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A Review on Non-Edible Oil As a Potential Feedstock for Biodiesel: Physicochemical Properties and Cite This: RSC Adv.,2021,11,25018 Production Technologies

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A Review on Non-Edible Oil As a Potential Feedstock for Biodiesel: Physicochemical Properties and Cite This: RSC Adv.,2021,11,25018 Production Technologies RSC Advances View Article Online REVIEW View Journal | View Issue A review on non-edible oil as a potential feedstock for biodiesel: physicochemical properties and Cite this: RSC Adv.,2021,11,25018 production technologies Marwan Abdul Hakim Shaah,a Md. Sohrab Hossain, *a Faisal Aboelksim Salem Allafi,a Alyaa Alsaedi,a Norli Ismail,a Mohd Omar Ab Kadirb and Mardiana Idayu Ahmad*a There is increasing concern regarding alleviating world energy demand by determining an alternative to petroleum-derived fuels due to the rapid depletion of fossil fuels, rapid population growth, and urbanization. Biodiesel can be utilized as an alternative fuel to petroleum-derived diesel for the combustion engine. At present, edible crops are the primary source of biodiesel production. However, the excessive utilization of these edible crops for large-scale biodiesel production might cause food supply depletion and economic imbalance. Moreover, the utilization of edible oil as a biodiesel feedstock increases biodiesel production costs due to the high price of edible oils. A possible solution to overcome Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 3.0 Unported Licence. the existing limitations of biodiesel production is to utilize non-edible crops oil as a feedstock. The present study was conducted to determine the possibility and challenges of utilizing non-edible oil as a potential feedstock for biodiesel production. Several aspects related to non-edible oil as a biodiesel feedstock such as overview of biodiesel feedstocks, non-edible oil resources, non-edible oil extraction Received 3rd June 2021 technology, its physicochemical and fatty acid properties, biodiesel production technologies, advantages Accepted 13th July 2021 and limitation of using non-edible oil as a feedstock for biodiesel production have been reviewed in DOI: 10.1039/d1ra04311k various recent publications. The finding of the present study reveals that there is a huge opportunity to rsc.li/rsc-advances utilize non-edible oil as a feedstock for biodiesel production. This article is licensed under a aSchool of Industrial Technology, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 USM, Penang, bPultex Sdn Bhd, Jalan Kampung Jawa, Bayan Baru, 11950 Bayan Lepas, Penang, Malaysia. E-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; Fax: +6046533678; Malaysia Open Access Article. Published on 19 2021. Downloaded 2021/10/1 20:24:43. Tel: +6046532216; +6046532214 Marwan Abdul Hakim Shaah is Dr Md. Sohrab Hossain is currently pursuing his Doctor of currently working as a Senior Philosophy (PhD) degree in the Lecturer in the School of Indus- School of Industrial Technology, trial Technology, Universiti Universiti Sains Malaysia. He Sains Malaysia (USM). Dr Soh- obtained his Master of Science rab has obtained his PhD degree (MSc) degree in Energy and in Environmental Technology Environment from Malaysia from the Universiti Sains University of Science and Tech- Malaysia. He has expertise in nology, Malaysia, in 2017. Mr supercritical uids technology, Marwan's research focuses on hazardous waste management, renewable energy production wastewater treatment, and from non-edible crops. He has waste to biofuel production. One expertise in supercritical uid extraction technology and renew- of his core research areas is developing a method for producing able energy production. biofuels from waste materials, including food waste and sewage sludge. Dr Sohrab has published over 80 research articles in high- impact indexed journals, book chapters, and presentations at international conferences. He has developed a sustainable solid waste management method using supercritical uid sterilization technology, which has been recognized worldwide by researchers. 25018 | RSC Adv.,2021,11,25018–25037 © 2021 The Author(s). Published by the Royal Society of Chemistry View Article Online Review RSC Advances environment annually due to the utilization of petroleum oil in Introduction diesel engines.1,2 Globally, renewable energy demand is The fossil fuel energy is non-renewable energy, and the stock of expanding progressively to balance global energy demand with this energy is projected to be exhausted soon. Besides, fossil population and industrial growth. Biodiesel is a promising renewable energy source that could be utilized as the alternative fuel combustion increases CO2 concentration in the atmo- sphere, which is precisely related to global warming.1 It is being to fossil fuel energy to comply with global energy demands. The rapid depletion of the petroleum-derived fuel reserves has reported that about 15 billion tons of CO2 is dispersed into the accelerated the search for alternative energy sources. Among the renewable energy sources, biodiesel is considered a well-known Faisal Alla is currently pursuing alternative to petroleum-derived fuel because it is environment- his PhD degree in the School of friendly, economically competitive, and technically viable, and Industrial Technology, Universiti it does not require any mechanical modication of the diesel- Sains Malaysia. He obtained his based engines.2,3 MSc degree in Energy and Envi- Biodiesel is a liquid biofuel that can be synthesized from ronment from Malaysia Univer- industrial crops, agricultural by-products, and municipal sity of Science and Technology wastes.3 Studies have been performed on biodiesel production (MUST), Malaysia, in 2018. Mr from various matrices and develop its quantitative and quali- Faisal's current research focuses tative properties to improve its reliability and sustainability as on the waterless treatment of a renowned source of green energy.1,5 Biodiesel has been sheep wool ber using supercrit- produced by utilizing various agricultural crops (i.e., corn, ical CO2 cleaning technology. sugarcane, and wheat) and edible oil (rapeseed, sunower, soybean and palm) as feedstock for the rst-generation Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 3.0 Unported Licence. Alyaa Alsaedi is currently pursuing her PhD degree in the School of Industrial Technology, Prof. Ir. Dr Mohd Omar is Universiti Sains Malaysia. Her a professional Chemical Engineer research focuses on environ- active in engineering research on mental microbiology, sustainable supercritical uid technology and utilization of solid waste, and industrial wastewater treatment plant design and built environ- supercritical CO2 sterilization and extraction technology. mental auditing, and hazardous This article is licensed under a waste handling. He is widely recognized in the area of indus- trial wastewater treatment and Open Access Article. Published on 19 2021. Downloaded 2021/10/1 20:24:43. supercritical uids technology Prof. Dr Norli Ismail holds a BSc applications. Dr Omar has pub- (honours) in Environmental lished over 200 research articles Science from Universiti Putra in high-impact indexed journals, patents, book chapters, and Malaysia and completed an MSc presentations at international conferences. He is a consultant to in Chemical Processes and a PhD many local and international companies in wastewater treatment. in Environmental Technology at the Universiti Sains Malaysia. Assoc. Prof. Dr Mardiana Idayu Prof, Dr Norli joined the School of Ahmad is currently an academic Industrial Technology as in the School of Industrial Tech- a lecturer attached to the Envi- nology USM. She obtained her ronmental Technology Division, PhD in Engineering Science: USM in October 2003. At present, Sustainable Energy Technologies she is a dean of the School of at the Department of Architecture Industrial Technology (2019 to Dec. 2021). Prof. Dr Norli has and Built Environment, Faculty research experience in various areas of environmental science and of Engineering, University of technology with emphasis on water quality, management issues, Nottingham, United Kingdom, in and treatability studies in relation to water, wastewater and 2011. Her research spans the analytical testing. She is actively involved in the technical aspects of breadth of energy and environ- biological and physico-chemical treatability studies, bioremedia- mental technologies. She is tion and bioaugmentation, environmental analytical techniques, particularly interested in renewable and sustainable energy tech- sampling and data validation and kinetic studies of water and nologies in buildings, renewable materials, risk assessment, air wastewater treatment. quality, and building ventilation and environmental management. © 2021 The Author(s). Published by the Royal Society of Chemistry RSC Adv.,2021,11,25018–25037 | 25019 View Article Online RSC Advances Review biofuel.5,6 However, the utilization of agricultural crops and edible oil to produce biodiesel have raised a potential conict of “food vs. fuel”. Besides, this increased the biodiesel production cost due to increasing feedstock price with growing market demand along with competition for food.6 Consequently, studies have been carried out on biodiesel production from non-food crops, animal fats, fungi, bacteria, and microalgae.5–8 Various technologies have been employed to produce biodiesel from non-edible oils.3,8–10 The potential advantages of producing biodiesel from non-edible oils are available in abundance, low production cost, high oil yield and above all it does not conict with food products. Therefore, the present study was conducted to review the potential and challenges of utilizing non-edible oils as a reliable feedstock for biodiesel production. Wherein, the feasi- Fig. 1 World biodiesel consumption in 2016 (source: U.S. Energy bility of non-edible oil as a feedstock was determined
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