Romanians ú escu and regime the ‘recuperation’ ofthe national discourse (1971-1989) , 247. 80 ú escu 40 CEU eTD Collection the Communist Party of role The history. pre-Communist of the inevent central the became revolution’ ‘anational even the alleged ‘anti-Fascist’power. The 23August to Party opposition Communist the brought that events the of legitimacy and importance the on emphasis to the Antonescu regime and special place state unitary national interwar of the continuation’ ‘natural asa Romania and the from tobe originate either by leaders. toapproved or Communist the had interpretation official the andanynewdetail of control strict keptunder production was general ofdevelopmentof course Romanianthe nation. historiographical However, the to this newnationalist andintegrating approach evolution the of Communist Party within the Being tothe role oflendinghad thea propaganda difficult of reduced tool, history task substance Regime. Communist the of instauration the with culminated that achievements great of history a efforts to legitimize its own political and ideological domination. Romania was supposed to have unity independence for and strive of nation Romanian the continuity, origins, noble the emphasized that that history of interpretation national-centered basedCeaucultural revolution on mini- This other. the on politics, and culture in Romanian ideology national of importance the re-assess and control ideological firm Party’s Communist the re-establish to intention an hand,one his end on put short-lived andexpressed liberalization, of tothe relative period decided to In Dej’scontext. 1971, successor in different but somehow a nationalistic discourse, Nicolae Ceau Nicolae 81 Verdery, As a result, the official historiography spared no effort to portray the Socialist Republic of This change of haddirection significantconsequencesin fieldthe ofhistoriography, since National Ideology under Socialism, ú escu expected scholars to subordinate their creativity to the Communist Party’s Communist the to theirsubordinate creativity to scholars expected escu coup d’etat , usually described as an ‘anti-Fascist armed insurrection’ or insurrection’ armed , usually ‘anti-Fascist asan described ú escu’s famous ‘July Theses’ of amore famous ‘JulyTheses’ escu’s 1971 produced of 240-248. 81 . 41 CEU eTD Collection 84 of of World WarIIand issue the coincideof Bessarabia and northern Bukovina with not did Romaniathat waspursuing anindependantpolitical from course SovietUnionthe and hisvision and the Soviet Union. It couldNicolaeandUnion.beinferred Soviet It the that Ceau the gallery of ‘national heroes’,apparently paradoxical since decision; Ion Antonescu he did not seem openlylike the best choice to ‘complete’ opposed both partial rehabilitation of AntonescuIon from mid-1970sthe the Romanian Communist Party Romanian hadpatriots that foughtfor theunity independenceand of Romanian the people as Parties Liberal and National Peasant theNational of leaders the of rehabilitation allowed the Thisapproach political launchedorganizations. by extreme-right ‘assaults’ the democracy to by reforms in the resistance adopted 1920sand regime’ of ‘bourgeois the early the Romanian the interwar period. Historians began to praise the (limited) results of the social and economic importance of 23 August of importance the Nazi Nazi inGermany last the of stage warhasthe shortened days by hostilities 200 almost The historiography official advanced theextraordinary claim against Romania’s that effort war ofRomania’s effects military and diplomatic asthe aswell exaggerated, was grossly from World War II minimized severely andkingMihai) was parties (leaders democratic the of political actors of other influence and the wereover-emphasized regime’ of ‘fascist the overthrow the leadingto events 83 Distortion: A case Study,’ and personalities associated withthe 82 Deletant, Ilie Ceau Ilie Fora even-handed analysis of the way whichin the Communist historiography distorted the memory of the events However, the ‘recovery’ of the leaders of the interwar period paled in comparison with the with in comparison paled interwar period the of leaders the of ‘recovery’ the However, These initiatives to consolidate the Communist Party’s legitimacy and emphasize the emphasize and legitimacy Party’s Communist the consolidate to initiatives These ú Hitler’s Forgotten Ally escu,Constantiniu Florin andMihail EIonescu, 82 . Furthermore, the people’s enthusiasm at the popular enthusiasm stirred by the coup (Bucure Caietele Echinox.Postcolonialism Postcommunismand ú ti: Editura , 267. coup d’etat ù coup d’etat tiin Ġ ific ăú i Enciclopedic were paralleled by the partial rehabilitation the of rehabilitation partial by paralleled the were of 1944,23 August see Romania.23 August 1944.Two HundredDaysSpared ă , 1984). 85 ú . Complex reasons lie behind this behind lie reasons Complex . escu wanted to proveto escu wantedto worldthe ù tefan Borbély,tefan asMemory ‘Politics , vol., 1, 2001, 123-133. 83 volte-face . 84 . 42 . CEU eTD Collection 89 claims overTransylvania early the by 1980s Ceau in used also from was Hungary Transylvania reacquire Northern aim paramount to Antonescu’s 88 authoritarian figure that came to power in 1940 to save the country from power infirmly from collapse and was 1940 tosavefigureauthoritarian thecountry camethat to asastrong is portrayed Antonescu Ion andactions, character former dictator’s the about Antonescu. likeof January Ion reservations author’s the keypersonalities, Inspite of 1941 and rebellion Legionary the like events, important certain on digressions historical to level individual becoming1940 topursuehis journalist. shifts focusfrom The a dream of novel the the of often history' in mutable'how wasthepasthands a regimewell manipulation ofRomania's the versed in of the illustrated fully andunity’ forfought his‘independence that country’s asapatriot emergence andhis re- Antonescu’s record wartime of The Ion ‘refurbishing’ state. and unitary independent northern basisBukovina and Bessarabiawhich annexed of Stalin the on Pact, Ribbentrop-Molotov the of ‘injustice’ the and period interwar the during Moscow Moscow’s. He even went as far as to criticize the Romanian Communist Party’s obedience to around Paul around published best-sellingthe novel Preda Marin deal research, of After agreat II. War World of period troublesome the novel about Romanian who writer was Romanian given tocollectaccess in materialsto archives order his for 87 86 85 Marin Preda, Marin Deletant, For further details, see Rudolf L. Braham, Ibid., 267. Ibid. The past was used once more to legitimize Ceau more to was usedonce The past 88 . The Communist Party entrusted this laborious task to Marin Preda, an acclaimed Rewriting the Past ù Delirul tefan, ayoung manwholefthis native village andmoved toBucharest around [The Delirium] (Bucure 87 ú , 276. escu togivemoreescu weightRomania’s to campaignagainst Hungarian . Delirul Romanian Nationalists and the Holocaust ú [The Delirium]in 1975 ti: Editura Cartea Româneasc ú escu’s ambition to portray asan portray Romania to ambition escu’s 89 ă . The plot of the novel revolves novel the of plot The . , 1975). , 49-51. 86 . It seems that Ion 43 CEU eTD Collection 91 represented another strategy used to rehabilitate Ion Antonescu. This political exploitation of the of exploitation Thispolitical IonAntonescu. rehabilitate strategy used to another represented the country after the Romanian Army crossed the river Dniester in 1941 nation from of main violence the Guard andthe Iron the responsabledisasterthat for the befell the of saviour the asboth is He presented borders. its former Romania to restore to determined Union and the persecution of the ‘anti-fascist and democratic forces’: anddemocratic of ‘anti-fascist persecution the Union the and responsible held still was Antonescu Ion Nonetheless, Guard. Iron the of shoulders the on exclusively for Romania’s placed was Jewish population the against committed atrocities the blame for the other, the wartime as which is from On product. Guard’s ‘fascism’,an imported were dissociated Iron rejected the alliance withnoticeable. Antonescu’s Onone hand,views, in conservatory Ion anchored national the tradition Nazi Germany, arealready regime of Antonescu the in interpretation the new‘direction’ the of The beginnings the invasion Antonescu. bulkfrom materials of propaganda on Ion of the study the apart regimethe setthis of the fall rise,the documentsseveral scrutiny natureand aboutthe close of key-questions the and the Soviet Party’s However,theextensiveand popularity of role useof archival inthe1940-1941. period January 1941). The authorfollows the party lineofficial he when plays up the Communist evolution study the on 1940- (September of Simion’s scholarly National-Legionary regime the 90 Simion, Deletant, Stressing Romania’s wartime ‘exceptionalism’ in the implementation of the Final Solution Final of the implementation the in ‘exceptionalism’ wartime Romania’s Stressing independency sovereigntyand of countrythe economy and the ‘infestation’ of the country by allRomanian kinds economic treaty,of followed‘councilors’ by an increasing penetration considerably of the German capital in Romanian indented the the Axis proved to be totally disastrous. Bringing German troops in Romania, the signing of the German- The general line pursued by Antonescuthe regime inforeign proved affairs of complete subordination to in explored byAuric more details byMarin Predawere introduced Several themes of the Regimulpolitic în România Hitler’s Forgotten Ally , 267-268. , 168. 91 . 90 . 44 ă CEU eTD Collection 94 93 stressing its authoritarian rather than its ‘fascist’ character thanits ‘fascist’ rather its authoritarian stressing ‘personal dictatorship’, asa regime Antonescu’s the refer begin to to historians Furthermore, terrorism. and violence of acts committing for excuse cynical a than more nothing considered ideology was IronGuard’s the By contrast, military circumstances. by eitheror political motivated actions as wererationalized minorities againstethnic repression of acts Antonescu’s Ion Guard. Iron the former and ruler between the distance’ ‘qualitative a establishing tocontrastorder them Antonescu’sIon with ‘humanitarianism’alleged minimized, while antisemiticthe policies of Horthy’s Hungary are thoroughly in scrutinized’ perpetrated on Romanian territory or Romanian-administered lands are either ignored or ‘atrocities As arule, Palestine. to immigration their facilitating and refuge them granting Jewish toNazi large camps, butalsonumbers saved of Jews by extermination Hungarian started to be portrayed as ‘the savior’ of the Jews that not only refused to send the Romanian intention to appropriate the ‘national discourse’ and ‘enlarge’ the pantheon of Romanian national Romanian of pantheon the ‘enlarge’ and discourse’ ‘national the appropriate to intention large,historiography. Ceausescu’s By and in Communist career’ ‘posthumous Antonescu’s influenced Ion Party deeply strengthen Communist legitimacy the of to symbolic the Palestine to immigration Jewish favored Solution occasionally and when policies’Antonescu Final 1942, Ion the and toimplementmoderate pursuedafter refused German ally Hungary.and Horthy’s TheParty-historians gave‘the to prominence opportunistic minoritiesof servedtodistancefrom and persecution deportation Antonescu ethnic his Ion 92 Ibid., 40-41. Ciofâlc Braham, In the 1980s, the official historiography pursued Ion In officialhistoriography Antonescu’s 1980s,the furtherthe pursued Ion by rehabilitation It can be said that the interplay between the paradigms of material dialectics need the and material dialectics of paradigms the between interplay the It canbesaid that ă , ‘A ‘Grammarof Exculpation’ in Communist Historiography’, 42. Romanian Nationalists and Holocaustthe , 42-43. 94 . 92 . As a result, Ion Antonescu 93 . 45 CEU eTD Collection 96 sensibilities Romaniandeterred historians from pursuing Ion Antonescu’s rehabilitation further fear wastackled, Bukovina recovery of and northern the of Bessarabia Sovietupsetting rationalizing reasons the behindhis anti-Semitic on policies, other.the obscuringhis alliance with IronGuardthe and Nazi Germany,one hand,and on denying or discourse’. The by motivated politicalmarked reasons, thecalculated beginning incipient‘exculpatory of an aim of this discourserolein in reassessmentAntonescu’s Ion mid-1970s. the This also remarkable change of attitude, was to heroes historicalstaunch patriotismwith hadproven figuresthat those asignificant played their whitewash Ion Antonescu’s wartime record by 95 Ibid., 268-269. Braham, Nevertheless, this rehabilitation trend had its own limitations. Even though the issue of issueits Nevertheless, limitations. Even of trendthough had the rehabilitation the own this Romanian Nationalists and Holocaustthe , 40-51. 95 96 46 . CEU eTD Collection the formerthe ruler. the role of a victim of the Communistin whichtheirchallenge strategy to the‘fairness’ of trialthe 1946 andof castIon Antonescu in takeover contributed Dr Constantin (Iosif Antonescu of to apologists the posthumous rehabilitationagainst their political Thefollowingenemies. will chapter focus on works the of three mainthe of have been military nationalism whoinvoke used by as aweapon errors propaganda of those and political his of minimalization a with combined merits, his of exaggeration and Marshal the in of exaltation where ‘the caseofAntonescu’, is true This particularly legitimization. nationalism stilltool for be therefore,can and strengthening political orchallenging used as a influenceof tothe subjected is still past the of interpreatation The politics. influence of official anddiscourse emphasize served to the nation’s vocation for unity and independence. the into incorporated selectively were decisions political and military Antonescu’s Ion distorted, Falsified and mid-1970s. in the Ion Antonescu’s partial rehabilitation to contributed heroes national of gallery in the place rightful their to independence for fighters and patriots Romanian Thetrend to restore becameevenmore ‘politicized’. thehistoriography official point, culminant As the and1970s progressed and thenationalism thecultof discourse personality reached their and its leaders. The tone of the official discourse followed the major shifts in the political sphere. Party Communist the of legitimization political the strengthen to used was regime Communist The fall of the Communist regime in 1989 did not completely free historiography from the from historiography free completely not did in 1989 regime Communist the of fall The production historiographical briefly the under The previousexaminedhow chapter CHAPTER IV.IONANTONESCU’S AFTER1989 REASSESSMENT ă gan, Gheorghe Buzatu and Ioan Dan) and the way the and Dan) Ioan and Buzatu Gheorghe gan, 47 CEU eTD Collection deconstruct historical myths to the Stalinist campaign to belittle Romanian values. belittle Romanian to campaign Stalinist tothe myths historical deconstruct Boia’s historiansto Lucian compared attempts identity. valuesandnational national Some his relativism’ arguingthatthisdisciples, ‘absolute in diminishes history considerably both by approach promoted deconstructionistLucian Boia the historiansrejected These and approach. nationalist historians’ publication Lucian Boia’s of studies who still prefer to placein with the mid-1990s the aprogrammatic character andadopted became more systematic empiricalnarrative grand researchnationalist the of challenge the time, In history. Romanian of above‘grand-narrative’ any sort of ofinterpretation the from theoretical differed reached they conclusions the and events of interpretation their instances, many In taboos. previously were that periods historical and events to research ‘grand-narrative’ Romanian of history and the myths usually with itassociated general of reassessmentRomanian history 1989usheredafter in questioning atrend towards the the and unchallenged remain not did perspective national-centered This narrative. master the of and is research method ‘theNation’ Positivism still approach. the subject dominant the remains and methodology of terms in especially regime, Communist the of ‘legacy’ the with breaking in difficulties serious still encounter historians Romanian However, higher education. andresearch Communistthe significant brought about changes regime of framework ininstitutional the of fall The change’. and continuity of ‘dynamics acertain by determined been has transformation 4.1. The The legacy of theCommunist historiography The end of ideological control gave historians the possibility to extend the field of their The wider trendof in history Romaniarewriting of in context the post-Communist 98 . This, in turn, triggered the reaction of the ‘traditionalist 97 . 48 CEU eTD Collection historical one’ historical a level and only a secondary at matter instance a in firstpolitical the hasbecome Antonescu of had been obscured under Communist rule represented one of became of themes one that the rule represented Communist been had under obscured that values national of ‘recuperation’ The ‘genuine’ the xenophobic a nationalistdiscourse. and merits IonAntonescu’s exaggerate driveto for the reasons. political self-interested to asmodels serve to figures ‘historical’ searchfor issues, from the in they ranging to fact, larger fieldof concern the and, history exploiting the deep disillusions with ofpost-Ceau exploiting with policies the deepdisillusions the Romania sawthe fast growth of a number movements of thatsought togain by popularity direction of glorifying the image of the former image the of of direction glorifying controversial issues associated with his rulesoon brought dangerthe of inover-compensating the 100 Holocaust Studies Graduate Center/ City University of New York andSocial Science Monographs, 1997), 271-302. Romanian and Ukrainian Jews during the Antonescu Ceau 99 Antonescu and articles were published books numerous and tothe wereopened archives years The period. thedoors firsttransition of in Romania and abroad in forincreasinghadaccounts the that Antonescu memory the the Ion received that attention of that claimed to restore thefigure that‘fell victim’ biased Communist tothe historiography twomain of the were reasons truth about Ion 4.2 98 97 Boia, Murgescu, ‘The RomanianHistoriography in the 1990s’, 40-43. Deletant, A thorough, even-handed survey of the treatment of Ion Antonescu in the first years after the fall of the . Thepremises of therehabilitation trend. ú escu isVictor regime Eskenasy,‘Historiographers against Antonescuthe in Myth’ The resurfaced of nationalist feelings and the ‘need’ for national heroes may heroes feelings alsoaccount for national nationalistand the ‘need’ The of resurfaced The desire to shed light over on this previously taboo topic and ‘do justice’ to a political History and Myth 99 Hitler’s Forgotten Ally . However, the drive to ‘uncover the truth’ about Ion Antonescu and the and Antonescu Ion about truth’ the ‘uncover to drive the However, . 100 . Historical studies about Ion Antonescu and his regime are not strictly confined in Romanian Consciousness , 269. , ed. Rudolf L Braham (Boulder: The RosenthalInstitute for . Conduc 101 ă . The end of the Communist regime in tor. As Dennis Deletant argued, ‘the case argued, As Deletant Dennis ú escu governments andpromotingescu governments The destruction of destruction The 49 CEU eTD Collection 105 104 103 102 Communist discourse that equalled Romania with a wartime ‘oasis of humanitarianism’. of ‘oasis a wartime with Romania equalled that discourse Communist the and reiterate policies anti-Roma and anti-Jewish Antonescu’s of Ion effects destructive severalthe obscured overlook Romanian in historians preferred Holocaust, the participation to that discourse official Communist the upon Drawing minorities. ethnic of destruction near the or Antonescuthe regime,suchasRomania’sin participation the campaign SovietUnion agaisnt the several basicinformation severely of either or about aspects historiography distorted concealed TheCommunist about IonAntonescu. engageindebate acritical itto founddifficult historians surprisingfour methodical past, almostthe decadesof not distorition of after of that of execution his perpetrator ‘unjust’ in moral the becoming andimprisonment 1944, thereby totheMarshal’s arrest consented parties’ and monarchy.the former Mihai, the king of has been Romania, accused ofhaving image of AntonescuIon anduse a ittool foras propaganda discrediting ‘historical Romania’s the toappropriate madeattempts these groups regime, Communist late the during rehabilitation’ society Romanian contemporary the for ‘model’ certain nationalist found groups in Ion Antonescu’s staunch patriotism and sense duty of a borders of 1918 andcontain to spreadof the into a‘natural’Communist, candidate national heroes turned Ion Antonescu, a staunch patriotism who fought to restore Romania to itsincreasingly popular. This search for national symbols toreplace ‘fabricated’ the Communist 101 Braham, Deletant, Ibid., 270. Shafir, Tism The legacy of The legacy Communistthe of should historiography alsobe takenintoconsideration.is It The historiographical reassessment of Ion Antonescu soon acquired political overtones as ă neanu, Marshal Antonescu’sPosthumous Rehabilitation Romanian Nationalists and Holocaustthe Hitler’s Forgotten Ally Fantasies of Salvation , 269. . 104 . , 44-45. , 362. 103 . Drawing on Antonescu’s ‘partial Antonescu’s . Drawing on 102 . 105 50 CEU eTD Collection moremethods.passages Importantfrom questionable allegedly arequoted official records Dr to handexperience field raised serious in objections the inRomaniatheearly widely1990s thatwere documents circulated regime.house, Nagard, the Hismassive four sponsored volumespublication publishing of of archivalgained andunpublished Antonescu the memoirsto access documents to pertaining Guard, Dr Guard, of Iron the sympathisant drive. Former forcesleading behindbeen rehabilitation the the of one glorification. Iosif Constantin Dr Constantin Iosif glorification. Antonescu. of Ion juridical forrehabilitation the League’ Marshal Antonescu ‘Pro the League’ or Antonescu like Marshal ‘The organizations, up separate set decided to or Romania Party) (Greater Unit like Partidul movements, political right-wing certain adheredto Antonescu of apologists the As itgained rehabilitationlegitimization). momentum, the acquiredtrend certain connotations.political Some of political of model a figure Antonescu’s Ion in saw that Tudor, Vadim Corneliu like politicians, nationalist finally, and injustice; Communist the of victim a was Antonescu Ion believe that whogenuinely military historians ‘nostalgic’ and veterans war information; lack of to canlargely beattributed whosesupport (journalists andgroup scholars, some well-intended 4.3. 107 106 Dr Shafir, ăĠ The mainpromoters oftherehabilitation trend ă Certain brought émigrésalso IonAntonescu’sRomanians their to contribution posthumous The rehabilitatedrive to Ion Antonescu benefited support the from of a very heterogeneous gan, ed. ii Na Marshal Antonescu’sPostcommunist Rehabilitation ă gan became a semi-official collaborator of Ceau collaborator gan became asemi-official Ġ ionale Române (Party of ionale RomâniaMare Unity) RomâneNational and (Party of Romanian Partidul Antonescu. Mare ú alul României ă gan, a prosperous Romanian businessman living in Italy, has in Italy, living businessman Romanian a prosperous gan, . , 362-364. ă 106 gan’s questionableandeven sources ú escu regime during the 1970sand the during regime escu in order to lobby more efficiently more lobby to order in 107 . Historians with first- 51 CEU eTD Collection 112 111 110 perspective on this highly controversial epoch, based on ‘objective’ historical historical epoch,based on‘objective’ on evidence, the perspective this highly controversial Russian archives and from Romanian collected Antonescu on Ion documents of contemporaneous of a series Antonescu after 1989 Antonescu Romanian parliament, Gheorghe Buzatu became one one of the most persistent apologists of Ion Antonescu Ion of rehabilitation juridical the support to former member of formermember of of ‘A.D.the Xenopol’ Institute History in Ia by A inwere adopted like history, Romanian several specialists Buzatu. Gheorghe contemporary needs tobereversed: ‘traitor’ as a‘warand conviction criminal’ Dr accordingAntonescu, against to Ion brought a politicalformer wasequalto thatwere execution maincharges assassination. ruler’s The inindictment 1946 waslegally unsound, theproceedings were ‘ajudicial masquerade’ and the are not tagged to the listed to sources the are nottagged without attribution andimportant statements ascribed toIon Antonescu or his close collaborators 109 108 Buzatu, Shafir, Ibid., 8 (my translation). Iosif Constantin Dr Deletant, Although Although were these fully not arguments by supported historical Dr evidence, entire county whose prestige was and is still damaged before the eyes of the of justentire1946 affected some than more denigrated peopleand morethat itstruck aregime; anddenigratedworld an the law court, then at least inthe new history books about Romania’s tumultuous history.The unjust verdict It is beyond doubt the that trial of the Marshal and his close collaborators needs to be reexamined. If not in After the fall of the Communist regime, Dr Marshal Antonescu’sPostcommunist Rehabilitation Mare Hitler’s Forgotten Ally ú alul Antonescu înfa 112 ă gan, . Although the author’s purported intention was to provide a balanced a provide to was intention purported author’s the Although . 111 Cuvânt înainte . His major contribution to the rehabilitation trend lies inlies the the trendpublication major. His to rehabilitation contribution , 269. Ġ a istoriei. 108 [Foreword] inCiuc . ă gan began to express more clearly his intention , 383. ă ă , ProcesulMare gan, were unfounded and therefore, his and therefore, gan, unfounded were 109 . Hearguedthat IonAntonescu’s ú i and a senator ini anda senator 2000-2004 the ú alului Antonescu 110 . , vol I, 5-8. ă gan’s ideas 52 CEU eTD Collection a result, Ion Antonescu is cast in the role of a victim of the Communist takeover: result of Stalin’s desire to punish Romanian for its was the ruler’s asawarcriminal former Antonescu’s crimesIon byclaiming conviction the that participation in the Barbarossa campaign. As chargesagainst brought Antonescu Ion He tries inMay 1946. explain to away magnitudethe of heincluded had inhis collection sufficient provide arguments to challenge thevalidity of the and Bukovinaduring retreat the of Romanian the army in summer the of 1940. seen as the result of the anti-Romanian attitude displayed by the Jewish population of Bessarabia magnitude ofhis anti-Semitic policies. The andpersecutions the deportations of Jewsthe are This attempt give hadforcedthat against state the Romania upBessarabia innorthern to and 1940. Bukovina to rationalizeIon Antonescu’sexample, For decision. politica and Ionmilitary controversial his justifying or Antonescu’s rationalizing by record allianceto fullydecisions withexonerate Nazi that were designedIon to be usedis for the reassessment of theAntonescu. trial Germany of May 1946 illustrateparalleled his intention Gheorghe discussionIon Antonescuabout andre-examine his meritsagainst andflaws byBuzatu a denial wasstrived presented to ofclear the Ion realAntonescu’s light. as ‘defensivepositive a in Antonescu Ion portraying of wartimeintention the with done was documents the of selection alliance’ 114 113 Ibid., vol. 1, IX (my translation). Ibid., vol 3,281. Communist state in the world... basis ofcounts very of indictmentsimpleIn the same way, the conclusions that we reachedhad lead quasi-automatically to the annulment of pronouncedall factor: in May 1946the and takenMarshal over later hadby Communist dared propaganda to wage on the war against the Soviet Union, the first As for the trial of the major war criminals, Gheorghe Buzatu claims that the documents that documentswasintended re-open stressed fact his that the The author to the collection of 114 113 . However, the documents 53 CEU eTD Collection way by Courtandthe the panel judges of was under influencethe of Communistthe Party: He argues Antonescu’s Ion that political andmilitary in weredecisions interpreted a tendentious of trial. the proceedings and the preparations the criticizes both The author takeover. Communist forsatisfy by revenge for thirstorchestrated inits to preparetheway and the Russia Soviet order apology for be an Marshal to out turns book the perspective, objective an from Betrayal’ National Great of the Antonescu’scriminals exoneration. critical trialmajorstudy the on published a examiningAntonescu’, the ‘thecaseof of war The trial alike. In1993,Generalof Ioan Dan of Prosecutor’sthe Office military section, whowassaid be to 1946 is seen surrounding Antonescu the regimeas anddrewtheattention of specialists and‘untrained historians’ a ‘political trial’ 116 against the Soviet Union. Soviet the against tostand had that thecourage nation an entire of martyrdom endwith dramatic the Antonescu’s Drag statements in an uncritically manner and overemphasizes the ‘unfairness’ of his trail.present MarshalAntonescu’s to Hetends Dan’s ishighly of events the debatable. evaluation He follows 115 Ibid., 442. Dan, ă The Romanian people are guilty of having forgotten Marshal Antonescu too soon and of having allowed of having his cowardly and assassination in ownhis soon country too Antonescu Marshal forgotten having of guilty are people Romanian The bitterness againstand a hatred great by his personality blinded was that that refusedvictor a to people, yield to him. Romanian the not justice, victor’s the represented it called itself ‘popular’, could not pass judgment inthe name of thepeople. Thatalleged tribunal doubt. judgmentThis was passes not by Romanianthe people. beyond was unconstitutional An partial tribunal, evenand though unfair was judgment the That rectifications. some make to privilege the I reserve stirredfresh of firstvolumes Buzatu’s The publication of up Gheorghe documents debate Although he raised some interesting questions about the legality legality heaboutthe itself, trial Although the some raised questions of interesting Ioan n and Buzatu when he argues that the trial needs to be re-examine and identifies needs bere-examine Ion trial he to the that and n andBuzatuwhen argues Procesul’ Mare 115 . Although it claims to ‘restore the truth’ about Ion Antonescu and present ‘The Trial ‘The present and Antonescu Ion about truth’ the ‘restore to claims it Although . ú alului Antonescu . 116 . 54 CEU eTD Collection Specifically, they capitalized on the resurgence of nationalism in post-1989 Romaniabegan and in post-1989 nationalism of resurgence the on capitalized Specifically, they realities. present-day tothe discourse adapt their apologetic andto needed when interpretation magnitude of deportationthe and near destruction of Jewishthe population minimize the and starting with 1942 had adopted regime Antonescu thatthe Jewish policies Romanian ‘exceptionalism’ focus duringWorld WarIIwhenthey solely the‘moderate’ anti- on interpretation Communistthe Jewishthe about againststill reproduce population. They minimize committed of to atrocities the magnitude strived section the previous inthe discussed authors the All policies. anti-Semitic his especially regime, Communist the under were they as embodiment of Romanian the nation’s for territorial striving independence:andunity away, the Communistarchival Although documents. ideologicalthe politicaland control historiography over faded propagandamembers of institutes is ofstill historical hard research tothat dispel. were in a position Ion to gain Antonescuaccess to important is still seen as the prominent apologists of Ion Antonescu have been close collaborators of Ceau of the collaborators close been have Antonescu ofIon apologists prominent inhas roots Communistthe ‘exculpatory discourse’ in emergedthat mid-1970s the 4.4. 118 117 Shafir, Ciofâlc The rehabilitation of Ion Antonescu: continuity andchange These authors have also proved the ability to distance themselves from the Communist the from themselves distance to ability the proved also have authors These Some of his controversial political and military decisions are ‘rationalized’ in the same in way same the are‘rationalized’ andmilitary decisions political Somehis of controversial from which the regime hoped to emerge as the embodiment of traditional ideas and values communist’ policies, whichwere part and parcel of a searchfor Ceau analternative the to back formulabe traced ofcan legitimation, process that Furthermore, 1990. since ongoing process creeping a been has rehabilitation Marshal’s the elsewhere, shown has author this As This brief analysis has shown that the post-Communist trend to rehabilitate Ion Antonescu Ion rehabilitate to trend post-Communist the that shown has analysis brief This ă Marshal Antonescu’s Postcommunistrehabilitation , ‘A Grammar of Exculpation’, 29. , 351. ú escu regime and its ‘national- its and regime escu 119 . 118 ú escu regime or regime escu . 117 . The most . The 55 CEU eTD Collection supporters. The rehabilitation trend, however, did not go unchallenged and encountered the encountered and unchallenged go not did however, trend, rehabilitation The supporters. a growingattracted of number a national iconthat intoformer the ruler transformed victimization 4.5 Romanian nation Romanian crimes in pity and compared his dramatic destiny with injusticethe endured by entirethe victim. ‘victimization’of Antonescu The it hadadoubleIon Ion effect: diluted Antonescu’s incast the former of in ruler role aCommunist to the wasstressed his order faced executioners dignity Antonescu with which pleadedtrialthe Ion hiscaseat withandhe the courage which The power. from fall his after to subjected been had ruler Romanian former the that treatment’ ‘unjust of the episode last wasseen as the conviction and trial Antonescu’s Ion extent, certain a interventions harsh ensure defendants.To the punishmentof the to theSoviet inorderto the trial of the major war criminals. They exploited theGheorghe procedural flaws Buzatu of the trialand and Ioanpointed Dan to rehabilitate Ion Antonescu is their common aim to discredit keep the ‘Soviet threat’ atRomania.bay ‘Soviet keep the threat’ and protect 122 and northern Bukovina: it was turned into ‘a Bolshevism’ against it turnedinto crusade andnorthern Bukovina: was recover Bessarabia needto by the justified campaign a military more that became Union Soviet feelings. anti-Communist Antonescu’s Ion on emphasize placeto great 121 120 119 Deletant, Mezincescu, Murgescu, ‘The RomanianHistoriography in the 1990s’, 44. Ciofâlc . Reactions to therehabilitation trend. This downplaying of This Antonescu’s coupledhisdownplaying of errors, Ion political glorification and with A common denominator that links the attempts madeA commonlinks that denominator attempts the Constantin Dr by Iosif ă , ‘A Grammar of Exculpation’, 45-46. Hitler’s Forgotten Ally, Mare 122 ú alul Antonescu . 259. ú i catastrofa României , 3-5. 120 . The war against the waragainst . The 121 that was meant to ă gan, 56 CEU eTD Collection 125 129 Quarrels’ and Constantin Iordachi,‘Problema Holocaustului Româniaîn 128 127 126 2000). Monographs, European East 124 Antonescu regime and the treatment of andminorities religious of treatment regimeethnic andthe Antonescu cosmopolitanWesternized of or historians, soughttoprovidegroup amore detailed image onthe dispassionate analysis analysis War period. of World the II dispassionate and short-term implicationsto the long-term for of a rehabilitation and trend the urged towards Ion Antonescu as he presents both his merits and his mistakes as a leader. He also points in order to explain the intentions of the decision-makers of the time, and adopts a neutral position War World in during Second the occurred Romania Giurescu’s balanced book introduces the reader to all the major political and military events that Ion Antonescu’s alliance with Hitler reflected the Romanian ruler’s options in domestic affairs. strives todemonstrate that the war against the Soviet Union was, in fact, a war of aggression and He also former the ruler. rehabilitate to efforts the criticized and Antonescu Ion on interpretation new the of components main the as anti-Communism and nationalism identified rightfully author the method, ahistorical than rather journalistic a Using regime. Antonescu the on interpretation research has a new name in Ia in name a new has research Constantin Dr Constantin and Iosif by Buzatu Gheorghe edited documents of collections the of interpretation tendentious history history Worldof War like II, Dumitru in the specialists Certain intellectuals. and scholars Western and Romanian various of opposition 123 Dinu C. Giurescu, Giurescu, ‘Family Livezeanu, see Irina historians, orcosmopolite of Westernized group the of analysis detailed a more For Ioanid, Benjamin, ‘Anti-Semitism as Reflected inthe Records of Councilthe of Ministers, 1940-1944’. Mezincescu, Dumitru Dumitru Historians likeHistorians DinuC.Giurescu The Holocaust in Romania ù Romania in the Second World War andru, Mare ă gan ‘ Impostura în cercetarea istoric cercetarea în Impostura ú Romania in theSecond World War: 1939-1945 alul Antonescu 123 . Others, like Mezincescu. Others, Eduard ú i: GH. BUZATU]. GH. i: . ú i catastrofa României 125 . , Lya Benjamin Lya , Monitorul ă ù are la Ia la are andru,raised questions quality aboutthe and the , Ia . ú i un nume: GH. BUZATU.’ [ Deception inhistorical Deception [ BUZATU.’ GH. nume: i un 129 ú i, 127/no. 20 (June 1992). . The author uses a wide range of sources of awiderange uses author . The 126 , trans.by Eugenia Elena Popescu (Boulder: 124 and RaduIoanid ú i Transnistria’. , tried to provide an alternative 128 . For example, Dinu C. 127 , belonging to the 57 CEU eTD Collection the Marshal Antonescu League asked to the Prosecutor General to start the procedure for the re- for the procedure the start to General Prosecutor the to asked League Antonescu Marshal the June 1992, thetrial 1946. In of of members reassessmentthe government, demanding of to the a purpose, number of apologists of Antonescuforwarded appealstotheProsecutor General and for the judicial rehabilitation of Marshal Antonescu and his close collaborators Marshal Antonescu League(Liga Mare established the Mare), România RomaniaParty (Partidul leader the of Greater the Vadim Tudor, lobby for Ion Antonescu’s juridical rehabilitation. In 1990, Iosif Constantin Dr Constantin Iosif 1990, In rehabilitation. juridical Antonescu’s Ion for lobby to more made groups butLess byseveral consequential,were theattempts all the conspicuous, merits of the former ruler turned into one of the most sensitive issues on the political agenda onthepolitical issues of into one most sensitive the turned merits former of ruler the and faults the over debate the argued, Deletant AsDennis politics. into trend rehabilitation the of ramifications deep the media revealed and in Romanian the coverage awide career received faked ‘documentary’ on Antonescu’s betrayal by Mihai king in 1946 produced by produced Felicia Cern Antonescu have been haveAntonescu been produced: in Ion Antonescu’s memory. Streets were named after him and even three films dealing with Ion academies inIa academies military and halls town Local visible. more became image’ ‘new Antonescu’s Marshal and momentum process has since 1990s regime,gained rehabilitation evolution of the Antonescu the 131 4.6 130 Deletant, Shafir, . Ion Antonescu’s reassessment and beyond This unveiling monuments andof the production filmsof dealing with Antonescu’sIon In spite of the efforts of some earnest historians to present a more balanced image on the on image balanced more a present to historians earnest some of efforts the of spite In Marshal Antonescu’s Postcommunistrehabilitation Hitler’s Forgotten Ally ú i, Piatra Neam i, Piatra ă ianu; , 4. Ġ and Slobozia and other Romanian towns erected statues or busts or statues erected Romanian towns andother and Slobozia Oglinda Destinul Mare ú alului with Antonescu) alului declaredpurpose the lobbying of , a motion picture directed by a and Nicolaescu motion directed Sergiu , a picture ú alului , 351-357. [The Marshal’s Destiny], a documentary Destiny], Marshal’s [The 130 . ă gan and Corneliu and gan 132 . To this To . 131 58 . CEU eTD Collection the decisionthe of Bucharestthe Court of Appeal May on 6, 2008. Soviet Russian peoples". “againstthe between in aggression Romania resultof and the collaboration Germany military the However, the High Court membersof of Romanian the from Government for certain 1940, war crimes appropriated as a Cassation and Justice decideddecided to acquit marshal Ion Antonescu,to nullify the head of the Iron Guard Horia Sima and another 19 Appeal him Bucharestthe Court of brought in to 5,2006, 1946.Specifically,December on were that thecharges of former ruler the exonerated Appeal partially of Court Bucharest the trial. Antonescu’s Ion nullify to authorities Romanian the deterred temporarily Antonescu Ion exonerating formally of initiative the to reaction international the But Antonescu. Ion of retrial the for procedure the the Chamber of Deputies, oficially asked Vasile Manea Dr possibility of a retrial of Ion Antonescu and his collaborators. In 1994, Petre nullify the trial of the major war criminals. should Parliament Romanian the that demanded and Antonescu’ of case ‘the of examination 132 Shafir The discussion Antonescu’sover Ion warconviction as criminalin re-emerged 2006, when Faced with this strong lobby, the Prosecutor General’s Office began to consider the consider to began Office General’s Prosecutor the lobby, strong this with Faced , Marshal Antonescu’s Postcommunist Rehabilitation , 356-358. ă gulin, the Prosecutor General, tostart ğ urlea, amember of 59 CEU eTD Collection portray the Marshal as a ‘victim’ and a’martyr of the Romanian people’. the procedural errors of the trial.to They Indictment alsoof Act emphasized the of content real the thefrom ‘politicization’attention shifting of purpose the of the with trialcriminals in order to The apologists of Antonescu andhisregime. Antonescu Ion of reappraisal challenged the to contributed sources of andbooks collections the ‘fairness’ and legalityexamined end howthe of censorship 1989 and after the publication apologeticnumerous of of the trial of the majorreflected war the variations in way regimethese which andthe Antonescu aboutthe discourse Communist wider official the of process evolution the to given was attention Special historiography. in Romanian trial of the manipulation of the past for political ends. In addition, I Communist Party, focused its efforts on ‘vilifying’ the former the its‘vilifying’ on efforts focused Party, Communist following instructionsthe laiddown regime, Antonescu by the prosecution, the Romanian the of balanced appraisal providing a instead of the situation; complicated further ‘politicized’ trial His interests. and from political inclinations ideological separated were notcompletely the formerthe were required toturn 'ingredients' that presence of revealedthe This analysishas necessary the regime indomestic during foreign and presented policy thewere trial of majorthe warcriminals. Antonescu the by adopted directions major the which in way the and career military and political Antonescu’s Ion examined briefly I have part, first the In directions. two on efforts my focused have I Antonescu. Ion of figure the of glorification and rehabilitation overall the in criminals In the second part, I looked at the treatment of the Antonescu regime and Ion Antonescu’s Ion and regime Antonescu the of treatment at the looked I part, second the In In this study, Ihave examined the role played by the debates over the trial of the major war Conduc ă tor into a historical figure susceptible to contradictory interpretationsa historicalcontradictory that figure into to susceptible CONCLUSIONS Conduc ă tor . 60 CEU eTD Collection and a biased interpretation of historical facts, specialists and untrained historians alike made alike historians untrained and specialists facts, historical of andbiased interpretation a materials archival selected carefully Using regime. Communist the of fall the after immediately public in a numberof books, collection of anddocuments thatwerepublished articles for all justification his Romania arepresentedas policies. Greater Furthermore, Ion Antonescu’s discourse’ which ‘rationalizes’ all patriotism,Antonescu’sIon of political military and decisions. anti-Communism troublesomeand desire to restore aspects the borders apologistsof of Ion Antonescu’s war far, Antonescu’s Communist from present-day taking Ion rehabilitation the authorities too ofrecord, Ion but Antonescuconstructeddrive anto elaborateglorify do not‘exculpatorytheIon formerAntonescuhave wartime suchduring ruler. theinhibitions. Ceau If feat of upsetting regime. parliamentary Romanian They Soviet didsensibilities the Mihaiand like king the former adversaries, political certain weaponagainst propaganda not simply deterredalso butas apowerful in party power, of political the discourse legitimacy the strengthen ignorethe to only not used been has Antonescu Ion of figure controversial theThe interests. ideological and on discourse Ion Antonescu andhis wasregime generally mobilized inthe service of political in shifts of tone historiography reflectedthe the regime’s usually official the profile, the Antonescuof andhis Ion Communist during regime post-Communist Although and times. the of contributions cited in it paper,this is uniformly strikinghow were interpretationsthe distorted shaped Ion Antonescu’s remarkable reassessmentin historiography.Romanian Given variety the The same apologists of Antonescu made their demand for the Marshal’s full exoneration full Marshal’s the for demand their made Antonescu of apologists same The Although is there methods a continuity and of overall ‘partial the purpose, of rehabilitation’ that and circumstances factors of from the analysis the canbedrawn conclusions Several ú escu regime pales in comparison with the scope of the recent 61 CEU eTD Collection access to a ‘demystified’ interpretation of past. national of the interpretation a ‘demystified’ access to hasup without grown that younger generation inthe audience areceptive finds still of past the interpretation produce andthis expecteddistorted results yetthe to have Antonescu figure of Ion Worldduring War The II). todispel various attempts ‘pseudo-sacred’ aura builtthis thearound (‘defensiveUnion war’ Soviet against the and of the ‘Romanian treatment in Jews exception’ the image self nation’s the with compatible are that those emphasizes and minorities) religious aspects of near deemed ethnic of those pastdestruction and and the ‘shameful’ (persecution mainly became because popularit from ‘saved’ Jews obscures of destruction thousands certain fought for that restoration the Soviet borders,Union keptthe Romania’s bayof even at and patriot a staunch as Antonescu Ion of portrayal the large, and By myth. historical powerful very the reappraisal of the trial of May 1946 has gainedmomentum and ushered in the emergence of a in Romania. takeover Communist the of ‘victim’ of role in the Antonescu Ion cast and criminals war themajor of trial the of ‘fairness’ and legality the discredit to efforts Although no systematic examination of juridical the has beenfar,proceedings so produced 62 CEU eTD Collection Procesul mariitr Ioanid, Radu, ed. 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