Recycling and Reconfiguring: Metalwork of Maya Communities at Lamanai and Tipu, Belize

RECYCLING AND RECONFIGURING: METALWORK OF MAYA COMMUNITIES AT LAMANAI AND TIPU, BELIZE

Bryan R. Cockrella and Scott E. Simmonsb aThe Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1000 5th Ave., New York, New York 10028 bUniversity of North Carolina Wilmington, Department of Anthropology, 601 S. College Road, Wilmington, North Carolina 28403

Abstract

Analysis of the two largest southern Maya lowland metal assemblages, from Lamanai (n = 187) and Tipu (n = 99), Belize reveals that Mesoamerican and European technologies were negotiated through the processes of recycling objects to create new forms and juxtaposing objects of different provenances for bodily ornamentation. Lamanai’s occupants began acquiring metal as early as a.d. 1100 and then engaged in on-site metallurgy as early as a.d. 1450, continuing into the early seventeenth century. Tipu was a nexus for metals between the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries. At both sites, metal objects were recovered primarily from human burials and midden deposits. A program of typological study and compositional analysis revealed forms shared between the sites but evidence of on-site metallurgy is supported only at Lamanai. Metals from these Maya communities, both centers of Spanish reducción, demonstrate that the southern Maya lowlands was by no means a “refuge” from Spanish aggression.

INTRODUCTION understanding of Maya life in the southern lowlands at the time of Spanish contact and beyond (Graham 1991, 2004; Graham et al. In the Maya area, studies of material culture have often focused on 1989; Jones 1989, 1998; Pendergast 1981, 1985, 1986, 1993). objects that either were found in significant numbers or identified as More metal artifacts have been found during archaeological investi- temporally and culturally diagnostic. Studies of lithic and ceramic gations at Lamanai and Tipu than at any other sites in the southern artifacts and, to a lesser extent, those of shell and bone have held Maya lowlands and, with the exception of those from Mayapan and a prominent place in Maya studies for decades. In contrast, metal Chichen Itza, the metal assemblages at Lamanai and Tipu are the objects have generally not been as well studied as their lithic and largest presently known in the entire Maya area. Most of the ceramic counterparts, largely because metal objects are found in metal objects are made of copper or alloyed copper, although a far fewer quantities and at fewer sites than lithic or ceramic finds. small number of sheet gold (foil) pieces have been excavated at The culturally specific reasons for this deserve further investigation. Lamanai and many silver-copper rings have been found at Tipu. The production of metal objects eventually became part of a long Here we focus our discussion on the copper-based objects from and well-developed tradition in Mesoamerica. Its advent was as these sites, using the term “copper” for brevity’s sake, although early as a.d. 650 in west Mexico (Hosler 2014), and the earliest evi- most of the copper artifacts found at Lamanai and Tipu included dence of its practice in the Maya region may have been around a.d. concentrations of elements like arsenic and tin that suggest alloying 1000 at El Coyote in western Honduras (Urban et al. 2013). to form bronze. In other areas of the world, researchers have made great strides in The opportunity to reconcile artifact assemblages from two dis- addressing questions concerning the social, economic, and political tinct sites, united by their historical situation as centers of reducción contexts of metallurgy. This has not yet been possible in the Maya in the Spanish Colonial period, is especially notable (Table 1). area up until very recently (Simmons and Shugar 2013a). Here we Intersite artifact comparisons can facilitate new interpretive present the results of recently conducted research on Maya metal- threads and help to more critically evaluate the abundant documen- lurgy in the southern lowlands. The information comes from two tary evidence associated with such Colonial-period sites (Graham sites in Belize: Lamanai and Tipu. Lamanai is located in northern 2011:192–193) already fleshed out by Jones (1989). We follow Belize on the west bank of the New River Lagoon, which drains the lead of Emery (1999), who compared faunal assemblages north into the New River and eventually empties into the Bay of from Lamanai and Tipu to evaluate changes in consumption prac- Chetumal. Tipu is situated in western Belize on the west bank of tices at the two sites from roughly a.d. 1150 into the Spanish the Macal River, a tributary of the Belize River (Figure 1). Colonial period. Over the past several decades, both Belizean sites have been the Beyond its relevance to the understanding of historical changes focus of multi-disciplinary research that has helped to shape our in the southern Maya lowlands, the research presented in this paper represents the first comparative analytical study of ancient Maya E-mail correspondence to: [email protected] metals using multiple methods to date. In this paper we describe 157

Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. University of Athens, on 02 Oct 2021 at 09:12:02, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0956536116000365 158 Cockrell and Simmons

Figure 1. Map of the Maya region, with sites and geographic features mentioned in the text. Data extracted from Brown and Witschey (2016). Map by Walter Witschey.

and compare the types of metal objects recovered archaeologically (Cockrell et al. 2013; Shugar 2005, 2008; Simmons and Shugar from both sites, the contexts in which those objects were found, 2013b). This archaeometric approach dovetails with studies of and the technological processes used in their production. metal artifacts from the Sacred Cenote at Chichen Itza (Cockrell Manufacturing technologies have been examined using data from et al. 2015; Contreras et al. 2007; Franco Velásquez and de on-going microstructural and chemical compositional analyses Grinberg 2002; Ortiz et al. 2016; Root in Lothrop 1952) and the

Table 1. Approximate date ranges are given for relevant periods (after understanding of the roles metal played in the lives of the ancient Graham et al. 2013). Maya. After offering a brief overview of Maya metallurgy, we will discuss the types of metal artifacts that have been recovered Period Approximate Dates at Tipu and Lamanai, Belize. We also examine the objects’ archaeological and chronological contexts, and offer some thoughts on the Belize Independence 1981– present Self-governing British Crown Colony 1964–1981 links between the southern Maya lowlands with other metal- British Crown Colony 1862–1964 producing areas of Mesoamerica, including west Mexico and British colonial 1660s–1862 Yucatan. Spanish colonial 1544–1648/1708* Terminal Postclassic/Contact 1450/1492–1544 Late Postclassic 1350–1450/1492 OVERVIEW OF MAYA METALWORK Middle Postclassic 1200/1250–1350 Pendergast (1962) provided the first comprehensive overview of – / Early Postclassic 1000 1200 1250 metal artifacts in Mesoamerica. This seminal work, based on his – Terminal Classic 800 1000 dissertation research (Pendergast 1960), introduced a typological Late Classic 600–800 classification scheme for a wide range of metal artifacts from over Middle Classic 450–600 Early Classic 250–450 125 sites in Mesoamerica, including the Maya area. Fifteen years “ Terminal Preclassic 100 b.c.–a.d. 250 later, Bray (1977) focused his discussion of Maya metalwork Late Preclassic 400–100 b.c. and its external connections” on metal artifacts found in the Maya Middle Preclassic 900–400 b.c. area proper, and the influences seen on Maya metalwork from Early Preclassic 1500–900 b.c. Mexico (outside Yucatan) and the Central American isthmus. Archaic before 1500 b.c. These two early studies provided useful comparanda for subsequent research on metals and metallurgy in ancient Mesoamerica. While *Spanish sovereignty was claimed until 1798. our understanding of the metallurgical traditions of some parts of Mesoamerica, particularly west Mexico, has grown considerably over the last several decades, comparatively less is known about metallurgical ceramics from Mayapan (Meanwell et al. 2013). It is ancient Maya metals and metallurgy (Cockrell et al. 2013; Hosler hoped that the research presented here may serve as a point of 1994, 2001, 2009; Maldonado 2008, 2013; Pollard 1987; encouragement for future comparative, technological studies of Roskamp and Rétiz 2013; Simmons and Shugar 2013a). The fol- metals in the world of the ancient Maya. lowing is a brief summary of metal artifacts in the Maya area, with a particular emphasis on more recent discoveries in this part of Mesoamerica. THE CURRENT STATE OF KNOWLEDGE OF MAYA Throughout the Maya area both utilitarian and ornamental METALS objects of copper, and to a much lesser extent gold and silver, As mentioned above, our understanding of Maya metals and the have been found (Simmons and Shugar 2013a). Most of the roles metal objects played in ancient Maya social, economic, and copper objects found at Maya sites are bells of various shapes and political life is still fairly limited at present. Metal objects only sizes that were used in ritual performances, as status ornaments, began to appear in some quantities in the Maya area very long and as a kind of currency at the time of Spanish contact after the Maya began producing stone tools, ceramic vessels, and (Simmons et al. 2009). Other copper ornaments, including finger shell and bone objects. rings, earrings, tweezers, small masks, and button-like ornaments Small numbers of metal artifacts have been recovered from also have been found. Axes are the most common utilitarian Classic period contexts at a handful of lowland sites (see below), objects found at Maya sites but, unlike the thin, T-shaped “axe but it was not until the eleventh to twelfth centuries that metal monies” of west Mexico and Oaxaca (Hosler et al. 1990), these objects began to appear in the Maya world in appreciable quantities are designed to be used in various work activities. Fishhooks, (Simmons and Shugar 2013a). The Sacred Cenote at Chichen Itza needles, awls, and chisels are among the other copper tools that represents a special case with the deposition of metals that are anal- have been recovered. ogous to objects produced in the Central American Isthmus as early The earliest metal object found thus far in the Maya region as a.d. 700 (Cockrell et al. 2015; Ortiz et al. 2016). In addition, it comes from Altun Ha, Belize (Pendergast 1970). Deposited as has not been possible to fully understand how the Maya organized part of a cache around a.d. 500, the tumbaga (gold-copper alloy) the production of metal objects since virtually no workshops have pendant was most likely a trade item that both Bray (1971:36) and been identified, with the exception of the one recently reported at Pendergast (1970:117–118) believe originated in the Cocle region the site of El Coyote in western Honduras (Urban et al. 2013). of Panama. Metal artifacts do appear in Classic period contexts at Taken together, the limited number of sites that have yielded some Maya sites but are likely imported from other regions since metal artifacts, the comparatively small overall sizes of the metal there is only tentative evidence of Maya metallurgy at this time assemblages from those sites, and the lack of studies on these (see below). Indeed, over time, a circum-peninsular coastal trade assemblages has greatly limited our understanding of the ways network had taken shape, extending from the Gulf Coast in the metal objects figured into the lives of early Maya peoples. west to the Bay of Honduras in the east (McKillop and Healy Fortunately, this situation now appears to be changing. Recent 1989). Most metal artifacts found in the Maya area, however, are research conducted in both the northern lowland area (Paris 2008; associated with later Postclassic occupation and at several Maya Paris and Peraza Lope 2013) and southern Maya region (Cockrell sites there is compelling evidence of on-site metallurgy during et al. 2013; Simmons and Shugar 2013b; Simmons et al. 2009; this time (Paris 2008; Simmons et al. 2009; Urban et al. 2013). Urban et al. 2013) is beginning to provide us with a better The earliest traces of metallurgy in the Maya region date to a.d.

1000 or perhaps slightly earlier and come from the site of El Coyote, found in a Late Postclassic cache (Garber 1989:92–93). One of Honduras (Urban et al. 2013). these bells was a form not previously identified by Pendergast (1962)orBray(1977). Copper axes, fishhooks, bells, and bell fragments have been found in Late Postclassic domestic contexts at Northern Lowlands Progresso Lagoon (Oland 2009). Recently Haines and her col- A variety of primarily ornamental metal objects have been found at leagues recovered 33 copper bells, seven finger rings, and a ring sites in the northern Maya lowlands, including Dzibilchaltun, fragment associated with four individuals buried in a chultun at ’ Dzantún Ch’en, and Huhí (Bray 1977; Pendergast 1962; Taschek Ka Kabish during Early Postclassic times (Gonzalez 2013). 1981). Recently four pyriform-shaped copper bells were recovered In central Belize, small numbers of copper artifacts have been in southwestern Campeche at the site of Isla Cilvituk; they were reported from several sites aside from Tipu. In the Belize river associated with probable high-status residential structures dating valley, the site of Baking Pot has yielded five copper bells from to the Postclassic period (Alexander 2005:173). Early Postclassic period contexts (Hoggarth and Awe 2014). At The greatest numbers of metal artifacts in this part of the Maya Caracol, a sheet copper frog was recovered from a Terminal world have been found at Chichen Itza and Mayapan. Almost all of Classic period sub-stela cache (Chase and Chase 2007:21). the metal objects at Chichen Itza were recovered from the Sacred Northwest of the Belize river valley in southern Campeche, a Cenote (Coggins and Shane 1984).1 Between 1904 and 1911, single copper ring was recovered from Terminal Classic contexts Edward Thompson directed dredging operations in the southern at Calakmul (Braswell et al. 2004:181). part of the cenote, resulting in the extraction of hundreds of metal In the southeastern part of the Maya area, a pair of legs from a objects along with jade, flaked stone, ceramics, textiles, and other small, hollow tumbaga figurine was found in a Terminal Classic materials (Lothrop 1952). Excavations by INAH-CEDAM in period cache at Copan (Sharer and Traxler 2006:576). There is 1961 and 1968 added to this diverse assemblage (Piña Chan some evidence that the Maya were casting bells at Quirigua, 1970). Copper finds include a variety of bell types, rings, and Guatemala, located just 31 miles north of Copan (Lothrop 1952: axes, while gold or tumbaga items include other bell types, anthro- 25). In his discussion of the bells found there, including one that pomorphic and zoomorphic figurines, and embossed discs (Cockrell was clearly miscast, Sharer (1985:247) notes the possibility that 2014; Lothrop 1952). These metals were likely fabricated in places copper metallurgy at Quirigua dates to Terminal Classic or Early as diverse as west Mexico (certain copper bells, “axe-monies,” and Postclassic times. Around 55 miles to the east of Quiriguá, compel- tweezers), Caribbean Costa Rica (figurines), the Cocle region of ling evidence for on-site casting of copper objects has been found Panama (ear ornaments, cuffs), and were subjected to re-working recently in the Chamelecon-Cacaulapa region of western (crumpling, embossing, indenting) before their deposition. Honduras at El Coyote (Urban et al. 2013). Although dating is West of Chichen Itza, the site of Mayapan has produced more not conclusive as yet, it appears the Maya there were crushing metal objects (n = 381) from controlled archaeological investiga- metal slag, recovering copper prills washed along a stone feature, tions than any other site in the Maya lowlands (Paris 2008; Paris and then smelting them during the Terminal Classic or Early and Peraza Lope 2013; Proskouriakoff 1962). Recent analyses Postclassic (Urban et al. 2013:103). “ ” have shown that almost all of these are copper and it appears that The most famous hoard of copper objects was discovered in “ ” metallurgists were casting objects on-site, as crucibles, prills, the very early twentieth century at the Quimistan bell cave, also sheet fragments and a large mass of casting sprues have been located in the Chamelecon river valley of Honduras (Blackiston found (Paris 2008:48). The presence of miscast bells found in pre- 1910). Over 800 bells, many with elaborate anthropomorphic sumed crucibles indicates that metals were melted down and recy- faces and false wirework designs, were found in the cave. Root cled to fabricate new objects (Meanwell et al. 2013). Most metal (in Lothrop 1952:25) analyzed the chemical compositions of 15 “ artifacts (91.6 percent) from Mayapan were found in burials and of these bells and Hosler (1994:220) believes their chemistries ” caches (Paris and Peraza Lope 2013:179). In addition to copper indicate they were made from reused metal. The bells range in “ ” objects, several pieces of sheet gold and tumbaga have been size from minute to almost three inches in diameter (Blackiston found there (Paris 2008). 1910:537). Copper artifacts from pre- and post-Conquest contexts have been found in relatively small numbers at several sites located in the Southern Lowlands central Peten of Guatemala, including Topoxte, Tayasal, and Zacpeten (Pugh 2004, 2009; Pugh et al. 2012; Wurster 2000). As mentioned above, the oldest securely dated metal object found in The contexts in which these metal objects were recovered at the Maya area comes from Altun Ha, Belize, where a tumbaga felid Zacpeten provide valuable insights into the ways they were used claw-shaped pendant was found in a cache that, based on stratigra- and regarded by the Maya who lived there. A small number of phy, was deposited no later than a.d. 550 (Pendergast 1970). copper bells along with copper and gold foil were recently found, Elsewhere in northern Belize a variety of copper objects have most in cache deposits. These were typically associated with cere- been recovered at Cerros, Chau Hiix, Ka’Kabish, Nohmul, and monial structures, including a temple and what has been interpreted Progresso Lagoon (Andres and Pyburn 2004; Gann 1918; Garber as an oratorio (Pugh 2009:379–380). Two bells were found buried 1989; Haines 2013; Oland 2009). At Cerros, on Chetumal Bay, just below floor level in a high-status residential structure in align- three tumbaga discs and 17 bells of eight different types were ment with the short north-south axis of the building. In addition, a

1 copper axe fragment was recovered just below the floor in the front An exact number of metal artifacts deposited the Cenote is challenging room of the building (Pugh 2009:379). to determine mainly due to the disorder of the excavations, not to mention a 1921 fire that consumed metal objects set by a group of people who protested Two sites in the upper Grijalva river valley of Chiapas, Mexico Thompson’s ownership of the hacienda of Chichen during post-Revolution have produced a variety of copper and gold objects. At Canajaste, land reform (Breglia 2006; Coggins 1992). located on the Lagartero River just inside the Mexican border

with Guatemala, 17 copper artifacts, including bells, bell fragments, these sites, Marco Gonzalez, appears to have had close economic rolled sheet pieces, a false filigree ornament, and a ring were found ties with Lamanai (Guderjan and Garber 1995; Pendergast 1990; in Early and Late Postclassic period contexts (Blake 2010:184, 229). Simmons and Graham 2017). The absence of metal artifacts at Roughly 15 kilometers south of Canajaste, four gilded copper these sites, however, may be due to a focus on investigations of reptile (possibly crocodile) head ornaments were recovered at the Terminal Classic and earlier deposits and metals do not begin to site of Lagartero; these also date to the Postclassic period appear in quantities until somewhat later in the Postclassic period (Guerrero et al. 2012). Northeast of these sites, copper bells have (Simmons and Shugar 2013a). recently been recovered from Late Postclassic contexts at Lake Farther south in the Bay of Honduras, copper artifacts have been Mensabak, located approximately 30 kilometers west of Piedras found on most of the Bay Islands, including Roatan, Santa Elena, Negras (Palka 2014:317). Barburata, and Bonacca (Strong 1935). Thirty copper bells, two small hoop-like objects, and a piece of worked copper that Lothrop (1952:25) suggests may be an ingot were found at the Coastal Sites Dixon Site on Roatan (Strong 1935). Four bells, one of which It has long been acknowledged that coastal trade was an important had been miscast during manufacture, and a small metal disc were part of ancient Maya economic life and that copper and other found on Bonacca Island, and copper axes have been found on metal objects were highly valued trade items, at least by Santa Elena Island. Besides the copper ingot and miscast bell Postclassic times (Chapman 1957; McKillop and Healy 1989; there is other evidence of copper metallurgy, specifically the smelt- Sabloff 1977; Sabloff and Rathje 1975; Smith 2003). Hosler ing of copper ore, on the Bay Islands. Christopher Columbus’s son, (1994) has proposed that, specifically in West and central Ferdinand, who was 14 years old at the time he accompanied his Mexican contexts, sound was important in metals to promote fertil- father on his fourth voyage to the New World in 1502, noted the ity, protect people in warfare, realize a sacred paradise, and that the presence of numerous pieces of copper ore which the Spanish metals’ color effected divine associations for their wearers; these called calcide on Bonacca Island. In addition, it was in the vicinity properties of sound and color were especially developed in metal of the Bay Islands that Columbus and his crew encountered a large bells. The Spanish friar López de Cogolludo (1688) suggests that trade canoe carrying “hatchets resembling the stone hatchets used copper bells were used among Mayas as currency. by the other Indians, but made of good copper; and hawks bells Objects made of metal have been recovered at a number of Maya of copper, and crucibles to melt it” (Columbus 1959:231–232). coastal sites extending from the Gulf Coast to the Bay of Honduras. In the west, metal objects have been found at sites around Laguna de Highlands and Pacific Coast Terminos and the ancient trade port of Xicalanco (or Xicalango), as well as on Jaina Island (Bray 1977). On the north coast of Yucatan, a A number of highland Maya sites in Guatemala and Chiapas, gold frog effigy pendant, a probable piece of rolled sheet copper, Mexico have yielded copper and gold artifacts (Bray 1977; and an unidentified piece of metal have been found on Isla Lothrop 1952; Pendergast 1962). Gold discs, cast copper animal Cerritos, which acted as a port for Chichen Itza (Andrews 1995:22). effigies, finger rings, and axes have been found at Zacualpa, in On the east coast of Yucatan, the recovery of copper artifacts at the K’iche area of Guatemala (Lothrop 1936). Excavations at San Miguel, Zuuk, El Cedral, and San Gervasio on Cozumel Island Zaculeu have produced one of the largest assemblages of copper is not surprising given the island’s prominent role in maritime trade artifacts in the highland area (Woodberry and Trik 1953). Thirty (Robles Castellanos 1986a, 1986b; Sabloff and Freidel 1975; Sierra metal objects from Early and Late Postclassic burials have been Sosa and Robles Castellanos 1988). South of Cozumel, excavations found, including copper bells, rings, and an unusual painted in the early twentieth century by the British physician Gann (1918) bird’s head. In addition, two very large earplugs of thin gilded yielded different types of metal artifacts from several coastal copper, along with a gold nose pendant, have been recovered at Belizean sites. One of these was Santa Rita Corozal, located on the site (Woodberry and Trik 1953). the west shore of Chetumal Bay. More recent excavations at Santa Another substantial assemblage of metal artifacts comes from Rita have yielded copper bells, rings, needles, and tweezers, many Tajumulco, where over 20 copper bells, rings, sheet pieces, and of which were associated with burials (Chase 1982:521; Chase gold discs were found (Dutton and Hobbs 1943). Copper axes of and Chase 1988:55, 60). In addition, a pair of turquoise and gold varying sizes also have been found at Tajumulco, as well as at earplugs with obsidian backing was found in Structure 216 Rabinal, Matequesquintla, and Mixco Viejo. Various forms of (Chase and Chase 1988:55–56). Sarteneja, another site investigated copper bells have been recovered at other highland sites in by Gann, is located along the south shore of Chetumal Bay. A single Guatemala, including Baschuc, Chipal, Nebaj, and Zaculeu, while copper bell and 45 pieces of hammered gold foil were found there in copper tweezers (worn by at least one individual around his neck an Early Postclassic period tomb (Boxt 1993). at Lamanai—see below) also have been reported from Mixco Along the southern Belizean coast, Wild Cane Caye has pro- Viejo and Zaculeu (see Bray 1977). A spectacular necklace of 40 duced a pair of sheet copper ear spools along with a pair of small gold beads and ten jaguar heads was recovered during excava- copper masks with cross straps. Gann (1918:136) also recovered tions of Burial 27-A at Iximché, the ancient Kakchiquel capital two copper finger rings, a bell, and a copper tube during mound (Guillemin 1967:33). excavations and McKillop (1987:81) found a copper bell in mound- Perhaps the most significant assemblage of highland metal arti- fill associated with a burial at Wild Cane Cay. Curiously, no copper facts comes from the site of Chiapa de Corzo, located on the western objects have been reported from any of the other Belizean cayes, periphery of the Maya world in eastern Chiapas, Mexico (Lee 1969). including Ambergris Caye. This is somewhat puzzling, given that A variety of bell types, including 42 with false wirework designs, archaeological excavations have occurred at the most prominent have been found at the site along with an axe, a chisel, and a sites engaged in coastal trade on the island, including: Marco gilded copper ring (Lee 1969:185–187). Some of the wirework Gonzalez, Chac Balam, San Juan, and Ek Luum. At least one of bells appear to have been miscast as they are missing elements

such as suspension loops and portions of bell walls (Lee 1969: methods, which, of course, is not ideal for comparison. For compo- Figure 147). sitional analysis, the superprobe used for the Tipu metals offers the A small number of sites on the Pacific coastal plain have pro- advantage of identification of quantitative phase composition, and duced metal artifacts, and these include Carolina, Gomera, Los WDS can be employed to resolve spectral ambiguities stemming Limones, Ocos, and Santa Clara (Bray 1977; Mencos 2009; from EDS. The SEM used for the Lamanai metals also offers Mencos and Moraga 2005). Recent investigations in what are inter- phase-specific analysis but offers less spatial resolution and its preted as high-status residential contexts in the central areas of results are less quantitative. The XRF applied to the Lamanai and Carolina and Gomera yielded 18 copper artifacts, including rings, Tipu metals cannot resolve distinct phases and, instead, only can needles, bells, fishhooks, and pieces of sheet metal (Mencos and be used to reveal generic compositional patterns. Thus, caution Moraga 2005). The 15 metal artifacts from Carolina and the three has been applied in the data presentation (Table 2) with composi- from Gomera are believed to date to the Late Postclassic period. tions presented as major (≥10 wt%), minor (1 ≤ x < 10 wt%), and trace (<1 wt%) elements with the analytical method specified. ANALYTICAL METHODS LAMANAI AND TIPU METALS Approximately one quarter of the assemblage of Lamanai copper artifacts (45 pieces total) was first analyzed in the 1980s and The assemblage from Lamanai is composed of 187 copper objects, 1990s (Hosler 1994:Table 7.5; Williams 1990). Both emission spec- making it the largest of its kind in the southern Maya lowlands troscopy as well as atomic absorption analyses revealed two distinct (Simmons et al. 2009; Simmons and Shugar 2013c). Slightly less manufacturing regions for Lamanai metals—West Mexico and what than half that number of metal objects has been found at Tipu Hosler (1994:215) termed “a local southeastern copper-based (n = 99) but, to our knowledge, the size of the Tipu metal assem- casting tradition.” In addition, some metal objects recovered in blage is surpassed only by the assemblage from Lamanai. Both Spanish Colonial (post a.d. 1544) deposits, including four copper sites share particular metal forms, such as bells, rings, needles, ingots recovered by Pendergast (1981), had “highly anomalous” and fishhooks (Table 3). There are also some pronounced differ- chemical compositions suggesting they were created using “stock ences, as discussed below. Rings make up the largest number of metal derived from melted-down artifacts” (Hosler 1994:215). In metal objects at Tipu, comprising just over one quarter (n = 26) the past decade, an additional 33 copper objects have been analyzed of the entire assemblage (Cockrell et al. 2013). In contrast, bells using optical microscopy, Scanning Electron Microscopy with are the most common metal artifact type at Lamanai, making up Energy-Dispersive Spectroscopy (SEM-EDS), Laser Ablation slightly more than 42 percent of the copper assemblage. At Tipu, Inductively Coupled Mass Spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS), and bells account for only 15 percent of the total number of metal Energy Dispersive X-ray Fluorescence Spectrometry (ED-XRF) artifacts. with a Bruker Tracer III V (Shugar 2005, 2008). SEM-EDS was per- Our discussion of the forms of copper artifacts from Tipu and formed for partially quantitative compositional analysis with a Lamanai follows Pendergast’s(1962) typology of metal artifacts JEOL JXA-840 microscope, using internal reference materials at in Mesoamerica. This particular classification scheme is based on the Smithsonian Center for Materials Research and Education and the division of objects into one of three major functional categories: in the Archaeometallurgy Laboratory at Lehigh University by utilitarian objects, objects of personal adornment, and ceremonial Shugar (2005, 2007, 2008). objects (Pendergast 1962:521). Despite recognition that some Eighty-one of the 99 Tipu objects were analyzed by Cockrell objects, such as tweezers, could have been used either for utilitarian (Cockrell et al. 2013; Cockrell and Salas 2012) at University purposes or as objects of personal adornment, this typology is con- College London’s Institute of Archaeology. The metals were sidered to be the most comprehensive, as well as the least restrictive, studied macroscopically for thickness, length, diameter, and other among those proposed for Mesoamerican metals. Hosler’s(1986: attributes. For microanalysis, some objects (n = 47) were studied 104–105) typology considers stylistic criteria as well as other attri- by polishing a small surface area and keeping the object whole; butes such as mechanical properties (for such objects as axes and others (n = 14) were sectioned and mounted in polished epoxy tweezers) and volume and pitch (for bells). As these data could blocks. A Leica DMLM optical microscope was employed for not be obtained for all of the metals in the Lamanai and Tipu assem- phase characterization. For qualitative bulk compositional analysis, blages, we use Pendergast’s(1962) typological classification, unless an InnovX Systems portable XRF Alpha 8000 LZX (40 kV) otherwise noted. Specifically, we occasionally supplement Spectrometer was used on unprepared object surfaces. Pendergast’s typology by using Hosler’s(1986:104–105) classifica- Compositional analysis of particular phases was accomplished tion for certain objects, such as needles, for which more detailed through a JEOL JXA-8600 superprobe (20 kV, working distance = typological categories exist. 11 mm, spot size = 5) with Oxford Instruments EDS and wavelength-dispersive spectroscopy (WDS) detectors. Data were Bells processed using the Inca microanalysis suite. A naval brass and phosphoric bronze were analyzed as standard reference materials. The majority of bells from both Belizean sites are either plain- For compositional analysis, the aim was to cover the entire typolog- walled globular or pear-shaped in form (Figure 2). These are ical spectrum of artifacts, with a particular focus on the most prev- Types IA1a-i and IC1a, respectively. All have single suspension alent forms: bells, lacetags, needles, and rings. Less numerous loops and a number still contain their clappers, which are either forms usually were studied with ED-XRF. Whether an object was stone pebbles or copper pellets. Other types at the sites include studied whole or in section depended on concerns for its structural bells with human or animal face designs on their resonators (IC4a integrity as well as time constraints. at both sites), bells with an elongated pyriform shape (ID1a at It is important to note that the compositional data for the both sites), regular and flattened globular with a plain resonator Lamanai and Tipu assemblages were acquired through different (IA1c and 1B1a at Tipu), and zoomorphic forms (IE1a at Tipu).

Table 2. Quantitative (LA-ICP-MS, SEM-EDS, EPMA-EDS and WDS) and semi-quantitative (ED-XRF) compositions are provided for each Lamanai and Tipu metal analyzed, citing the results of the analysis offering

the greatest spatial or spectral resolution for each object. For ED-XRF results, major elements (M) have a concentration ≥ 10 wt%, minor elements (m) have a concentration of 1 ≤ x < 10 wt%, and trace elements (t) Belize in Communities Maya of Metalwork The have a concentration of < 1 wt%. “LA” before the object ID number indicates an object from Lamanai and “T” indicates an object from Tipu. https://www.cambridge.org/core

Number Analytical of Object Object ID Technique Analyses O Mg Al Si P S Cl Ca Ti Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn As Se Br Zr Ag Sn Sb Au Pb Bi

Ambiguous T 635.1 EPMA-EDS 3 0.8 0.3 98.9 Axe blank LA 1149.1 LA-ICP-MS 1 0.025 0.006 0.026 98.920 0.003 0.359 0.155 0.336 0.055 0.089 0.029 0.004 Axe fragment LA 1153.1 LA-ICP-MS 1 0.025 0.012 0.030 98.070 0.003 0.485 0.088 1.100 0.079 0.006 0.100 0.002 Axe fragment LA 2790.2* SEM-EDS 3 0.2 98.2 0.7 0.4 0.5 Axe fragment LA 2970.3* ED-XRF 1 tttM t t Axe fragment LA 2790.5* SEM-EDS 2 0.3 96.0 1.4 0.6 1.5 .

University of Athens Axe fragment LA 2790.6** ED-XRF 1 tttM t Axe fragment LA 2790.7** SEM-EDS 2 0.3 98.3 0.8 0.4 0.3 Axe fragment LA 2791.1 SEM-EDS 2 0.3 98.3 0.9 0.5 Band T 41.8 ED-XRF 3 t m t M m t m t M Band T 45.2 ED-XRF 3 t m M Bar T 778.1 ED-XRF 3 mMm M Bell LA 1232.1 LA-ICP-MS 1 0.001 0.003 0.036 0.024 98.160 0.002 1.25 0.234 0.011 0.259 0.008 0.007 0.004

, on Bell LA 1234.1 LA-ICP-MS 1 0.005 0.108 0.094 0.016 98.650 0.003 0.713 0.175 0.131 0.067 0.011 0.009 0.020 Bell LA 1238.1 LA-ICP-MS 1 0.049 0.228 0.001 0.006 99.070 0.001 0.325 0.131 0.117 0.047 0.029 02 Oct2021 at09:12:02 Bell LA 1240.1 LA-ICP-MS 1 0.059 0.003 0.019 0.002 99.060 0.001 0.647 0.179 0.005 0.016 0.005 0.002 Bell LA 1242.1 LA-ICP-MS 1 0.021 0.016 0.046 0.021 98.750 0.006 0.396 0.429 0.124 0.112 0.001 0.044 0.028 Bell LA 1243.1 LA-ICP-MS 1 0.005 0.055 0.025 0.193 0.010 97.930 0.005 0.543 0.152 0.916 0.145 0.003 0.011 0.002 Bell LA 1246.1 LA-ICP-MS 1 0.010 0.040 0.080 0.05 98.120 0.007 0.290 1.300 0.100 Bell T 50.2 EPMA-EDS 3 2.9 1.9 91.1 1.9 2.2 Bell T 129.1 EPMA-WDS 3 <0.03 0.09 <0.13 0.46 <0.07 97.68 0.05 0.18 0.07 0.11 1.13 Bell T 145.1 EPMA-EDS 3 0.4 t 99.1 t 0.5 t t Bell T 161.1 ED-XRF 3 t t m M t m t

, subjectto theCambridgeCore termsofuse,available at Bell T 162.2 ED-XRF 3 t m t M m t t t M t Bell T 191.1 EPMA-EDS 3 <0.3 0.5 98.6 t <0.6 t t Bell T 198.1 EPMA-WDS 3 0.42 0.16 2.84 0.06 0.12 93.53 0.03 0.53 0.41 0.28 1.18 0.44 Bell T 515.1 ED-XRF 3 t m M t t Bell T 850.22 ED-XRF 3 t m M t m Bell T 850.23 EPMA-EDS 3 t t t 98.0 2.0 t t t Bell T 850.24 ED-XRF 3 t m M t t t Bell T 887.1 ED-XRF 3 tt t M M Bell T 902 EPMA-WDS 1*** 0.02 1.65 0.54 0.03 0.20 93.41 0.43 0.05 3.38 0.08 0.03 0.18 Bell fragment LA 1244.1 LA-ICP-MS 1 0.052 0.076 0.007 98.650 0.004 0.859 0.040 0.152 0.132 0.022 0.002 Fishhook LA 1575.2 SEM-EDS 2 0.4 97.0 1.8 0.3 0.6 Fishhook T 143.1 ED-XRF 3 t t M t Fishhook T 160.3 ED-XRF 3 tM Ingot LA 2567.1 ED-XRF 1 mt ttMM Ingot LA 2568.1 ED-XRF 2 mt ttMM Lacetag T 497.2 ED-XRF 3 t m t M M t m Lacetag T 852.2 ED-XRF 3 t t t M M m Lacetag T 853.1 EPMA-EDS 2 2.5 0.5 63.6 33.4 t Lacetag T 871.1 EPMA-EDS 1 9.5 0.3 90.2 Lacetag T 872.1 ED-XRF 3 t m t M M M Lacetag T 890.1 EPMA-EDS 3 1.4 t t t 0.3 75.2 23.1 https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms Lacetag T 890.2 EPMA-EDS 3 1.3 75.1 23.6 Lacetag T 895.2 ED-XRF 3 ttMm m m Lacetag T 900.2 EPMA-EDS 3 t t 72.6 27.4 Lacetag T 901.1-4 ED-XRF 3 t m t M M m Lacetag T 902.1-2 ED-XRF 3 ttMM m Lacetag fragments T 869.1 EPMA-WDS 3 <0.31 0.02 <0.01 0.03 0.05 0.08 99.58 0.03 <0.01 <0.03 <0.07 <0.05 0.03 Miscellaneous T 870.2 EPMA-WDS 4 <0.02 <0.01 0.01 0.04 79.37 20.39 <0.07 0.03 <0.04 0.11 <0.03 <0.08 Needle LA 1580.18 SEM-EDS 2 0.3 98.5 0.5 0.6 0.4 Needle LA 1581.25 SEM-EDS 2 0.2 98.4 0.6 0.4 0.3

Needle LA 2373.3 ED-XRF 1 tM 163

Continued . https://doi.org/10.1017/S0956536116000365 Downloaded from

Table 2. Continued 164 https://www.cambridge.org/core Object Object ID Analytical Number OMgAlSiP S ClCaTiCrMnFeCoNiCuZnAsSeBrZrAgSnSbAuPbBi Technique of Analyses

Needle T 512.1 ED-XRF 3 t m t M m Needle T 513.1 ED-XRF 3 tMM m Needle T 516.1 EPMA-EDS 3 8.5 0.5 89.9 t <0.5 0.6 Needle T 518.1 ED-XRF 3 t m M t Needle T 851.3 ED-XRF 3 m m t M M m Needle T 859.2 ED-XRF 3 t m t M m Needle T 862.1 ED-XRF 3 t t m M M M . University of Athens Needle T 885.1 ED-XRF 3 t m t M M M Needle T 908.1 EPMA-EDS 3 4.8 73.5 21.7 Ornament T 514.1 ED-XRF 6 tMtmm mt Ornament T 884.1 ED-XRF 6 t m M Prill LA 2909.6 SEM-EDS 2 0.4 98.6 0.7 0.1 0.5 Prill LA 2081.2 SEM-EDS 2 0.3 98.5 0.5 0.2 0.4 Prill T 131.1 ED-XRF 3 t t M t m t

, on Reservoir LA 2790.4 SEM-EDS 1 0.2 98.6 0.5 0.3 0.4 Reservoir LA 2790.1 SEM-EDS 2 0.2 99.4 0.3 02 Oct2021 at09:12:02 Ring LA 1230.1 LA-ICP-MS 1 0.100 0.025 0.120 0.030 90.970 0.006 1.520 5.100 0.300 1.600 Ring T 104.1 EPMA-EDS 3 t t 0.3 69.9 28.5 <1.3 Ring T 511.1 EPMA-EDS 3 <3.5 0.4 0.4 0.6 <0.4 1.1 93.6 Ring T 517.1 EPMA-EDS 3 0.3 4.7 2.7 0.8 90.0 1.5 Ring T 521.1 EPMA-EDS 3 0.4 7.5 2.1 89.1 0.9 Ring T 855.1 ED-XRF 3 mm M t Ring T 856.1 ED-XRF 3 mm M tt Ring T 854.1-2 EPMA-WDS 1 0.05 0.11 0.01 3.46 96.23 0.14 , subjectto theCambridgeCore termsofuse,available at Ring T 864.1-2 (large fastener) ED-XRF 3 tm M t Ring T 864.1-2 (small fastener) ED-XRF 3 mm M t Ring T 866.1-2 (connected ring) ED-XRF 3 tm M tt Ring T 866.1-2 (unconnected ED-XRF 3 tm M t ring) Ring T 874.1-2 (connected ring) EPMA-EDS 3 <0.4 0.3 0.2 4.0 3.8 0.5 90.8 Ring T 874.1-2 (unconnected EPMA-EDS 3 2.6 0.3 0.5 0.3 4.0 2.7 89.6 ring) Ring T 875.1-2 (separate EPMA-WDS 4 0.02 0.19 <0.01 <0.01 5.77 <0.03 93.15 0.54 0.28 <0.08 fastener) Ring T 875.1-2 (with fastener) ED-XRF 3 mm M tt Sheet fragment LA 1131.1 LA-ICP-MS 1 0.001 0.002 0.003 99.910 0.001 0.002 0.019 0.005 0.034 0.026 0.001 Sheet fragment LA 1134.1 LA-ICP-MS 1 0.008 0.001 99.980 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.004 Sheet fragment LA 1136.1 LA-ICP-MS 1 0.008 0.018 99.600 0.235 0.036 0.002 0.068 0.028 Sheet fragment LA 1241.1 LA-ICP-MS 1 0.004 0.059 0.010 97.490 0.002 1.080 0.137 1.030 0.157 0.001 0.032 0.005 Sheet fragment LA 2909.7 SEM-EDS 2 0.3 98.3 0.8 0.4 0.3 Sheet fragment LA 2924.12 SEM-EDS 2 0.4 95.5 3.7 0.2 0.1 Tubing T 250.1 EPMA-WDS 4 <0.01 <0.01 <0.02 0.02 0.26 69.16 30.05 0.07 0.02 0.01 0.22 <0.03 0.17 Tubing T 695 EPMA-EDS 3? 2.9 0.4 73.2 23.4 Tipu Reference CURM 42.23-2 Admiralty Reference values 0.005 0.015 0.128 0.045 0.019 0.354 0.168 74.36 22.13 0.168 1.63 0.356 0.575 0.034

https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms and Naval Brass ED-XRF 3 0.3 0.2 74 23 2 <11 EPMA-EDS 3 0.3 75.6 22.5 1.6 Simmons and Cockrell EPMA-WDS 3 <0.02 <0.01 0.27 74.67 22.11 <0.07 <0.03 1.72 0.19 <0.06 <0.05 <0.29 Tipu Reference CCRMP 293 Phosphor Reference values 0.026 94.59 0.037 4.96 0.01 Bronze ED-XRF 3 94 <16 EPMA-EDS 3 1.6 93.0 5.3 EPMA-WDS 4 0.05 0.02 0.04 0.04 94.30 0.03 5.47 0.03

* Indicates fragments from one individual axe; ** indicates fragments from another individual axe; *** represents the results of one spot analysis from a line scan. . The Metalwork of Maya Communities in Belize 165

Table 3. Contexts are provided for all Lamanai (first frequency listed in each cell) and Tipu (second frequency listed in each cell) metal finds by form. One “find” may include multiple fragments of metal presumed to originate from the same object. Frequencies of forms within each assemblage also are provided.

Contexts of Metal Finds at Lamanai and Tipu

Percentage of Surface Unknown Lamanai Percentage of Object Form Burial find context Architecture Midden Collapse Cache Totals assemblage Tipu assemblage

Axe fragment 2, 0 9, 0 11, 0 5.9 0.0 Axe/celt/chisel 1, 0 6, 0 3, 0 2, 0 12, 0 6.4 0.0 Band 0, 2 0, 2 0.0 2.0 Bar 0, 1 0, 1 0.0 1.0 Bell (whole) 9, 5 0, 5 3, 1 2, 0 7, 1 0, 1 0, 0 21, 13 11.2 13.1 Bell (flattended, 1, 0 1, 0 12, 0 17, 0 31, 0 16.6 0.0 distorted) Bell (incomplete/ 0, 2 0, 2 0.0 2.0 corrosion) Bell (incomplete/ 3, 0 6, 0 18, 0 27, 0 14.4 0.0 mis-cast) Bell clapper 1, 0 1, 0 0.5 0.0 Axe blank 1, 0 1, 0 0.5 0.0 Casting reservoir 2, 0 2, 0 1.1 0.0 Fishhook 0, 2 1, 0 4, 0 5, 2 2.7 2.0 Fitting 0, 2 0, 2 0.0 2.0 Fitting fragment 0, 1 0, 1 0.0 1.0 Ingot 1, 0 1, 0 2, 0 4, 0 2.1 0.0 Lacetag 0, 8 0, 1 0, 9 0.0 9.1 Lacetag fragment 0, 1 0, 1 0.0 1.0 Miscellaneous 0, 3 0, 3 0, 2 0, 1 0, 9 0.0 9.1 Necklace 1, 0 1, 0 0.5 0.0 Needle 1, 17 3, 0 6, 0 0, 0 10, 17 5.3 17.2 Needle fragment 0, 1 0, 1 0.0 1.0 Ornament 13, 1 0, 1 13, 2 7.0 2.0 Pin 1, 2 1, 0 2, 2 1.1 2.0 Pin fragment 2, 2 2, 0 4, 2 2.1 2.0 Pin, bell-headed 2, 0 2, 0 1.1 0.0 Prill 3, 0 2, 0 4, 0 0, 1 9, 1 4.8 1.0 Ring 4, 25 6, 1 0, 0 4, 0 0, 0 14, 26 7.5 26.3 Ring fragment 0, 3 0, 3 0.0 3.0 Sheet 0, 1 0, 1 0.0 1.0 Sheet fragment 1, 0 5, 0 5, 0 1, 0 12, 0 6.4 0.0 Tinkler 1, 0 1, 0 0.5 0.0 Tubing 0, 1 0, 1 0, 2 0.0 2.0 Tweezers 1, 0 2, 0 1, 0 4, 0 2.1 0.0 Total 40, 74 0, 9 16, 6 45, 4 83, 4 0, 2 3, 0 187, 99

Two bells of unidentified type were found in the “Hunchback Tomb” the bells from Lamanai are either incomplete or flattened and dis- (in Structure N12-26), dating to a.d. 1500–1540. Pendergast (1984) torted (Table 3). believes the individual interred there may have been the last Maya The contexts in which many of Lamanai bells were recovered ruler of Lamanai. Only a small number of more ornately designed imply that this flattening was not the result of post-depositional pro- bells have been recovered from either site. A single bell from cesses. Instead, these bells appear to have been intentionally Lamanai has simulated wirework bands on the upper portion of its crushed, probably in preparation for casting (see below). Among resonator body (Type IC2a); two bells from Tipu and one from their other possible functions, bells were used by the Maya as cur- Lamanai are Type IC4a, having human or animal faces, with their rency, in ritual dance performances, and as payment for fines slits resembling mouths. These forms are similar to the effigy types imposed on the Maya by the Spanish for idolatry (Lopez de reported by Lothrop (1952) and Blackiston (1910) for some of the Cogolludo 1688:18; Scholes and Adams 1938:214; Tozzer 1941: bells found at Chichen Itza and Quimistan, respectively. Two of 186; Vásquez 1980:87). In addition to the two bells found in the the bells from Tipu, including one of the head-effigy types, are asso- Hunchback Tomb, eight other Lamanai bells were recovered from ciated with glass beads. The majority of bells (n = 13; 86.7 percent) Early and Middle Postclassic burial contexts. from Tipu are complete (not to mention two bell fragments, to be dis- While some Tipu bells come from burial contexts (seven bells, cussed later), whereas nearly three-quarters (n = 58; 73.4 percent) of including complete and incomplete specimens from three burials,

Figure 2. (a) Globular bell T 145/1 from Tipu and (b) an etched section of the bell, revealing the dendritic (as-cast) microstructure. Photographs by Cockrell, courtesy of UCL Wolfson Archaeological Science Laboratories. (c) Pyriform bell LA 1243/1 from Lamanai and (d) the large-grained microstructure, indicative of slow cooling. Photographs by Aaron Shugar. (e) A range of bells from Lamanai, with flattened resonators illustrated among two in the lower right, and six miscast bells or partial bells to their left. Photograph by Simmons.

three of which are from a double interment), many are surface finds deposition, certain bells were reserved by the Tipu population for (five bells). The concentration of bells in a few burials suggests that some activity outside of burial. this object type may have been reserved for particular residents of Given the presence of sprues on some bells—usually preserved Tipu. Yet, of the four most common metal forms at Tipu (bells, lace- on their loops—as well as dendritic microstructures, it is presumed tags, needles, and rings), bells demonstrate the strongest tendency to that the bells were lost-wax cast. At Lamanai, bells are copper and come from non-burial contexts (53.3 percent compared to 10 copper-arsenic, with especially high trace concentrations of tin percent, 0 percent, and 6.7 percent for lacetags, needles, and (approaching 1 wt%). They tend to show large grains, indicative of rings, respectively, including fragments of each).2 While the bells slow cooling, and porosity, owing to shrinkage. The bells from that are surface finds may have arrived in such contexts as a result Tipu include copper, copper-lead, and copper-arsenic with trace of taphonomic processes, it is possible that, prior to their ultimate amounts of tin (Table 2). There is greater variety in grain size and typically less porosity among the Tipu bells than among those from

2 < A χ2 test shows that the relationship between metal form (bell, lacetag, Lamanai. There is a range of trace elements ( 1wt%)inbells needle, ring) and context (burial or non-burial) at Tipu is statistically signifi- from both sites (e.g., tin, antimony, and silver at Tipu), which sug- cant (χ2 = 22.2; p = 5.9×10−5; α = 0.05). gests that the bells may have been fabricated from recycled metal.

Figure 3. (a) Plain ring from Lamanai, LA 1230/1, with decorative chevron incisions at the top and bottom. Photograph by Aaron Shugar. (b) Ring T 511/1 from Tipu (with fastener coil). (c–d) Secondary electron images of two rings from Tipu, showing the variety in the cross-sections encountered. Both contain impressions of the dies used to draw their wire bodies (field of view is 2.5 mm across at left and 2.25 mm across at right). (e) A secondary electron image of another Tipu ring shows its fastener coil (field of view is 3 mm across). Photographs by Cockrell, courtesy of UCL Wolfson Archaeological Science Laboratories.

Rings Chichen Itza and Mayapan (Lothrop 1952:83–84; Paris 2008:52; Root 1962:398). While there is variety in whether the rings are Rings are the most numerous metal artifact type (n = 26, plus three “open” (west Mexico, Ecuador) or “closed” (Chichen Itza, ring fragments) at Tipu (Figure 3). While four of the 14 rings at Mayapan), none of these appears to include a fastener coil. Both Lamanai are Type IVA3 with false filigree, most were plain, as false filigree or openwork decoration rings (Type IVA3) recovered were the majority of rings from Tipu. The plain rings from Tipu with Buk phase (Early Postclassic) burials at Lamanai have intricate are variants of Type IVAI in that they are thin bands without any and ornamental strapwork with either linked or separated S-scroll elaboration except for a coil of metal wrapped around individual motifs. The contexts in which most of the rings at both sites have rings as a fastener, half as thick as the metal used for the actual been found imply adornment in hair and/or on ears—some were ring. No fastener coils have been recovered in association with recovered near the cranium—and fingers, although several rings any of the rings from Lamanai. In cross section the rings are rectan- were recovered in midden deposits at Lamanai (Simmons et al. gular or circular in shape. Analogs for this less ornate ring are 2009). Of the ten Tipu burials with rings whose occupants’ sex evident in west Mexico and Ecuador (Hosler 1994:Figures. 3.7, and/or age have been identified, three are juveniles (that is, under 4.4), as well as at sites in the northern Maya lowlands, including 18 years old) and six are female adults. The Tipu rings are silver-

Figure 4. (a) Three of the oval-shaped, s-scroll filigree ornaments, LA 69/9a-g, from Lamanai, measuring between 2.6–2.9 cm in length and 1.95–2.0 cm in width. Note the cruciform straps, presumably for attachment to clothing, on the middle ornament. (b) Three dome-shaped ornaments, LA 90/8a-f, from Lamanai. These are identical to gold dome-shaped objects found in Tomb 7 at Monte Albán, Oaxaca. Photographs by David Pendergast. (c) A “turtle-shaped” ornament T 514/1 from Tipu, presumably suspended using the metal “bridge” at the top and another bridge, now missing its connecting piece, at the bottom. Photograph by Cockrell, courtesy of UCL Wolfson Archaeological Science Laboratories.

copper alloys with high (>90 wt%) silver content (Table 2). One of with individuals Pendergast (1981) believes enjoyed high status the rings, with a different morphology and fastened with a rivet, was among the Early Postclassic population of the site. brass. Ridges on the rings suggested they were formed using dies. Finally, two bell-headed pins (LA 91/1&2), both with small remnants of textiles adhering to their shafts, make up the other clothing ornaments recovered from Lamanai. All of these ornaments are Ornaments unique to Lamanai, as none has been reported from any other Maya Several different types of copper ornaments have been identified at lowland site. Thus, no typological categories presently exist for Tipu and Lamanai and, like the rings described above, all were these objects. likely used as items of personal adornment (Figure 4). Seven oval- Within the Tipu assemblage, there is a relatively flat object in the shaped copper ornaments found in one burial (N10-4/3) were made form of a face with two holes, positioned at approximately the same of interconnected S-scroll wires attached to an elliptical frame. They distances from the top corners, presumably for suspension. This measured between 2.6–2.9 cm in length and 2.0 cm in width and object was recovered from a burial. A second potential ornament were likely attached to clothing by their wide, cruciform rear is described in prior records as a “turtle effigy,” adopting the reptil- straps. It may be that they functioned as garment fasteners or as ian form vis-à-vis its domed body and two projecting “feet” at each objects of personal adornment. This form has not been reported end. The feet are connected by a metallic bridge at one end, which is from any other sites in the Maya area (Bray 1977:385). Other absent at the other, which may have permitted suspension of the copper ornaments found at Lamanai that may have been used as object. Both ornaments were presumably cast; the turtle’s hollow clothing fasteners are six dome-shaped bronze objects (LA 90/ body likely housed the casting core that was removed subsequently. 8a–f) with perimeter beading (Figure 4). They are identical in The former is nearly pure copper, while the latter is primarily copper form to gold objects found in Tomb 7 at Monte Alban, Oaxaca with minor concentrations of arsenic, potentially exacerbated (Pendergast 1981:48–49). All 13 of these ornaments have cruciform through superficial corrosion, and silver (<5 wt% in each case); rear straps, presumably for fastening purposes. All were associated gold (<10 wt%) also was detected (Table 2).

Figure 5. Tweezers LA 557-3 from Lamanai. Length is 4.65 cm and maximum width is 2.2 cm (at blade/bit). Photograph courtesy of Dorothy Hosler.

Tweezers both non-flaring bits (Type IVA) as well as those with flaring bits (Type IVB) have been recovered, while several Type VA chisels One of the major differences between the assemblages from these have also been found at Lamanai. Analyzed axes show minimal two southern lowland sites is the presence of some copper objects working and annealing; a probable sprue on one axe suggests that at one site and their absence at the other. For example, four tweezers open mold casting may have been the primary manner in which have been found at Lamanai but none have been recovered from axes were formed. Some axes were copper-tin-arsenic, while others Tipu. The four from Lamanai are either disc-shaped in design or were nearly pure copper (Table 2). The former group may have have elongated blades and, thus, are Types IIIC and IIIBI, respec- emerged through the re-melting of more strongly alloyed metals. tively (also see Hosler 1994:Figures 5.6a–5.6b). One of these (LA The significant trace arsenic content among the latter group suggests 557/3) is shown in Figure 5. These objects were used both for that the metal was formed through the co-melting of copper and hair removal and for status display purposes. For the latter they arsenic-bronze. were often worn as objects of adornment around the neck (Hosler 1994:145) and, based on contextual evidence from Postclassic burials, this was also the case at Lamanai. A pair of tweezers was Lacetags found in the lap of the male in the “Loving Couple’” burial at Lacetags (or “aglets”) are thin, hollow rods with a tapering thickness Lamanai, suggesting the tweezers had been worn around his neck and an overall “stub” shape (Figure 7). Nine lacetags and one lacetag at the time of his interment (Pendergast 1989:2–3). fragment have been found at Tipu but none has been identified at Lamanai. These objects are present at other Caribbean Colonial period archaeological sites, such as El Chorro de Maíta, Cuba Axes and Chisels (Martinón-Torres et al. 2007), and they have been identified in Woodworking tools also show a major discrepancy between the two Colonial New England (White 2005:31) and, centuries earlier, in sites. At Lamanai, 23 axes, axe fragments, and chisels have been medieval London (a.d. 1270–1350) (Egan and Pritchard 2002: found, while none of these forms has been recovered at Tipu 288). The Tipu lacetags are on the shorter end of the range of (Figure 6). Nearly as many axe fragments (n = 11) have been lacetag lengths (1.5 to 3.5 cm) noted by Deagan (1987:175) from found at Lamanai as whole axes and chisels (n = 12). Axes with Spanish Colonial archaeological sites and indeed appear to be

Figure 6. Axe LA 2790/6 (blade/bit) and LA 2790/7 (poll) from Lamanai. At right, the section reveals little annealing and dense working lines close to the blade tip. Photograph by Aaron Shugar.

Figure 7. (a) Lacetag T 895/2 from Tipu and (b) a secondary electron image of it, revealing that cotton stuffed within the tube has been unpacked (the whitish area near the bottom of the image represents the metal lacetag). (c) Lacetag T 869/1, heavily fragmented, is paired with (d) a WDS map that illustrates its composition in section: the red represents copper, the green zinc, and the yellow indicates a region of copper‐zinc, the last of which may be indicative of the original brass. Indeed, the dezincification indexed by this map suggests the need for caution when employing compositional analyses that do not distinguish different phases. Photographs by Cockrell, courtesy of UCL Wolfson Archaeological Science Laboratories.

fragments of longer tubes. All of the Tipu lacetags are from burial Needles and Pins contexts, except one found in the west nave of the associated Spanish church. The presence of cotton fibers on several lacetags Unlike lacetags and woodworking tools, needles and pins are present suggests that they were worn as clothing fasteners. This use is at both sites (Figure 8). A total of 17 needles and one needle fragment evident in the appearance of lacetags in illustrations of men and have been recovered at Tipu, while excavations at Lamanai have pro- women from fifteenth century continental Europe (Egan and duced ten needles. The needles are thin, solid rods terminating in a Pritchard 2002:285); whether they served that role on clothing at loop that forms an eye. Both the perforated-eye type and the Tipu is uncertain. Of the three burials with lacetags whose occu- loop-eye type have been found at Lamanai; both loop-eye sub- pants’ sex and/or age have been identified, all are male adults types—the tucked and the flap—have been detected. All nine (that is, over 18 years old). needles with visible eyes from Tipu are of the loop eye type and all Cross sections of the objects reveal that they were made of sheet appear to be of the tucked subtype. Hosler (1994:77, 2009) associates metal rolled to shape, with some overlap evident; heat may have the perforated eye with period I of metallurgy in west Mexico (a.d. been applied to facilitate diffusion of the metal and seal the tube 600–1200/1300) and the loop eye with period II (a.d. 1200/ at these overlapping points. The closed end of each lacetag, often 1300–1521). The tapering thickness of the needles may have permit- obscured by corrosion, is more difficult to interpret; various tech- ted more fluidity in their handling. The two bell-headed pins from niques, from crimping to filing to rotation “against a flat surface” Burial N10-4/29 at Lamanai are composed of small, plain globular have been proposed for analogous objects (Egan and Pritchard bells of Type 1A1a-i attached to relatively short pins, with a small, 2002:282; White 2005:31). The metal displays high porosity and cup-like element attaching the bell and the shaft of the pin. The evidence of working and annealing concentrated at the edges; small amount of cloth found adhering to these pins suggests that whether the metal was left in the worked or annealed state is variable they were used as clothing fasteners (Pendergast 1981:47). To our among objects. All of the lacetags analyzed were made of brass with knowledge, no other examples of this particular form have been zinc content significant enough to suggest intentional alloying recovered in the Maya area (see also Bray 1977:385). The pin form rather than a “natural brass” (Table 2). at Tipu is similar to that of the needles, but more abruptly tapering

Figure 8. (a) Needle T 516/1 from Tipu of the loop eye, tucked type. Photograph by Cockrell, courtesy of UCL Wolfson Archaeological Science Laboratories. (b) Needle LA 1581/25 from Lamanai of the loop eye, flap type. (c) Needle LA 2737/3from Lamanai of the perforated eye type. Photographs by Dan Kushel. (d) The microstructure of LA 1581/25, revealing small, equiaxed grains with working lines and distorted annealing twins. Photograph by Aaron Shugar.

and a wider, more spherical end; only one highly corroded complete needles consist of brass (n = 5) or copper with trace-minor concentra- example was studied but three others (one complete, two fragmented) tions of lead (n = 4) (Table 2). At Lamanai, six of the ten needles are reported in excavation notes. found came from Structure N11-18, the possible domicile of The needles and pins from Tipu and Lamanai were made by ham- Lamanai’s Spanish Colonial period Maya authority or cacique mering, and analysis of a tip of a Lamanai needle (LA 1581/25) (Pendergast 1981). Only one needle from Lamanai came from the shows, in fact, extensive working (Figure 8:13). A loop, on the first Spanish church, Structure N12-11, where it was may have other hand, was left in an annealed state. Each object appears to been used to fasten a burial shroud. have been fabricated from one strip or rod of metal. One of the needles from Tipu shows cotton fibers attached to the eye, suggesting Fishhooks that the needle was actually used for threading. In some of the Tipu burials, legs were tightly packed, as if the body had been wrapped in a Given the locations of both southern lowland sites along prominent shroud that had been potentially threaded by a needle. All of the watercourses, it is not surprising that fishhooks have also been recov- needles and pins from Tipu emerged from burial contexts. The ered, albeit thus far in modest numbers, at both Lamanai (n = 5) and

Figure 9. (a) Fishhook LA 1575/2 from Lamanai, photograph by Simmons. (b) Fishhook T 160/3 from Tipu, photograph by Cockrell, courtesy of UCL Wolfson Archaeological Science Laboratories.

Tipu (n = 2) (Figure 9). Like the needles, these objects have solid, on-site metallurgy in the southern Maya lowland area thus far round shanks that were bent into roughly a J-shape. Suspension comes only from the site of Lamanai. Several types of production loops were partially open, characteristic of Type IXA2. Fishhooks materials and debris have been recovered in the Spanish Church have been found at west Mexican archaeological sites, though Zone (Simmons 1999, 2004, 2005, 2006; Simmons et al. 2009). usually only one at each site, and appear in the RMG collection Those objects clearly related to production activities include studiedbyHosler(1994:82–3), who proposes that to achieve the ingots/pigs, prills, a blank, and casting reservoirs. Taken together, hooks’ curved shapes, smiths hammered and annealed cast metal these comprise over 8.5 percent of the assemblage of copper arti- blanks. All but one of the five fishhooks from Lamanai came from facts from Lamanai. Based on contextual evidence as well as the midden deposits, while the fifth was found in the core of a structure results of chemical compositional analyses (see below), however, that likely represents re-deposited fill material. One of the fishhooks it is reasonable to conclude that bell fragments (n = 27) along from midden deposits at Lamanai is a low-arsenic (approximately 2 with flattened/distorted bells (n = 31), axe fragments (n = 11), wt%) copper-arsenic alloy with traces of tin, iron, and silver and sheet pieces (n = 12) were also intended for use in casting activ- (Table 2;Shugar2007:23). This composition raises the possibility ities by Lamanai’s metalsmiths. If these objects are included as raw that recycled metal was used for its fabrication, although its tin materials for casting, then production materials make up 52 percent content is not as high as that of other copper-arsenic objects from of the assemblage of copper objects from Lamanai. Summary Lamanai. This fishhook was extensively worked and annealed. Both descriptions of these materials are presented below. fishhooks from Tipu are nearly pure copper, and both were surface finds, one from a primary midden. In terms of thickness, diameter, and mass, one fishhook is approximately twice the size of the other. Ingots or Pigs Four masses of copper have been recovered in the Spanish Church Zone at Lamanai. These cannot easily be classified as ingots, nor are PRODUCTION MATERIALS they pigs in the strictest sense, referring to a product of iron smelting While there is compelling evidence that Maya craft specialists were (Rostoker and Bronson 1990:102). These are solid masses of metal, “ ” “ ” engaged in metallurgy in certain areas of both the highlands and shaped like shallow cups with a rounded bottom and a flat top, northern lowlands (Paris 2008, 2013; Shugar and Simmons each with a remnant casting sprue (Figure 10). The smallest of the 2013a; Urban et al. 2013; Weeks 1977, 2013), evidence for four weighs 5.8 g while largest weighs 275.5 g. In terms of their length and width measurements, the smallest measures 1.15 × 1.3 cm while the largest is 6.3 × 6.5 cm in size.

Casting Reservoirs Two artifacts were initially interpreted as ingots based on the charac- teristics of previously recovered artifacts of similar size and shape found at Lamanai (Figure 11). It was assumed that these objects were produced as ingots to be re-melted and cast as new objects. Optical microscopy suggests that these objects are more likely “pouring or casting reservoirs” (Shugar 2008:13). They are parts of lost wax casting molds that served as funnels into which molten copper was poured. Once the mold of the cavity is filled, the reservoir acts as a receptacle for excess metal (Long 1964:Figure 1). After the Figure 10. Three copper ingots, LA 858/1, LA 894/1, and LA 908/1, from metal has cooled sufficiently both the reservoir and the sprue (the Lamanai. Photograph by David Pendergast. tube leading from the cast object to the reservoir) are detached and

Figure 11. (a) Casting reservoir, LA 2790/4, from Lamanai, photograph by Dan Kushel; and (b) a proposed illustration of its use to cast a bell-headed pin, drawing by Aaron Shugar.

may be remelted for later casting. While both casting reservoirs are Prills roughly cone-shaped, the smaller of the two weighs 21.4 g, while the larger weighs 86.1 g. No other metal artifacts of this type have Prills are small, round pellets of copper that can form during either been reported in the Maya area, a situation that inhibits the possibility the smelting process or the casting process (Shugar 2005). During of making comparative assessments of these unique artifacts. The casting, molten metal pellets may bounce away from open molds extensive presence of copper oxide inclusions in the reservoirs and cool rapidly while traveling through the air. This action befits an open, oxygen-rich casting environment. Annealing twins causes the metal to form into roughly spherical pellets called detected near edges may have arisen from efforts to separate the res- prills, which typically fall to the ground and are found surrounding ervoir from the sprue. One reservoir is nearly pure copper while the the metal casting area. Alternatively, if there is any wax remaining in other has minor (1–3 wt%) concentrations of arsenic and tin the mold a violent reaction can occur, causing the molten metal to (Table 2). These casting reservoirs were recovered in a lagoon-side spurt out of the mold’s pouring reservoir. This can also result in midden east of the Spanish churches at Lamanai, in direct association the creation of prills, which, likewise, can be recovered archaeolog- with five axe fragments that fit together to form two complete copper ically around the casting area. Nine prills have been found thus far in axes (Simmons 2006:39). Given that Lamanai’smetalsmithswere the Spanish Church Zone at Lamanai (Figure 12); nearly all of these remelting metals at the site, it is possible that these casting reservoirs were found in the core of a small Spanish Colonial period structure, and axes fragments were destined for recycling. N11-27, located immediately north of Structure N11-18, possibly

Figure 12. Prills (a) LA 2081/2 from Lamanai, photograph by Simmons; and (b) T 131/1 from Tipu, photograph by Cockrell, courtesy of UCL Wolfson Archaeological Science Laboratories.

are largely comparable to the other Tipu metals, some brass (e.g., object T870/2 and tubes T250/1 and T695), some nearly pure copper (band T45/2 and object T635/1), and some copper with additions such as tin (bar T778/1); one unusual case (band T41/ 8) contains copper with minor concentrations of zinc, tin, and a significant lead content, exacerbated in corrosion. Those that were analyzed show traces of working with variety in whether they were left in the worked or annealed state.

DISCUSSION / Figure 13. LA 1149 1 from Lamanai. This blocky, rectangular mass of The people at Lamanai and Tipu clearly had access to metal objects copper may have served as a blank from which other objects could be fab- from afar, but they appear at Lamanai somewhat earlier than they do ricated. Photograph by Aaron Shugar. at Tipu. In the case of Lamanai, metals appear as early as the Early Postclassic period, by roughly a.d. 1100, but at Tipu it is not until the cacique’s house (Simmons 2005). The prills range from approx- the middle of the sixteenth century that they begin arriving at the imately 2 to 5 millimeters in diameter. Those that are larger in size site. The most notable difference between the metal assemblages were ideal for use as bell clappers. Lamanai prills tend to show the is the distinct evidence of metallurgical practice at Lamanai and microstructure associated with fast cooling of molten metal. One the absence of such clear evidence at Tipu. At Lamanai, this evi- “prill,” however, displayed traces of extensive working, suggesting dence consists of casting reservoirs, ingots, prills, and a large it was shaped to make a bell clapper. The prills consist of copper blank, possibly for an axe. In addition, the artifact chemistries with traces of arsenic, tin, and silver, which raises the potential strongly suggest that imported metal objects were co-melted and that metal was recycled (Table 2). One possible prill has been recov- recast (Hosler 1994; Shugar 2008; Simmons and Shugar 2013c). ered from Tipu amidst collapse; its composition—copper with At Tipu, any materials related to metallurgical practice are less con- minor tin (1 wt%)—is less diverse than that of the analyzed prill spicuous, but a possible prill was identified. from Lamanai. At both sites there are misshapen or fragmented forms—particularly bells—as well as ambiguous forms (e.g., sheet, tubing, and bands) that may represent an intermediate stage in metallurgical Blank activities; the materials may have been prepared for re-melting and re-forming. Alternatively, they may stand on their own as exam- A blocky, rectangular copper object weighing just over 400 grams ples of metallurgical experimentation and, again, some likely were was recovered in the Spanish Church Zone at Lamanai during the destined for re-fabrication. Nevertheless, the role of natural pro- first year of the Maya Archaeometallurgy Project (Figure 13; cesses of corrosion and deterioration and our inability to pinpoint Simmons 1999). It has been interpreted as a blank from which a the form of a material should not be underestimated. large object, such as an axe or chisel, could have been fashioned The features with which metals are associated at both sites are rel- by cold working (Shugar 2005). It consists of copper with minor atively similar. More metals found at Lamanai were in association trace concentrations of arsenic, tin, and silver (Table 2). Nothing with high-status burials in Early Postclassic times and later in comparable to this type of copper object has been reported else- middens by the Late Postclassic period, with considerably fewer orig- where in the Maya lowland area to date. inating from caches or architectural contexts (Simmons et al. 2009). At Tipu, metal objects have been recovered mainly from the Spanish church cemetery in which Maya individuals were buried Other Copper Objects and, thus, come from Spanish Colonial period contexts (Cockrell Twelve pieces of sheet copper have been recovered in pre-Hispanic et al. 2013). Five came from middens and eight from surface contexts. contexts at Lamanai. Many more were found in nineteenth century The chronological contexts of the metals at the two sites display British Colonial contexts (Simmons 1999). Only one piece of sheet some important differences as well. At Lamanai, all metals come copper has been found at Tipu. Those from Lamanai vary in size, from contexts in which Buk, Cib, and Yglesias phase ceramics but most are relatively small (less than 5 cm in both length and are found. Refinement of the ceramic chronology at Lamanai is width). All were plain or undecorated. In addition, at Lamanai, ongoing; it appears now, however, that the Buk ceramic phase at two pin tips and two pin heads have been found, along with a Lamanai began ca. a.d. 950/1000 and lasted until roughly a.d. metal fragment interpreted as a tinkler by Pendergast (1962)as 1200/1250, when Cib ceramics began to dominate (Graham well as very small fragments of copper Pendergast described as pos- 1987, 2004; Graham et al. 2103). Cib phase ceramics were produced sible necklace fragments. Analyzed Lamanai sheet objects show at Lamanai until a.d. 1350, after which time Yglesias phase ceram- traces of working and annealing. One is a copper-arsenic alloy; ics made their appearance (Graham 2004). others are pure copper with traces of arsenic, tin, and/or silver, On the other hand, while occupation of Tipu dates as early as and one of these shows a particularly complex composition with 300 b.c., the majority of architectural evidence comes from the concentrated areas of arsenic, tin, and lead (Table 2). Postclassic and Colonial settlement of the site. A cemetery of over A variety of metal fragments (e.g., tubing, bands, and bars) 600 Maya burials surrounds the Colonial church on its north, whose form is uncertain have been recovered from Tipu. Many west, and south sides. Stylistic dating of pottery and glass beads are relatively flat and could have been attached to materials that recovered from the burials situates the cemetery between the did not preserve. These objects were recovered from a variety of mid-to-later half of the sixteenth century through the early seven- contexts: burials, middens, and surface finds. Their compositions teenth century (Graham and Bennett 1989; Smith et al. 1994:30).

The majority of metal objects from funerary contexts at Tipu were to Lamanai as early as a.d. 1100 could have inspired later metallur- recovered from separate burials. Yet, on occasion, several metals gical practice and experimentation. Connections between Yucatan are found in the same burial (e.g., a needle and two rings in the and the southern Peten are well-documented in the Colonial burial of a 30–40 year-old female; three bells and two rings in the period (Jones 1989), when peoples from Yucatan sought refuge to burial of a four to seven year-old). The occupants of these particular the south in order to distance themselves from Spanish strongholds. burials may have enjoyed relatively greater access to metal during This could have inspired additional practitioners, armed with the their lives than did their peers. The overall wide dispersion of knowledge of metallurgists working in Mayapan, whose occupation metal among the burial population, however, suggests a substantial spans from ca. a.d. 1000 to 1450 (Paris 2008; Meanwell et al. circulation of the material within the site. 2013). Scholes and Thompson (1977) documented 77 surnames In short, metals appear at Lamanai as many as four to perhaps of residents of Tipu in a 1655 census among 92 surnames within nearly five centuries before they do at Tipu. Lead isotope analyses Yucatan. suggest that metals continued to be imported to Lamanai from west Other connections emerged between the two regions. Maya Mexican and other sources as late as the early part of the Cib persons appointed to Spanish Colonial administrative positions in ceramic phase (Hosler 1994). All of the most distinct evidence the area of Belize made annual visits to Yucatan to confirm the of metallurgical practice at Lamanai—casting reservoirs, ingots, appointments (Graham 2011:194). Spanish friars visited Belize to prills, and the blank—comes from the Yglesias ceramic phase serve as a launchpad for their conquest of the Itza people around (except for one ingot from an unknown context). Thus, before Lake Peten Itza (Jacobi 2000:19–21). Friars Fuensalida and de a.d. 1350, metals at Lamanai were imports, while some time Orbita carried an arsenal of items—including needles, glass after a.d. 1350 metals began to be produced at the site. Indeed, beads, crosses, and rosaries—when they traveled to Tipu and considering all metal forms, fully three-quarters of the copper arti- Tayasal, the Itza capital (Graham 1991:327). In particular, Smith facts found at Lamanai—143 of the 187 or 76.5 percent of the et al. (1994:43) argue that catechizing friars used glass beads as assemblage—comes from Yglesias phase deposits. The production gifts to the Tipu community. Indeed, Tipu also maintained links of these Yglesias ceramics may, in fact, cover a narrower temporal to the Kowoj Maya, similarly involved in anti-Spanish resistance, frame: they were made especially during the Spanish Colonial and architecture and ceramics show some resemblances to those period but began to be produced earlier. Their introduction could of Kowoj sites, like Topoxte and Zacpeten, where indigenous and have taken place around a.d. 1500–1510, when the European pres- European metals have been found; furthermore, Kowoj Maya ence was first felt in the circum-Caribbean region, but it is also lived at Tipu at certain points in the Spanish Colonial period possible that their manufacture began as early as a.d. 1350 (Pugh 2009:377). (Graham 2004). Thus, if the association of the metals with Lacking substantial connections before the Colonial period, Yglesias ceramics is prioritized, the metal objects produced at Lamanai and Tipu came to be linked as centers for the Spanish prac- the site may date from some time before Spanish contact to the tice of reducción, concentrating populations of indigenous peoples early seventeenth century. in particular sites in order to make Spanish evangelization efforts At both sites, metals were found in association with European more efficient (Graham 2011:192, 198–199). Tipu was a special materials. The European materials, however, are not necessarily focus for the Spanish, as it occupied a position between already indicators of the exact time of manufacture of the metal objects. Christianized (eastern Belize) and non-Christianized (southern At Lamanai, metals were found with glass beads and Spanish majol- Peten) areas (Graham 2011:202–203). ica and olive jar sherds in several contexts (Pendergast 1985; Even recognizing the links of the region of Lamanai and Tipu Simmons 2004, 2005). At Tipu, besides general associations with with metal-producing areas of Mesoamerica, including west glass beads and majolica, metals were found in direct association Mexico and Yucatan, we must examine exactly how raw material with European materials: one ring was attached to a Spanish jet was acquired for metallurgical activities at Lamanai. The fact that bead as part of a necklace of over 140 glass beads, found inside a the casting reservoirs recovered from Lamanai display the same juvenile’s skull, and likely dating to after a.d. 1575 (Lambert compositions (pure copper and copper with minor concentrations et al. 1994:57–58). In a double juvenile burial, three bells were asso- of arsenic and tin) as some finished objects excavated at the site sug- ciated with glass beads, one of which was threaded through the sus- gests that the reservoirs represent metal that was in the process of pension loop of a bell, dating the burials to before a.d. 1575. being channeled into the space once occupied by a wax model. Thus, there is a clear proliferation of metal and potentially met- Perhaps too much molten metal was poured and it filled a receptacle allurgical activity between Lamanai and Tipu beginning in the six- (none was recovered with the reservoir), eventually solidifying. teenth century. The exact relationship of this surge in metal at the Only at Tipu is there a striking diversity in bulk metal composition sites and the arrival of Spanish colonists demands special scrutiny. with, in addition to copper, arsenic, and tin, high-silver alloys with To what extent did these metal finds emerge from metallurgical copper and brass (copper-zinc). Does this enhanced compositional practices already in place in Mesoamerica, including west diversity correlate with a lack of undetected on-site production, indi- Mexico, a source of metal for Lamanai in the Buk and Cib cating that Tipu served as a collection point for metal objects from ceramic phases? Were the “itinerant metalsmiths” identified by various metal-producing communities? While available evidence Bray (1977:397) part of the social exchange relationships that suggests that Lamanai residents may have engaged in more metal- were established between Mesoamerican communities? To what lurgical activity than residents of Tipu, the former did not fabricate degree did Spanish colonization influence these metal assemblages bells, rings, and ornaments in a vacuum—the fact that ingots and an and metallurgical activities? axe blank are present at Lamanai and that their compositions are tra- Metallurgical activities appear to have begun at Lamanai before ditional alloys suggests that Lamanai received intermediate materi- the Spanish incursion and so our search for answers about the als from another place, where alloying occurred. origins of this metallurgical knowledge must begin within Furthermore, the sources of the starting materials are likely non- Mesoamerica. The importation of metal objects from west Mexico local. Copper anomalies have been identified in southern Belize,

particularly in the Toledo District, but not in quantities sufficient for could be recycled to promote experimentation and creativity in exploitation and with no indication of ancient operations (Graham object fabrication. The recovery of flattened bells from Lamanai 1987:758). The same caveats apply to the copper anomalies and crucibles containing bells from Mayapan illustrate this creative detected in Guatemala, where, in fact, there are significant quantities process. of silver and less of zinc (Anonymous 1919:632–3). Lamanai must Recycling and juxtaposition also are indexed through composi- have depended on other sites engaged in primary metallurgical tional data. Unfortunately, there is no established baseline composi- activities to provide starting materials. While connections to tion that indexes recycled metal (Ronald Gronsky, personal Yucatan may have facilitated the transmission of metallurgical communication 2015). Nevertheless, we propose that the presence knowledge, metallurgists in Yucatan, faced with a lack of local of multiple elements besides copper in significant trace or even metal-bearing minerals, would not have been able to send starting minor concentrations indicates that metals of slightly different com- material (outside of intermediate or finished objects) to Lamanai. positions were melted together and re-cast into new objects. Such Another source of material for Lamanai may have been prior occu- signatures are evident in 14 objects (six cast, six hammered, two pations of the site itself: the paucity of metals from earlier phases metallurgical by-products) from Lamanai and seven objects (five actually may owe to practices of recycling metal in the Yglesias cast, one hammered, one by-product) from Tipu. It is possible the phase to produce new materials (Simmons et al. 2009). certain minor and trace elements may be impurities in the copper Metals and metallurgical knowledge circulated both before and source. Others may spring from the vessel(s) used for melting and after the arrival of Spanish colonists as part of a wider casting, which themselves are likely re-used and contain residues circum-Caribbean trade network. Some of this material movement of prior metallurgical operations in their walls. The elements of constituted tribute payments, an indigenous practice that the interest in the Lamanai and Tipu objects tend to be As, Ag, Sn, Spanish advanced with priorities on different materials (Graham Pb and, occasionally, Ni, Zn, Sb, Au, and/or Bi. It seems reasonable 2011:197). In particular, cacao cultivation flourished around Tipu to conclude that the detection of at least three of the aforementioned and this resource heightened Spanish interest in the southern eight elements in trace or minor concentrations was suggestive of Peten. Still, this area was far less penetrable for the colonists than recycling. Given the limitations of the analytical techniques the scrub forests of Yucatan. From the Maya rebellion in 1638 employed, however, caution is required. Six of the seven Tipu until 1695, the Spanish were not present from the area south of “recyclings” were identified with ED-XRF, which does not discrim- the Río Hondo, which Jacobi (2000:8, 24) describes as a “fringe inate between superficial and bulk compositions, thereby raising the area” and a “refuge for discontented Maya.” How did Maya potential for overestimation of “recyclings.” The other Tipu “recy- peoples in this area negotiate between an experience of relative cling” was identified through EPMA-WDS but such a diverse com- physical distance from the nexus of Spanish control in Yucatan position was not detected when the object was studied with and, farther south at Bacalar, one in which colonial influence was EPMA-EDS, thereby suggesting there may be other “recyclings” still endured vis-à-vis the visits of friars? that went undetected. This negotiation most certainly happened at a material level and The presence of these diverse compositions within the two was not only writ large, such as through the incorporation of assemblages suggests, ignoring the potential that these elements churches into the architectural landscapes of Lamanai and Tipu. arrived with the copper source, that: (1) metallurgists were In fact, negotiations took place at the level of individual objects. melting together different metal objects and casting blanks that For instance, some of the loop eye needles, a form evident in the themselves would be later hammered and/or cast into new forms; metallurgical practices of west Mexico, recovered from Tipu were and (2) they were re-using metallurgical vessels whose residues of fabricated with brass, a metal composition that was not produced prior operations contributed to the compositions of new objects. in Mesoamerica until after Spanish colonization. Needles made of Two objects at Tipu reveal particularly large concentrations of ele- brass would appear different from needles made of nearly pure ments whose co-occurrence in artifacts is relatively rare. Their pres- copper—the former would be more yellow, the latter more pink in ence suggests that products of metallurgical experimentation color: the contexts in which the metals arrived at the sites were circulated outside of places with clear evidence of metallurgical thus manifested and preserved in their surface colors. The negotia- activity. The striking co-occurrence of arsenic, silver, and gold in tion was more direct in other cases: bells, likely of manufacture in the aforementioned turtle-shaped ornament suggests that a copper- Mesoamerica, were attached to glass beads of Spanish origin. arsenic metal, whose actual arsenic content was likely lower than This approach to materials—recycling and juxtaposition—is the 1.3 wt% detected by ED-XRF (an analysis influenced by evident in the presence of metallurgical “equipment” and surface patinas), may have been co-melted with a tumbaga by-products of production at Lamanai. While not as direct as the (copper-silver-gold) metal. An aforementioned band contains sig- evidence at Mayapan of clusters of bells fused together within cru- nificant concentrations of zinc, arsenic, tin, antimony, and lead, cibles, the flattened bells at Lamanai may index the preparation of thereby implying the co-melting of brass with non-brass copper metals to be packed into vessels and then melted. The ingots and alloys. Indeed, metals from starkly different sources were brought the blank certainly suggest that Lamanai metallurgists were familiar into new relationships as bodily ornaments in a single cemetery. with the “intermediate” products of their technology: the flattened This grouping bears some similarity to the association of bronze, bells may have been en route to ingot or blank form. In this way, gold, and iron in the central cache of the Group A temple at another technological property outside of sound and color that Zacpeten (Pugh 2009:380). Though Pugh writes that, here, Maya individuals may have esteemed among metals, and particu- “European and indigenous metals were treated similarly even in larly bells, was their ability to be transformed and recycled. This ‘death,’” our identification of archaeological association—yielding aspect was vital to the casting process, as metal needed to flow in this inference of similarity—should not erase a recognition of the a molten state to fill up the space required to form the object fact that the people wearing and depositing these objects were before solidifying again. At the same time, much like the wax inte- acutely aware of different historical trajectories of both the objects gral to this process that could be melted and re-shaped, the metal and associated production technologies.

CONCLUSION sources while Lamanai exerted greater control over the compositions of finished objects fabricated on-site. The Maya community Sometime in the Early Postclassic period at Lamanai, metal orna- at Lamanai did experiment with compositions, at least among elements of alloyed copper, as well as pieces of sheet gold, began arriv- ments at trace concentrations, but their interest appears to have ing at the lagoon-side community. High-status individuals in two been mainly in high-copper objects. The presence of brass at Tipu important structures were interred with a variety of objects that orig- reinforces the particularly important role that the mission town inated in west Mexico, the first center of metallurgy in ancient played as a staging point from which Spanish friars prepared to Mesoamerica. By Late Postclassic times, Lamanai’s metallurgists convert the more inland Maya population around Lake Peten Itza. were melting or co-melting pre-fabricated ingots and/or other The reconciliation of Mesoamerican and Spanish materials and forms of different compositions (whether imported or made technologies at Tipu compels us to consider a more nuanced view locally) to create new objects. They also hammered and annealed of initial characterizations of the area south of the Río Hondo as pre-fabricated blanks into new forms, a number of which were util- “refuge” for indigenous peoples from colonial control. Yet, it is par- itarian (e.g., axes) rather than ornamental, as in earlier times. Bells tially through metallurgy that Maya peoples in the southern low- and axes, among other items, were clearly being recycled by lands responded to Spanish colonial aggression. They did not Lamanai’s metalsmiths. The large Spanish Colonial period necessarily accept the brass in whatever shape it arrived to them midden located some 60 meters east of the site’s second church but re-fashioned it into familiar forms (i.e., needles). Well into the on the shore of the lagoon yielded six axe fragments as well as Spanish Colonial period, Maya peoples at Lamanai continued to the two casting reservoirs. Surely these had, at one time, been des- experiment with metallurgical technologies that had long been tined for re-casting but were discarded probably sometime after met- established in west Mexico and later had taken a foothold in alworking was no longer practiced in the community. The presence Yucatan. The Maya populations did not completely reject pre- of copper prills roughly 300 meters north of the Spanish churches fabricated materials—whether from European or Mesoamerican near Structure N11-18 supports the idea that metalworking may sources—but incorporated them into new objects, occasionally have taken place in these, and possibly other locales, at the site. leaving little to no visible superficial trace of the source materials. At Tipu, there is no evidence of metallurgical activity besides Though no distinct crucibles have been recovered from either site, one possible prill, but the Maya community did receive finished the two places and the space between them was itself a crucible metals from varied sources, both Mesoamerican and European. At of sorts for the reconfiguration of different technologies and, more- Tipu, more so than at Lamanai, form did not always correlate over, of the relationships among southern lowland Maya communi- one-to-one with composition: one band may have a wildly heteroge- ties who consciously and subconsciously formulated active material neous composition and another may be nearly pure copper; one responses to the incursions of Spanish colonists. The recycling and needle may be brass and another copper with a small concentration re-contextualization of European metals, as well as glass and jet, of lead. Other forms did correlate one-to-one with compositions: was embedded in the practice of recycling and combining lacetags were consistently brass and rings were all silver-copper Mesoamerican-made metals to fabricate new objects. alloys, except one, which was brass. This pattern indicates that Tipu may have been obtaining its finished metals from various

RESUMEN

Esta investigación se centra en las dos colecciones más grandes de metales suspensión o unas correas—y que ellos adornaron el cuerpo—fueron asocia- entre las Tierras Bajas Mayas del Sur, de los sitios de Lamanai (n = 187) dos directamente con los restos humanos y tienen vestigios de algodón de la y Tipu (n = 99). A través de una descripción y comparación de los tipos ropa funeraria. Sobre la tecnología, había unas piezas que fueron vaciadas de piezas metálicas, sus contextos y sus métodos de fabricación, se deter- por el método de cera perdida y otras que fueron martilladas (y en unos minó que la confluencia de tecnologías mesoamericanas y europeas puede casos, una combinación de vaciar y después martillar). La diversidad com- ser descrita como un proceso de negociación. Este proceso se llevó al posicional es más obvia en Tipu (donde se encontraron unas piezas de cabo por medio del reciclaje de materiales para producir unas formas casi puro cobre y también bronce, latón y plata-cobre); esta diferencia nuevas y la yuxtaposición de materiales de procedencias diferentes para el podría estar relacionada a los papeles diferentes de los dos sitios: Tipu, un adorno del cuerpo. La comunidad maya de Lamanai adquirió el metal a punto de colección de metales, y Lamanai, un sitio donde se practicó la met- partir de 1100 d.C. y después empezó a practicar la metalurgia a partir de alurgia. Aún con respecto a una forma, como agujas o anillos, hay unas difer- 1450 d.C. hasta el empiezo del siglo XVII. El sitio de Tipu sirvió como encias pronunciadas composicionales en las piezas dentro de un sitio o entre un punto de colección de metal entre el siglo XVI tarde y el siglo XVII tem- los dos. Con menos frecuencia—pero también entre agujas y anillos—hay prano. En los dos sitios, la mayoría de los metales se recuperó en los entierros variedad de el método de fabricación entre una forma particular. En unos humanos. Se compararon los tipos de las piezas con las tipologías existentes, casos (14 de Lamanai y siete de Tipu), hay evidencia composicional—a se estudiaron las piezas con la microscopía óptica y se determinaron sus com- través de la presencia de una gama de oligoelementos, como arsénico, posiciones a través de varios métodos (fluorescencia de rayos X por energía plata, estaño y plomo—del reciclaje de metales para fabricar unas formas dispersiva, microscopía electrónica de barrido por energía dispersivo y nuevas. Además, ocasionalmente se emplearon unos metales europeos, microsonda electrónica por energía dispersiva y longitud de onda disper- como latón, para producir unas formas—como agujas—mesoamericanas. siva). Con respecto a los tipos, la evidencia de metalurgia de derretir y También, unos metales se yuxtapusieron directamente a unos materiales vaciar está presente en Lamanai, por medio de cascabeles aplanados, europeos como cuentas de vidrio y azabache. Por eso, los estudios de los embalses para vaciar, gotas de metal y lingotes, pero no en Tipu. Sin metales revelaron que no se aceptó o se rechazó fácilmente la colonización embargo, hay unas formas compartidas entre los dos sitios, por ejemplo, llevado por los españoles y que hay que revisar la caracterización de las agujas, anillos, anzuelos y cascabeles. Los contextos arqueológicos indi- Tierras Bajas Mayas del Sur como un lugar de ‘refugio’ para las comuni- caron que los metales se diseñaron para adornar—tienen unos huecos para dades mayas.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

We offer our sincere thanks to Elizabeth Graham, David Pendergast, Groom, Kevin Reeves, and Philip Connolly for their support in the UCL Marcos Martinón-Torres, Aaron Shugar, and Ronald Gronsky for their laboratories; and Juan Antonio Murro for reviewing the Spanish guidance throughout the research and in the preparation of this paper; summary. Special thanks go to the people of both Indian Church and Michael Wayman for providing access to the Tipu metals; Thilo Rehren San Carlos for their kindness and support of research on Lamanai’s and John Merkel for their help in the analysis of the Tipu metals; Simon ancient past.

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