Phalloceros Caudimaculatus (Dusky Millions Fish) Ecological Risk

Dusky Millions Fish (Phalloceros caudimaculatus) Ecological Risk Screening Summary

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, February 2011 Revised, February 2018 Web Version, 9/19/2019

Photo: Haplochromis. Licensed under Creative Commons (CC-BY-SA-3.0). Available: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Phalloceros_caudimaculatus.JPG. (February 2018).

1 Native Range and Status in the United States Native Range From Froese and Pauly (2018):

“South America: Rio de Janeiro, Brazil southward to Uruguay and Argentina [Lopez et al. 1987].”

According to CABI (2018), P. caudimaculatus is native to Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay.

Status in the United States This species has not been reported as introduced or established in the United States. In a search of the literature and online aquarium retailers, no evidence was found to suggest that this species is in trade in the United States.

Means of Introductions in the United States This species has not been reported as introduced or established in the United States.

Remarks From CABI (2018):

“Although “dusky millions fish” is the FAO sanctioned common name, the name “caudo” is prevalent particularly in England and America. In Australia P. caudimaculatus is commonly referred to as the “one-spot livebearer”.”

“P. caudimaculatus is closely related to, and morphologically similar to Gambusia spp.; most notably G. holbrooki and G. affinis. Due to the translocation of Gambusia worldwide as mosquito biocontrol agents, these species are likely to be found co-occurring with nonindigenous P. caudimaculatus populations. This similarity may have led to P. caudimaculatus being identified as G. holbrooki in Australia and New Zealand (Trendall and Johnson, 1981; McDowall, 1999; Maddern, [2007]).”

“As P. caudimaculatus is not commonly kept as an ornamental species, public awareness of its existence, and its identification, is low.”

2 Biology and Ecology Taxonomic Hierarchy and Taxonomic Standing From ITIS (2018):

“Kingdom Animalia Subkingdom Bilateria Infrakingdom Deuterostomia Phylum Chordata Subphylum Vertebrata Infraphylum Gnathostomata Superclass Actinopterygii Class Teleostei Superorder Acanthopterygii Order Cyprinodontiformes Suborder Cyprinodontoidei Family Poeciliidae Subfamily Poeciliinae Genus Phalloceros Species Phalloceros caudimaculatus (Hensel, 1868)”

From Fricke et al. (2019):

“Current status: Valid as Phalloceros caudimaculatus (Hensel 1868). Poeciliidae: Poeciliinae.”

Size, Weight, and Age Range From Froese and Pauly (2018):

“Max length : 3.5 cm SL male/unsexed; [Castro and Casatti 1997]; 6.0 cm TL (female)”

Environment From Froese and Pauly (2018):

“Freshwater; brackish; pelagic; pH range: 7.0 - 8.0; dH range: 9 - 19; non-migratory.”

From CABI (2018):

“P. caudimaculatus […] will survive temperatures as low as 5°C (Hoedman, 1974). Sterba (1966) states it can be kept in unheated aquaria at 12-18°C but prefers 20-24°C, and will survive temperatures as high as 38°C (Rietzler et al., 1981).”

Climate/Range From Froese and Pauly (2018):

“Tropical”

Distribution Outside the United States Native From Froese and Pauly (2018):

“South America: Rio de Janeiro, Brazil southward to Uruguay and Argentina [Lopez et al. 1987].”

According to CABI (2018), P. caudimaculatus is native to Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay.

Introduced From Maddern (2008):

“[P. caudimaculatus] was introduced to Malawi in Africa (Jubb 1977; Welcomme 1981) and is restricted to the Nswadzi River, a small tributary of the Ruo River. It has not spread into the latter river system since release in the early 1950s (Denis Tweddle, J.L.B. Smith Institute of Ichthyology, pers. comm.). In New Zealand, this species was recorded in several livestock water troughs near Kamo, in Northland (McDowall 1999), although the current status of this population remains unclear (McDowall 2004). Within Australia, P. caudimaculatus has been recorded in four Australian states/territories. Its presence has been noted in outdoor ponds in South Australia (Arthington & Lloyd 1989), and in the Todd River Drainage near Alice Springs, Northern Territory (Unmack 2001). Similarly, the present status of these populations is

unknown. In 2002, P. caudimaculatus was collected from a series of ponds in Long Reef Golf Course in New South Wales near Sydney (Rowley et al. 2005), and despite attempts to eradicate this population using rotenone, it thrives at the latter locality (Rayner & Creese 2006).”

“[…] P. caudimaculatus is widely dispersed throughout the Swan/Canning catchments in metropolitan Perth [Western Australia] and occupies drains and highly modified urban creeks as well as larger rivers, such as the Canning River, that contain endemic ichthyofauna.”

From McNeil and Wilson (2008):

“The survey discovered a strong population of P. caudimaculatus within permanent reaches of upper Willunga Creek [greater Adelaide region, South Australia].”

Means of Introduction Outside the United States From CABI (2018):

“P. caudimaculatus was introduced to Malawi in the early 1950s, possibly as a mosquito biocontrol agent (Jubb 1977; D Tweddle, JLB Smith Institute of Ichthyology, South Africa, personal communication, 2005).”

From McDowall (2004):

“Another poeciliid, the caudo (Phalloceras caudimaculatus), could have been a "close call". It was initially thought that a population in a stockwater pond near Whangarei [New Zealand] had originated in a small stream nearby (McDowall 1999), though subsequent information has not corroborated that and the status of this species in the wild remains uncertain.”

From Maddern (2008):

“Phalloceros caudimaculatus may have been translocated and released as a mosquito biocontrol agent in Australia (Arthington & Blühdorn 1995), and Malawi (Denis Tweddle, J.L.B. Smith Institute of Ichthyology, pers. comm.). Ornamental fishes have been released into dams to control mosquitos in Queensland (McKay 1978), and it is reasonable to speculate that P. caudimaculatus may have been maintained in outdoor ponds in South Australia (Arthington & Lloyd 1989) for this purpose.”

“While conducting field research between 2002 and 2006 in metropolitan Perth, anecdotal reports and direct conversations suggested that P. caudimaculatus was irregularly collected from two locations for stocking outdoor ponds and private aquaria, and at least once for commercial profit.”

Short Description From Froese and Pauly (2018):

“Dorsal soft rays (total): 7-9. Dorsal fin short; pectoral fin small, not reaching back to level of pelvic fin bases; body and fins covered with a profusion of black patches; tip of gonopodium of male with a distinctly downturned hook [McDowall 1999].”

From Global Invasive Species Database (2018):

“A small, stout fish with a slightly arched back and deep belly in front of the anal fin. The mouth is small and upturned, and the tail is rounded. Males possess a modified anal fin called a gonopodium. This has a terminal hook and is used for internal fertilisation of the female. Colour can be variable, but is often grey-olive with dark coloured scale margins, which form a hatching pattern on the sides. Jet black blotches and speckles are distributed over the sides and on the fins (McDowall, 2000).”

Biology From Froese and Pauly (2018):

“Inhabits swamps and drains of Perth metropolitan area, Western Australia [introduced range; Allen et al. 2002]. Omnivorous.”

“After about 24 days gestation, 10 to 50 young are born.”

From CABI (2018):

“P. caudimaculatus is a fecund, livebearing fish with wide environmental tolerances and broad dietary preferences. Of particular note is that the species is cold tolerant and thus will occupy temperate aquatic environments unlike many invasive tropical ornamental fishes.”

“P. caudimaculatus collected from Brazilian streams [where native] were omnivorous, with detritus/organic matter and algae principally consumed (e.g. Sabino et al., 1990; Aranha et al., 1998; Aranha and Caramaschi, 1999; Esteves and Lobon[-Cervia], 2001). The diet of P. caudimaculatus in southwestern Australia [where introduced] is similar with larger fish consuming vegetal matter/algae, silt and detritus and lesser quantities of terrestrial and aquatic invertebrates. Juveniles displayed greater carnivorous tendencies though they also consumed appreciable quantities of vegetal matter and detritus (Maddern, 2003).”

Human Uses From Froese and Pauly (2018):

“Aquarium: commercial”

From CABI (2018):

“P. caudimaculatus is sold as an aquarium fish and is also used as a biocontrol agent.”

From Maddern (2008):

“Although P. caudimaculatus appeared to be a popular aquarium species decades ago (e.g. Innes 1946; Frey 1970; Axelrod et al. 1971; Hoedman 1974) when fewer fish species were available commercially, it was mentioned only once (Sandford 2004) in a brief survey of current aquarium literature aimed at general hobbyists (e.g. Mills 1984; Dawes 1987; Stanislav 1992; Bailey & Dakin 1998; Alderton 2003; Evans 2006). Phalloceros caudimaculatus was not observed in commercial aquarium outlets in metropolitan Perth in 2005, although it was available from aquarium shops in the past (Kevin Griffiths, pers. comm.). Corfield et al. (2007) listed the importance of P. caudimaculatus as a commercial aquarium fish species in Australia as “low”. The species is kept by hobbyists in NSW (Rowley et al. 2005) and is available commercially in Victoria (Anon 2007).”

Diseases No OIE-reportable diseases (OIE 2019) were reported for this species.

Hassan et al. (2008) reported P. caudimaculatus as being a host for “a parasitic copepod found on the skin and gills of freshwater fishes” known as Lernaea cyprinacea L.

Threat to Humans No threats to humans were reported for this species.

3 Impacts of Introductions From CABI (2018):

“[…] P. caudimaculatus thrives in urban, aquatic habitats (e.g. degraded creeks and storm-water drains) and has dominated habitats in southwestern and eastern Australia that previously contained high densities of Gambusia holbrooki, a highly invasive species with documented impacts on aquatic ecosystems and endemic ichthyofauna. Eradication was attempted from ponds in NSW [New South Wales], Australia using rotenone which failed. P. caudimaculatus is listed as a Class 2 noxious species under the NSW Fisheries Management Act and is listed on the Global Invasive Species Database (ISSG) (http://www.issg.org).”

“No definitive data is available on the environmental impact of P. caudimaculatus, though generalisations can be made regarding the diet, reproduction and ecology of the species. Although P. caudimaculatus principally consumes algae/detritus (Maddern, 2003), appreciable quantities of aquatic invertebrates are also eaten. Thus, there is great potential for competition with indigenous ichthyofauna (Maddern, 2003; Morgan et al., 2004). For example, P. caudimaculatus is found in the Canning River in southwestern Australia, which is also inhabited by the indigenous carnivorous fishes Edelia vittata (Percichthyidae), Bostockia porosa

(Percichthyidae) and Galaxias occidentalis (Galaxiidae) (Storey et al., 2000). Furthermore, there is also the potential for P. caudimaculatus to consume the fry of these sympatric native fishes.”

“Comparisons can also be made between the documented negative ecological impacts of G. holbrooki (e.g. McKay 1978; Merrick and Schmida, 1984; Arthington, 1991; Gill et al., 1999; Allen et al., 2002; Morgan et al., 2004) and the potential impacts of P. caudimaculatus as an introduced species. In southwestern Australia, G. holbrooki undergoes population explosions (in summer), and population crashes (in winter) as noted by Pen and Potter, (1991) in the Collie River south of Perth. These authors speculated that these drastic population changes allowed the indigenous species to successfully co-exist with G. holbrooki. Co-occurring natives reproduced during late winter/early spring when the densities of G. holbrooki were lowest, thus predation of offspring was minimised. Sampling of P. caudimaculatus populations indicates that this does not occur with only moderate seasonal changes in fish densities (Maddern, 2003; Maddern, [2007]). Thus, predation of the juveniles of co-occurring indigenous species may be greater in waterways inhabited by P. caudimaculatus, in comparison with those inhabited by G. holbrooki.”

From Global Invasive Species Database (2018):

“Displacement of native freshwater fishes through competition is the main potential impact for this species (Morgan et. al, 2004).”

From Rowley et al. (2005):

“The ecological impacts of nonindigenous populations of P. caudimaculatus remain unknown. However, given the well-documented negative effects of the closely related G. holbrooki (Gill et al. 1999; NSW NPWS 2003) such impacts could be substantial and unpredictable. For example, there is some evidence to suggest that P. caudimaculatus may be capable of displacing G. holbrooki.”

“However, there appears to be little impact of P. caudimaculatus on native species, in either Western Australia or at LRGC [Long Reef Golf Course, near Sydney, Australia], some of which are likely to consume similar aquatic invertebrates to G. holbrooki (Kennard et al. 2001).”

4 Global Distribution

Figure 1. Known global distribution of Phalloceros caudimaculatus, reported from eastern South America, Malawi, and Australia. Map from GBIF Secretariat (2019). Occurrences in the ocean and in the Amazon, Tocantins, and São Francisco River basins of Brazil were excluded from the climate matching analysis because they are outside the described native range of the species and there is no known introduction history within Brazil. The occurrence in central Australia was excluded from the climate matching analysis because it does not represent an established population.

5 Distribution Within the United States No introductions have been reported for the United States.

6 Climate Matching Summary of Climate Matching Analysis The climate match (Sanders et al. 2018; 16 climate variables; Euclidean Distance) for Phalloceros caudimaculatus in the contiguous United States is high overall, represented by a Climate 6 score of 0.177. (Scores of 0.103 or greater are classified as high.) Locally, much of the southern contiguous United States had high or medium match, with the highest matches occurring in California, peninsular Florida, coastal North Carolina, and along the Gulf Coast. Low matches were found in New England and in the Great Lakes, north-central, Rocky Mountain, and Pacific Northwest regions of the contiguous United States.

Figure 2. RAMP (Sanders et al. 2018) source map showing weather stations selected as source locations (red; Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay, Argentina, Malawi, Australia) and non-source locations (gray) for P. caudimaculatus climate matching. Source locations from GBIF Secretariat (2019).

Figure 3. Map of RAMP (Sanders et al. 2018) climate matches for Phalloceros caudimaculatus in the contiguous United States based on source locations reported by GBIF Secretariat (2019). 0=Lowest match, 10=Highest match.

The “High”, “Medium”, and “Low” climate match categories are based on the following table:

Climate 6: Proportion of Climate Match (Sum of Climate Scores 6-10) / (Sum of total Climate Scores) Category 0.000≤X≤0.005 Low 0.005

7 Certainty of Assessment A considerable amount of information on the biology, ecology, and distribution of Phalloceros caudimaculatus is available for review. Although nonnative populations are established in multiple locations, the realized impacts of P. caudimaculatus introduction are largely unknown except for displacement of another nonnative species. Without further information on impacts of introduction, certainty of this assessment is low.

8 Risk Assessment Summary of Risk to the Contiguous United States Phalloceros caudimaculatus, Dusky Millions Fish, is a small, stout fish species native to Brazil, Argentina, and Uruguay. Possessing a high tolerance to a wide range of water temperatures, P. caudimaculatus can thrive in a wide range of habitats where it primarily feeds on detritus and algae. Introductions have been reported in Malawi, Australia, and New Zealand, and established populations are confirmed for Malawi and Australia. Some introductions could have been intentional attempts to control mosquito populations. P. caudimaculatus used to be popular in the aquarium trade in Australia but is now rare. No impacts of P. caudimaculatus on native species have been documented, although there is concern over competition and predation on native fishes. P. caudimaculatus has been documented to displace previously established nonnative populations of a closely-related species, Gambusia holbrooki. History of invasiveness is classified as “None Documented.” No introductions of P. caudimaculatus have been reported within the contiguous United States. However, the overall climate match is high, with most of the southern contiguous United States having high or medium match. Certainty of assessment is low because of the lack of information on impacts of introduction. The overall risk assessment category for P. caudimaculatus is “Uncertain.”

Assessment Elements  History of Invasiveness (Sec. 3): None Documented  Climate Match (Sec. 6): High  Certainty of Assessment (Sec. 7): Low  Remarks/Important additional information: None  Overall Risk Assessment Category: Uncertain

9 References Note: The following references were accessed for this ERSS. References cited within quoted text but not accessed are included below in Section 10.

CABI. 2018. Phalloceros caudimaculatus [original text by M. Maddern]. In Invasive Species Compendium. CAB International, Wallingford, U.K. Available: https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/59751. (March 2018).

Fricke, R., W. N. Eschmeyer, and R. Van der Laan, editors. 2019. Eschmeyer’s Catalog of Fishes: genera, species, references. Available: http://researcharchive.calacademy.org/research/ichthyology/catalog/fishcatmain.asp. (September 2019).

Froese, R., and D. Pauly, editors. 2018. Phalloceros caudimaculatus Hensel, 1868. FishBase. Available: http://www.fishbase.se/summary/Phalloceros-caudimaculatus.html. (March 2018).

GBIF Secretariat. 2019. GBIF backbone taxonomy: Phalloceros caudimaculatus Hensel, 1868. Global Biodiversity Information Facility, Copenhagen. Available: https://www.gbif.org/species/2350105. (September 2019).

Global Invasive Species Database. 2018. Species profile: Phalloceros caudimaculatus. Available: http://www.iucngisd.org/gisd/species.php?sc=616. (February 2018).

Hassan, M., S. J. Beatty, D. L. Morgan, R. G. Doupé, and A. J. Lymbery. 2008. An introduced parasite, Lernaea cyprinacea L., found on native freshwater fishes in the south west of Western Australia. Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia 91(2):149-153.

ITIS (Integrated Taxonomic Information System). 2018. Phalloceros caudimaculatus Hensel, 1868. Integrated Taxonomic Information System, Reston, Virginia. Available: https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=165 940#null. (March 2018).

Maddern, M. G. 2008. Distribution and spread of the introduced One-spot Livebearer Phalloceros caudimaculatus (Pisces: Poeciliidae) in southwestern Australia. Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia 91:229-235.

McNeil, D., and P. Wilson. 2008. The Speckled Livebearer (Phalloceros caudimaculatus): a new alien fish for South Australia. South Australian Research and Development Institute, Aquatic Sciences, West Beach, South Australia. SARDI Aquatic Sciences Publication No. F2008/000939-1. SARDI Research Report Series No. 316.

OIE (World Organisation for Animal Health). 2019. OIE-listed diseases, infections and infestations in force in 2019. World Organisation for Animal Health, Paris. Available: http://www.oie.int/animal-health-in-the-world/oie-listed-diseases-2019/. (August 2019).

Rowley, J. J. L., Rayner, T. S. and Pyke, G. H., 2005. New records and invasive potential of the poeciliid fish Phalloceros caudimaculatus. New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 39(5):1013-1022.

Sanders, S., C. Castiglione, and M. H. Hoff. 2018. Risk Assessment Mapping Program: RAMP, version 3.1. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.

10 References Quoted But Not Accessed Note: The following references are cited within quoted text within this ERSS, but were not accessed for its preparation. They are included here to provide the reader with more information.

Alderton, D. 2003. The aquarium owner’s handbook: practical advice on fish-keeping and maintenance. Cassell Illustrated, London.

Allen, G. R., S. H. Midgley and M. Allen. 2002. Field guide to the freshwater fishes of Australia. Western Australian Museum, Perth, Western Australia. 12

Anon. 2007. Phalloceros caudimaculatus [Internet discussion forum thread]. Available online: http://aquariumlife.com.au/showthread.php?p=26085. (September 2007).

Aranha, J. M. R., and E. P. Caramaschi. 1999. Population structure, reproductive aspects and feeding of Cyprinodontiformes fishes (Osteichthyes) from a coastal stream in southeastern Brazil. Revista Brasileira de Zoologia 16:637-651.

Aranha, J. M. R., D. F. Takeuti, and T. M. Yoshimura. 1998. Habitat use and food partitioning of the fish in a coastal stream of Atlantic Forest, Brazil. Revista de Biologia Tropical 46:951-959.

Arthington, A. H. 1991. Ecological and genetic impacts of introduced and translocated freshwater fishes in Australia. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 48(1):33-43.

Arthington, A. H., and D. R. Blühdorn. 1995. Improved management of exotic aquatic fauna: R&D for Australian Rivers. Land and Water Resources Research and Development Corporation, Canberra.

Arthington, A. H., and L. N. Lloyd. 1989. Introduced poeciliids in Australia and New Zealand. Pages 333-347 in G. K. Meffe, and F. F. Snelson, Jr., editors. Ecology and evolution of livebearing fishes. Prentice Hall, New Jersey.

Axelrod, H. R., C. W. Emmens, D. Sculthorpe, W. Vorderwinkler, and N. Pronek. 1971. Exotic tropical fishes. T.F.H. Publications, Jersey City.

Bailey, M., and N. Dakin. 1998. The aquarium fish handbook. New Holland, London.

Castro, R. M. C., and L. Casatti. 1997. The fish fauna from a small forest stream of the Upper Parana River Basin, southern Brazil. Ichthyological Explorations of Freshwaters 7(3/4):337-352.

Corfield, J., B. Diggles, C. Jubb, R. M. McDowall, A. Moore, A. Richards, and D. K. Rowe. 2007. Draft final report for the project. Review of the impacts of introduced aquarium fish species that have established wild populations in Australia. Australian Government Department of the Environment and Water Resources, Canberra, Australia.

Dawes, J. A. 1987. A practical guide to keeping freshwater aquarium fishes. Viscount, U.K.

Esteves, K. E., and J. Lobon-Cervia. 2001. Composition and trophic structure of a fish community of a clear water Atlantic rainforest stream in southeastern Brazil. Environmental Biology of Fishes 62:429-440.

Evans, S. 2006. Tropical aquarium: setting up and caring for freshwater fish. New Holland, London.

Frey, H. 1970. Illustrated dictionary of tropical fishes. T.F.H. Publications, Surrey.

Gill, H. S., S. J. Hambleton, and D. L. Morgan. 1999. Is the Mosquitofish, Gambusia holbrooki (Poeciliidae), a major threat to the native freshwater fishes of south-western Australia? Pages 393-403 in B. Seret, and J. Y. Sire, editors. Proceedings of the 5th Indo-Pacific Fish Conference, Noumea. Society of French Ichthyology, Paris.

Hoedman, J. J. 1974. Naturalist's guide to freshwater aquarium fish. Sterling, New York.

Innes, W. T. 1946. Exotic aquarium fishes. Innes Publishing Company, Philadelphia.

Jubb, R. A. 1977. Notes on exotic fishes introduced into South African inland waters. Part II: live-bearing tooth-carps. Piscator 98:132-134.

Kennard, M. J., B. J. Pusey, and A. H. Arthington. 2001. Trophic ecology of freshwater fishes in Australia. Cooperative Research Centre for Freshwater Ecology and Centre for Catchment and In-Stream Research, Brisbane, Griffith University.

Lopez, H. L., R. C. Menni, and A. M. Miguelarena. 1987. Lista de los peces de agua dulce de la Argentina. Biologia Acuatica No. 12.

Maddern, M. G. 2003. The distribution, biology and ecological impacts of three introduced freshwater teleosts in Western Australia. Murdoch University, Perth, Australia.

Maddern, M. G. 2007b. The One-spot livebearer: another introduced ornamental fish in Australia. Fishes of Sahul 21(3&4):342-347.

McDowall, R. M. 1999. Further feral poeciliid fish in New Zealand fresh waters, with a key to species. New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 33:673-682.

McDowall, R. M. 2000. The Reed field guide to New Zealand freshwater fishes. Reed, Auckland, New Zealand.

McDowall, R. M. 2004. Shoot first, and then ask questions: a look at aquarium fish imports and invasiveness in New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 38(3):503-510.

McKay, R. J. 1978. The exotic freshwater fishes of Queensland. Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service, Canberra, Australia.

Merrick, J. R., and G. E. Schmida. 1984. Australian freshwater fishes: biology and management. Griffiths Press Limited, South Australia, Australia.

Mills, D. 1984. A fishkeeper’s guide to community fishes. Lansdowne Press, New South Wales, Australia.

Morgan, D. L., H. S. Gill, M. G. Maddern, and S. J. Beatty. 2004. Distribution and impacts of introduced freshwater fishes in Western Australia. New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 38:511-523.

NSW NPWS (New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service). 2003. NSW threat abatement plan. Predation by Gambusia holbrooki—the plague minnow. NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service, Hurstville, Australia.

Pen, L. J., and I. C. Potter. 1991. Reproduction, growth and diet of Gambusia holbrooki (Girard) in a temperate Australian river. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 1:159-172.

Rayner, T. S., and R. Creese. 2006. A review of rotenone use for the control of non-indigenous fish in Australian fresh waters, and an attempted eradication of the noxious fish, Phalloceros caudimaculatus. New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 40:477-486.

Rietzler, A. C., F. Tadeu Rantin, and F. Glens. 1981. Studies on the critical thermal maximum of the guppy Phalloceros caudimaculatus (Hensel, 1826) (Pisces, Poeciliidae). Boletim de Fisiologia Animal 5:19-27.

Sabino, J., and R. M. Corrêa e Castro. 1990. Alimentação, período de atividade e distribuição espacial dos peixes de um riacho da Floresta Atlântica (sudeste do Brasil). [Feeding biology, activity period and spatial distribution of fishes in an Atlantic forest stream in southeastern Brazil.] Revista Brasileira de Biologia 50(1):23-36.

Sandford, G. 2004. An illustrated encyclopaedia of aquarium fish. Quantum, London.

Stanislav, F. 1992. The illustrated encyclopaedia of aquarium fish. Book Company, London.

Sterba, G. 1966. Freshwater fishes of the world. T.H.F Publications, Hong Kong.

Storey, A. W., P. M. Davies, S. Creagh. 2000. Ecological water requirements of the Canning River system. Water and Rivers Commission, Perth, Australia.

Trendall, J. T., and M. S. Johnson. 1981. Identification by anatomy and gel electrophoresis of Phalloceros caudimaculatus (Poeciliidae), previously mistaken for Gambusia affinis holbrooki (Poeciliidae). Australian Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 32:993- 996.

Unmack, P. J. 2001. Fish persistence and fluvial geomorphology in central Australia. Journal of Arid Environments 49:653-669.

Welcomme, R. L. 1988. International introductions of inland aquatic species. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper 294.

Welcomme, R. L. 1981. Register of international transfers of inland fish species. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper 213:1-120.