CHAPTER 5 Bio-cultural Approach: The Essence of Anthropological Study in the 21st Century
R. Khongsdier
INTRODUCTION needs to formulate and deal more with research questions relating to problems or issues that are It appears as though anthropology in the 20th socially relevant. With respect to the second century confused itself by creating a vast array question, an attempt will be made to provide an of sub-disciplines which are difficult to ascribe overview of some models/paradigms which are to the same umbrella. Such a trend has both based on a series of assumptions and relation- positive and negative scopes for the strength and ships. Such models can be modified or formulated development of the discipline. Various practi- with new research questions to understand human tioners and researchers of various sub-fields biological variability. Finally, the operational represent a variety of perspectives, “particularly aspects and challenging tasks for bio-cultural those that are comparative, developmental, studies are briefly mentioned keeping in view the ecological, and/or evolutionary” (Dufour, 2006). scope and prospect of the subject. Indeed, one may argue that there is nothing wrong with such perspectives as far as we do not WHAT IS BIO-CULTURAL APPROACH? deviate from the core of our discipline. However, it is difficult to comprehend whether anthropology Bio-cultural approach is one which views in the 21st century should have a core or not? humans as biological, social and cultural beings This question is highly debatable. The answer in relation to the environment (McElroy, 1990). It may be either affirmative or negative depending also views human biological variability as a upon our understanding and vision of anthro- function of responsiveness and adaptation to the pology. But we ought to acknowledge that environment with a special focus on the role of anthropology is a science which is concerned socio-cultural environments. Its significance with both biological and socio-cultural aspects consists in conceptual framework and models for of humankind in time and space. It is neither dead understanding the dynamic interactions among nor will it be dead, but suffers a setback at times. human biological/phenotypic, psychological and This chapter is concerned with a bio-cultural/ socio-cultural traits in response to the environ- bio-social approach to the study of human ment. Bio-cultural approach has been part of the variation and evolution – the subject matter of long history of human biology and biological anthropology as a scientific discipline. The basic anthropology (McElroy, 1990; Hruschka et al., premise is that the bio-cultural approach is 2005; Dufour, 2006), but it has gained more essential for anthropological study of the survival momentum since the 1960s with the initiative of and well-being of human populations in the 21st the Human Adaptability Project of the Inter- century. The chapter is delimited to two basic national Biological Programme. Initially, it was questions: What and why is bio-cultural mainly concerned with the influence of physical approach? How is to go about it? As for the first environment on human biological variation, but question, an attempt will be made to suggest that it has given rise to the incorporation of biotic and bio-cultural approaches should be taken as socio-cultural environments into research essential not only for bringing the gap between designs for understanding human biological social/cultural and physical/biological anthro- variation. pology but also for popularizing anthropology In most cases, central to bio-cultural studies with integrative thinking especially in India. is the use of demographic, genetic and phenotypic “Integrative thinking means rethinking basic traits such as fertility, mortality, anthropometric assumptions, asking new questions, challenging measurements and indices, blood pressure, existing theories, and forging new methods” hemoglobin, genetics markers, and so forth as (McElroy, 1990). An attempt will also be made to indicators of the survival and well being of human discuss that anthropology in the 21st century populations in different environments. These indi- 40 R. KHONGSDIER cators are used to assess the interrelationship genetics, “life is genes and genes are life” (Weiss, between biology and environment in terms of 2000), giving rise to modern synthesis theory of ecological, historical, social, economic, psycholo- evolution. Evolution is defined as a change in gical, behavioural and other cultural factors. The gene frequencies from generation to generation work of Livingstone (1958) on the evolution of through the operation of mutation, natural sickle-cell trait in West Africa is one of such good selection, genetic drift and migration – the major examples. It is often cited as one of the best bio- evolutionary forces. The “modern synthesis cultural models of disease (malaria) as an agent provided legitimacy for the Darwinian approach, of natural selection resulting in genetic adaptation which was largely comparative and anatomical” of human populations. It gives an explanation of (Weiss, 2000). “The New Physical Anthropology” the interaction between sickle-cell anemia and conceptualized by Washburn in the 1950s, was culture, which is linked with population growth, primarily an “area of interest, the desire to agricultural expansion, prevalence of Plasmodium understand the process of primate evolution and falciparum malaria and the evolution of sickle human variation”, and population genetics has cell gene in West Africa (it will also be discussed become the core of the science. However, in the Section on integrated bio-cultural model). Washburn also cautioned that evolution should not be conceptualized in terms of non-adaptive WHY BIO-CULTURAL APPROACH? traits or genes only because it is impossible if evolution is largely due to natural selection. “If The need for greater integration of cultural the form of human face can be thoroughly and biological anthropology has recently become analyzed, this will open the way to the under- the express concern of many anthropologists all standing of its development and the interpretation over the world. In her comments on a series of of abnormalities and malocclusion . . . may lead to views on physical anthropology at the millennium, advances in genetics, anatomy, and medicine” Szathmáry (2000) writes, “What impressed me the (Washburn, 1951). most . . . was the concern expressed by several Considering the recent findings on population contributors about the need for greater integration genetics at the molecular level in particular, the of the cultural and biological side of anthropology role of genes in understanding evolution is once itself. The culture-biology interface, the inter- again thought-provoking. Recent DNA studies action of these poles, and indeed, the need to of contemporary populations, especially reintegrate these poles were themes touched on mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), have revealed that by several contributors.” Bio-cultural approach humans are relatively homogeneous with little provides a basic framework to bridge the gap genetic variation (Rosenberg et al., 2002; Jorde between cultural and biological anthropology, and Wooding, 2004), thereby leaving little scope thereby depicting the true nature of anthropology for understanding genetic variation between as a scientific discipline. In other words, bio- human populations. What actually is the role of cultural approach of anthropological studies is gene in evolution? According to Weiss (2000), one of those attempts to reintegrate sub-disci- “we have tended to forget that natural selection plines, especially cultural and biological anthro- screens phenotypes not genotypes: it is organi- pology, in the present century. It strengthens the sms that survive and reproduce. Darwin’s pan- holistic approach to understanding the biological genesis was a form of genetic determinism in and cultural aspects of human populations not which circulating heritable units (gemmules) were only from sub-disciplinary but also from multi- directly controlled by phenotypes. But genetic disciplinary perspective, thereby making anthro- variation is not directly controlled by phenotypes pology more trans-disciplinary in nature. (so far as we know), and DNA is not the only It may be acknowledged that Darwin’s theory thing in an egg, bud, or spore. Though genes of natural selection has a considerable influence remain the only known quasi-permanent heritable on the development of anthropology especially material, what determines success is the biological anthropology. The 20th century is known phenotype of the organism. Selection does not as a Darwinian century for biology. Natural identify the perfect genotype, and preserve it. selection has been recognized as the most Selection identifies phenotypes that are too important evolutionary force that patterns life and imperfect and removes them. As we identify the screens biological variation. With the advent of genes involved in complex traits (most current BIO-CULTURAL APPROACH 41 data concern disease), we find that genetic a good evidence for the strength and positive reductionism does not work as well as we development of anthropology in India (Basu, expected.” 2003). These areas of interest can be ascribed to Evolution as a change in gene frequencies the same umbrella of the “survival and well-being” cannot be fully comprehended without consider- paradigm or “bio-cultural” approach to studying ing the role of environment. If genes are not life biological and socio-cultural aspects of Indian and life is not genes, what genes are for life? The populations. answer to this question varies from one scholar to another, but it is unquestionably believed that FORMULATING RESEARCH QUESTIONS the end product of the interaction between the genetic constitution (genotype) and changing The need for greater integration of cultural environment is the phenotypes. From the human and physical anthropology is indeed very crucial biological point of view, phenotypes refer to the to the strength and identity of the discipline. But morphological, physiological and biochemical the question of “what should we do?” is still characteristics of humans as manifested through- debatable, which needs to be addressed meaning- out their life. On the other hand, environment fully and practicably. There is no doubt that the refers to all biotic, physical (abiotic) and socio- “the strength of anthropology as a discipline cultural conditions that influence the growth, depends on what it contributes both to thought development, health and survival of an individual and to society” (Peacock, 1997). Although or a group of individuals. How far we have learned contributions of anthropologists to the scientific the nature and extent of genotype-environment thought cannot be totally ignored, we may ask interaction is again debatable, and we need to ourselves whether or not our thoughts are also learn more about it in the present century. The formulated systematically and practically in such basic observation of Darwin on variability of a way that they are socially relevant. Therefore, phenotypes may, therefore, still remain the basic formulating meaningful-research questions that research problem that would generate a lot of are socially relevant should be considered one of research questions to be addressed clearly and the most effective ways to strengthen anthropo- practicably in the 21st century. Accordingly, bio- logy as an important discipline in the present cultural approach to studying human biological century. and phenotypic variability should gain more Formulating research questions means asking momentum in the 21st century. new questions in the light of previous questions/ Anthropologists in the 21st century ought to hypotheses/theories/methodology or empirical develop integrative thinking with a view to research findings. Research question is a making anthropological research more relevant statement or question that identifies the pheno- to the survival and well-being of human popu- menon or problem to be investigated or experi- lations. In his Presidential Address to the Anthro- mented. It is the guiding force for a given study pology and Archeology Section of the Indian to generate, analyze and present qualitative and/ Science Congress in 1951, S. S. Sarkar, one of the or quantitative data in a systematic manner well-known pioneers of biological anthropology (Maxwell, 1996). Barring the merits of descriptive in India, visualized that the discipline should aim or ethnographic study, a research study without and play an important role in making an research questions is many a time like a boat individual healthy in mind and body and thus without oars, especially in biological anthro- build a healthy nation. Considering the broad pology. Such type of study is often repetitive or concept of health as a “complete physical, mental, messy because the researcher is bound to get and social well-being” (WHO, 1971), the most mixed-up with different aspects of a given effective way to strengthen and popularize problem. Research questions allow the researcher anthropology is to have a set of common beliefs to deal with a given problem systematically, to and agreements, or conceptual framework, to highlight its importance and priority, and to justify study socially relevant problems including health why the proposed research on a given problem problems as visualized by S.S. Sarkar. The interest should be carried out. in nutrition, auxology, demography, human As for anthropological research in India, if genetics, epidemiology, gerontology, medical one takes a glance at research papers published anthropology and other health related studies is so far, one may admit that there is often an absence 42 R. KHONGSDIER of research question(s) of social significance. In indigenous or marginalized groups vis-à-vis some this connection, it may be worthwhile to mention numerically, technologically or socio-econo- what Basu (2004) has written, “Glancing through mically dominant groups? One may add to these the journals which published anthropological issues those concerning indigenous knowledge, articles, in India and abroad, one is still confronted biodiversity maintenance, human rights with numerous articles presenting the frequencies (individual legal rights and traditional community of innocuous traits like tongue rolling, arm folding, rights), and so forth”(Basu, 2004). Indian or describing the birth, marriage or death rates of anthropologists could have contributed to a great well-or ill-defined social groups without any extent in understanding these issues of social conceptual framework. Even if we grant that relevance. anthropologists and fellow-travelers are hell-bent One of the most effective ways to formulate on ensuring methodological rigor, including our thoughts to socially relevant questions is to biochemical (of late molecular biological) and follow the bio-cultural approach. The different statistical finesse, what are their research models given below are likely to generate different questions?” The racial paradigm has still domin- forms and levels of research questions that are ated the mind and thoughts of many biological socially relevant. It has been shown that a anthropologists in India, and their research particular model is responsible for the formulation questions are mostly to address the phylogenetic of another model with different research relationship or differences and similarities questions. Under the bio-cultural approach, there between population groups with respect to certain are a lot of research questions that are socially traits. relevant, especially in developing countries like The major concern is the lack of conceptual India where problems relating to the survival and framework and meaningful-research questions in well-being of human populations are manifold many research works relating to the biological (Huss-Ashmore and Johnston, 1985; Basu, 1987). and/or socio-cultural aspects of Indian popu- In addition to diversity in physical environment lations. If we are interested in reporting only the with different stressors and pathogens or disease frequencies of certain traits as pointed out by vectors; other factors such as depletion of Basu (2004), our research question is nothing but resources, disruption of ecologies, inadequate mostly related to this question: Is the study food supply, socio-economic disparity, poverty, population/group of individuals higher or lower illiteracy, population growth, increasing urbani- than the other population(s)/group(s) of zation and modernization, migration, globalization, individuals with respect to certain traits? ethnic conflicts, and so forth may have a consi- Although biological anthropologists may not ask derable bearing on the survival and well-being of specifically this question, it cannot be totally Indian peoples. denied that the main purpose of many research articles published from India and abroad is to BIO-CULTURAL MODELS address this research question, which is of little social significance. In other words, the results According to Thomas et al. (1989) “models may be interesting to the educated few, but lack are representations of reality that depend largely practical significance. Consequently, we should on a visual or mathematical framework to not shy away from admitting that our contribution demonstrate relationships among essential to the society is not as significant as it should be. components of a system.” A model is also defined Considering the influence of “racial paradigm” as an exemplar or a paradigm formulated and consciously or unconsciously on our thoughts, modified to accurately understand the study one should have extended or modified the phenomenon (Basu, 2003). In the present paradigm to the problems of ethnic conflict and discourse, a model is defined as an exemplar of a its consequences for the survival and well-being system developed or modified to understand a of the affected peoples. For example, “Why are study phenomenon which is interrelated with there so much of ethnic upsurge and ethnic different aspects of the system. It is, therefore, a conflict in recent decades? Why so much of heuristic tool to generate research questions or ethnic conflicts even in societies generally known test hypotheses and approaches thereof to to be homogeneous? … . Are these all because of understand a complex phenomenon. In bio- a sense of insecurity perceived by small, cultural study, the system is composed of biology, BIO-CULTURAL APPROACH 43 culture and both biotic and physical environ- depicts the general adaptability model of the ments in which certain behavioural, psychological human-environment interaction developed to and biological characteristics of human popula- under-stand human adaptation. This model also tions are the study phenomena. Each of these provides a starting point to deal with the complex major parts of the system is again composed of interaction between human biology and different components. The focus of attention is environment. It has four major parts: (a) physical to understand the interrelationship of the selected or non-living environment – in terms of topogra- components of the system at the population level, phy, climate, altitude and energy resources, (b) especially those that reflect the interaction biotic environment – in terms of nutrition, between biology and culture. pathogens, predators, etc., (c) cultural environ- Models are based on a series of assumptions ment - in terms of behavioural, social, economic and relationships that can be modified or and technological changes, and (d) human formulated to study the complex phenomenon or variation in terms of demographic, morphological, human biological variability in anthropological genetic, physiological, clinical and functional research. For example, biological anthropology characteristics. This model serves as a device for in India started with studies based on taxonomic understanding “elementary feedback relation- or racial model. Initially, various studies adopted ships” (Thomas et al., 1989). The model does not, Risley’s classification of Indian population on the however, provide sufficient guidelines on which basis of morphological and anthropometric types of the environment and biological variation techniques, followed by the additional use of of human populations should be the focus of serological data, and recently by the use of study. Most studies under this model have molecular and sophisticated statistical techni- considered an environmental stressor as an ques. The main purpose of such studies is to independent variable, thereby taking many understand the phylogenetic relationships among reductionist assumptions in which biotic and Indian populations and sub-populations under physical environmental factors are regarded as the basis of the exemplar of racial or taxonomic the major factors in bringing about human model. With the initiative of the Human Adapta- biological variation. It, however, provides a bility Project of the International Biological framework to view human biological variation as Programme during 1962-1974, the taxonomic dependent on the biotic and physical environ- model is modified into more “explanation-oriented ments and interdependent on the cultural environ- approach.” The realization that biological ment, which is in turn interrelated with biotic and anthropology should be concerned with the physical environments. It also generates many “health and well-being” of Indian populations has new research questions and hypotheses which also started simultaneously in which a new bio- are ultimately responsible for the formulation of cultural model has emerged. Basu (2003) new models. Following are some of the models designated this model as “survival and well- being” paradigm. This “paradigm seems to constitute the basis, consciously or unconscious- ly, of many biological anthropological studies, Biotic Physical even though static, descriptive studies following environment environment the earlier “race” paradigm, with or without the sophisticated laboratory and/or statistical Human variation methodologies, also continue” (Basu, 2003). The interest in bio-cultural model among biological and medical anthropologists has its connection with the adaptability model in which the human-environment interaction is the focus of attention to understand human biological Cultural variation and/or variability. The adaptability environment model gets modified and becomes more complex with the formulation of more research questions depending upon the interest of a given study. Fig. 1. A simple model of the system showing General Adaptability Model: Figure 1 human relationship with the environment 44 R. KHONGSDIER that can be considered as the by-products of the since it is also found in the offspring of native general adaptability model. highlanders who grow up in lowland conditions.” Single-Stress Model: The single-stress model However, the inability to identify genes is an offshoot of the general adaptability model. responsible for morphological variation in high- It takes an environmental stressor as independent altitude populations is the major drawback to the variable to understand human adaptation. High- single-stress model. Critics have criticized that altitude hypoxia (low-oxygen pressure) is scholars working under the single-stress model considered to be the primary stressor that brings have just taken for granted that adaptation is an about biological and morphological variation. For explanatory paradigm of human variation example, the pattern of growth and development without taking into consideration other alternative in body size and organs of oxygen-transport explanations (Gould and Lewontin, 1978). It is systems at high altitude differs from those at the pointed out that, unlike sickle-cell gene for the low altitude. Figure 2 shows that hypoxia at high malaria, there is a lack of evidence for specific genes altitude accelerates the growth of thorax dimen- responsible for enhancing oxygen transmission sions. “On the other hand, joint effects of hypoxia in high-altitude populations (Baker, 1984). Thus, and cold increase energy requirements. This in the view that a genotype of an organism is able turn affects the energy balance and results in to produce a range of phenotypic changes in prenatal and postnatal growth retardation of the response to the environment seems to be, at musculoskeletal system, which affects both birth present, more acceptable than that of genetic weight and stature. Because of the two directional adaptation which holds that a given modification responses, human growth in high altitude is due to genes which are transmitted through populations must be viewed as the result of generations. There is evidence that physical work interaction and adaptation of the organism to capacity among Europeans, who have grown up competing stresses of hypoxia, cold and energy at high altitude, are comparable to the Andean requirements that characterize the high-altitude natives (Frisancho et al., 1973). In addition, recent environment.” (Frisancho, 1993) It is suggested studies among Asian populations indicate the that the Andean chest morphology is not acquired absence of altitude differences in chest by either developmental or adult acclimatization, dimensions (Weitz et al., 2000; Weitz and Garruto, rather it is influenced more by genetic than by 2004). It was also observed that Tibetan males at developmental and physiological responses/ 4,300 m had narrow and deeper chests during and factors (Frisancho, 1993). According to Harrison after adolescence than their counterparts at 3,200 (1998), the “typical ‘barrel-shaped’ thorax of many m and 3,800 m (Weitz et al., 2000). On the basis of mountain peoples is … partly genetically fixed these and other evidences, it is difficult to attribute thorax dimensions in high-altitude populations to genetic adaptation only. It HYPOXIA COLD suggests, instead, that a given genotype has a range of phenotypes characterized by develop- mental plasticity - any observable modification or phenotypic variability in response to a High energy sequence of environments during growth and Low oxygen requirement development – which is highly unpredictable (Khongsdier, 2006). The relationship between genotype and Energy balance phenotype is very crucial for understanding developmental plasticity. We know that the phenotype is the developmental outcome of the complex interaction between genotype and ADAPTIVE OUTCOMES: environment. The development of any phenotype •Accelerated growth of depends on the genotype that determines a range thorax dimensions •Slow growth of musculo-skeletal or set of alternative phenotypes in response to a system sequence of environments. This range is known as the range of reaction, or norm of reaction, of Fig. 2. Single-stress model the genotype (Dobzhansky, 1970). It is also BIO-CULTURAL APPROACH 45 defined as the mapping function of the environ- the Figure that the relationship between culture ment into phenotype for a given genotype and environment is not fully addressed under the (Lewontin, 2004). The norm of reaction of each segmented model. In other words, the segmented genotype is highly unpredictable because it model does not account in detail for the interplay encompasses a set of alternative modifications, between culture and environment in relation to or outcomes (phenotypes), depending upon a biology. For example, the growth and nutritional sequence of environments in relation to that status of children is correlated with socio- genotype. Experimental works on plants show economic status, or with geographical altitude, that a given genotype produces different pheno- to simply understand whether growth or types according to different elevations from sea nutritional status is affected by altitude or socio- level. It is, therefore, suggested that the relative economic status of the population. Thus, the height of different plants was unpredictable from approach in this model is more deductive or one environment to another. For example, the deterministic. In other words, growth or nutritional genotype of a given plant that grew tallest at low status is assumed to be dependent on socio- elevation was the shortest at medium elevation economic status or ecological factors. There is a and the second tallest at high elevation (Zuzuki lack of attempt to understand whether altitude or et al., 1981; Lewontin, 2004). The findings on chest ecological condition is correlated with socio- dimensions of the Tibetan males at high altitudes economic status which is in turn associated with by Weitz et al. (2000) may have certain implications the growth and nutritional status of children. for human populations. Integrated Bio-cultural Model: This model In view of the above circumstances, it is depicts the interaction among biological, cultural expected that the human adaptive pattern at high and environmental variables with respect to altitudes would demonstrate considerable plasti- certain biological traits or health variables in city (Thomas et al., 1979, 1989). It also appears question (Fig. 4). When the research question is that organisms “avoid a relatively irreversible related to health problems, collected data on health commitment to genetic change when solutions indicators are systematically integrated with to environmental problems can be reached socio-cultural and other environmental variables. through phenotypic plasticity” (Slobodkin, 1968). Although hypoxia is a primary stressor at high altitude, its direct links with the genetic make-up of populations at high altitude is still a subject of Environmental Biological Socio-cultural controversy. The single-stress model paves the data data data way for bio-cultural models, which seek to under- stand the interaction of specific morphological, physiological, behavioural, and genetic processes (Thomas et al., 1989). Thus, genetic adaptation is Fig. 3. Segmented bio-cultural model simply considered one of the several modes of adaptation. Other modes of adaptation include ontogenetic modifications or developmental plasticity, physiological acclimatization, cultural Environmental Biological and behavioural adjustments (Lasker, 1969). data data Segmented Bio-cultural Model: This model is commonly followed by biological anthro- pologists in which biological data, such as physiological, genetic, morphological and demo- graphic variables are collected and correlated with socio-cultural or environmental variables. Figure 3 depicts that biological data are the primary focus Socio-cultural of attention in the segmented model. Under this data model, the focus of study is to understand whether biological variables are associated or correlated with either socio-cultural or ecological variables (McElroy, 1990). It can be observed from Fig. 4. Integrated bio-cultural model 46 R. KHONGSDIER This model is easy to teach, a bit harder to make understanding a given characteristic of human a research design, and very difficult to execute in population in a given ecological condition. field research (McElroy, 1990). The main assump- Complex Bio-cultural Models: As hinted tion in this model is that the interplay between earlier, a model serves as a device for under- biological and cultural variables is to be looked standing the interrelationship among various from historical and/or ecological perspective. For aspects of the system. It can also be modified example, the interplay between sickle-cell anemia according to research questions or research and culture in West Africa is linked with design, which may be different according to agriculture and the spread of malaria (Livingstone, different circumstances including operational 1958). It is observed that the spread of sickling difficulties. This holds true with a bio-cultural gene is greatly enhanced by the development of model which tends to become more complex with agriculture. The clearing of forest for cultivation the formulation of new research questions. The provides a breeding ground for mosquito study phenomenon in a bio-cultural model is a (Anopheles gambiae) which is the vector of part of the whole system which is directly or Plasmodium falciparum malaria. It is found that indirectly linked to the survival and well-being of the individuals, who are the carriers (heterozy- human populations. For example, the vicious- gotes) of sickling gene, have a higher immune circle model (Fig. 5) indicates that malnutrition system against malarial infection when compared leads to a decreased working capacity which again with either the normal persons without the gene leads to low productivity, poverty, poor living or with those persons who are homozygous for conditions and ill health or diseases (Pacey and the gene. There is clear evidence that the fre- Payne, 1985). Thus, the vicious-circle model quency of sickling gene is low in hunting and depicts that malnutrition is influenced by socio- gathering populations as compared to those economic condition which is in turn influenced populations which are more dependent on by the former through its effects on body size agriculture. This indicates that the spread of that is correlated with productivity through sickling gene is associated with the spread of physical work capacity. In a developing country, agriculture because the gene provides a superior where it is characterized by minimal mechani- fitness to the heterozygous individuals. This is zation, high levels of physical labour are important known as selective advantage of the hetero- to obtain the basic needs for the survival and zygotes. It provides a good example of the well-being of human populations. Under the interplay between biological and cultural adap- vicious-circle model, it is assumed that a tation of human populations to the environment. deterioration of any character at any point of the The integrated model also provides a circle will affect other aspects of the circle. framework to understand not only how biology However, the assumptions underlying the is interrelated with culture, but also how the latter in terms of behavioural traits is conditioned by biological and environmental conditions. For example, hypervitaminosis A, a condition with an Malnutrition Disease excess of vitamin A due to consumption of the livers and fats of marine and artic animals, is reported to be responsible for the aberrant behaviour known as pibloktoq among Eskimo peoples (Landy, 1985). Such aberrant behaviour Decreased Poor living could also be linked with socio-economic working capacity conditions conditions which may be associated with other biological factors. The integrated model provides a framework for the anthropologists and human biologists to look at the interaction between biology and culture in terms of a sequence of events or variables that are interrelated either directly between culture and biology, or indirectly Low productivity Low income between them through ecological and historical factors. The model offers a holistic approach to Fig. 5. Vicious-circle model of malnutrition BIO-CULTURAL APPROACH 47 productivity, thereby affecting the current Child malnutrition nutritional status of both adults and children. In a more complex model (Fig. 7), environmental quality and market structure can also be consi-
Adult behaviour: dered as important determinants of nutritional Adult body Intelligence, learning, size status (Ferro-Luzzi, 1985). opportunity, etc.
Physical OPERATIONAL ASPECTS work capacity It is clear from the presentation given above that bio-cultural approach is very broad just like Work output: Nutritional intake Productivity holistic approach – the conventional ideal of anthropological study of humankind. We may Fig. 6. Simplified vicious-circle model of agree with Hruschka et al. (2005) that “In most malnutrition cases no single researcher can cover the breadth of knowledge, master the variety of research vicious-circle model can be undermined by other techniques, or collect the diversity of data often variables depending upon the research design of necessary for a bio-cultural project.” However, it a given study. Figure 6 shows a simplified vicious- is also doubtful whether there is such a perfect circle model which explains the interrelationship bio-cultural study from the practical point of view. between malnutrition and other morphological, In addition to the diversity of data required, the functional and behavioural variables (Martorrel interaction between biology and culture is and Arroyave, 1988). The Figure depicts that the dynamic or an on-going process. As shown in effect of malnutrition on working capacity of this presentation, a given bio-cultural model gives adults is through childhood malnutrition. Physical rise to the formulation of other models, depending work capacity is also influenced by behavioural upon research questions or research design. It is factors such as intelligence, learning, motivation, unlikely for any single researcher to carry out an opportunity, etc. Therefore, childhood malnutri- ideal bio-cultural study. It is the cumulative joint tion leads to small adult body size and poor efforts from within and outside the discipline that behavioural condition which jointly affect the approximate the ideal bio-cultural study. Indeed, individual physical capacity that leads to low students should be encouraged to begin by
Training NUTRITIONAL PHYSICAL WORK STATUS CAPACITY Body size Ecological and Biological link Morphological link cultural link (Valid only for moderate and heavy human energy input) MORE & BETTER Control of means POTENTIAL FOR FOOD of production INCOME PRODUCTION
Social and cultural link Labour market Control of finished products Availability Social structure
Advertisement pressure Control of Personal priorities market Cultural awareness prices Incentives
PURCHASE QUALITY/QUANTITY POWER Socio-economic link OF PRODUCTION
Fig.7. Complex vicious-circle model of nutritional risk 48 R. KHONGSDIER formulating anthropological research questions to look more at confounding or mediated socio- that are socially relevant and then select methods cultural factors that shape the apparently and techniques from within and outside the statistical relationship between biological traits discipline appropriate to the task at hand. By or health indicators and such commonly reported- formulating research questions that are socially independent variables that tend to vary across relevant, or related to the survival and well-being cultures, or those constructs that are not defined of human populations, we are not only delimiting clearly. For example, the relationship between the vast area of bio-cultural study but also popu- health and racial groups has been largely reported larizing more and more anthropology. in nutritional, epidemiological and other medical Our capacity for culture, on the one hand, journals, despite evidences that genetic differe- makes us possible to create and manage many nces between races are negligible (Rosenberg et aspects of the biotic and physical environments. al., 2002), and the concept of race in public health That very capacity, on the other hand, creates is of little or no value (AAPA, 1996; AAP, 2000; havocs and challenges to the survival and well- Cooper, 2003; Karter, 2003). More studies are being of the different species including our own needed to deal with the genetic and socio-cultural species. Central to the bio-cultural study is the dimensions of health disparities between specific interaction between biological and cultural populations or ethnic groups. Similarly, only few characteristics of human populations in relation studies have dealt with the cultural dimensions to the biotic and physical environment. Thus, a of socio-economic differences in health or risks bio-cultural approach can be represented diff- of diseases (Dressler et al., 1998; Dressler, 2004), erently by means of either a very simple or and so forth. complex model. In that respect, any study which deals with the relationship/interrelationship CHALLENGING TASKS between biological and socio-cultural charac- teristics may be ascribed to the broad perspective Bio-cultural approach is not without any of bio-cultural approach. However, a bio-cultural problems and challenging tasks. Although it study ought to be designed as a contribution to sounds more appealing, the models given above our understanding of the complex whole of the are easy to teach, but subject to operational diffi- genotype-environment interaction in which culties in field research. Dufour (2006) has culture plays a very important role. Formulating mentioned three types of challenges which of meaningful research questions, as discussed include “(1) defining precisely what we mean by earlier, is very crucial in this respect. For example, constructs like socio-economic status, poverty, how long shall we continue to prove that poor rural, and urban; (2) operationalizing key variables socio-economic status in terms of income and/or so that they can be measured in ways that are educational levels is associated with poor ethnographically valid as well as replicable; (3) nutritional status of populations in developing defining and measuring multiple causal path- countries? We tend to forget that income and/or ways.” For example, poverty is multidimensional; educational levels are the “universal factors” of its definition varies according to psychological, social and economic change (Khongsdier et al., social and economic contexts. The question of 2005). What are the role of other socio-cultural how to define and measure poverty or socio- factors such as beliefs, ideas and behaviours at a economic status in bio-cultural studies still population level that may act as constraints or in remains to be addressed meaningfully and congruence with the so-called universal factors practicably. Biological anthropologists are more in bringing about human biological variation? It familiar with measuring biological variables than is clear that improvement in economic status is socio-cultural variables. They ought to collabo- crucial for improving the growth and nutritional rate more with cultural anthropologists and other status of children in developing countries. social scientists in understanding and measuring Whether or not other socio-cultural factors like the key socio-cultural variables that are likely to exogamy or intermixture between populations influence human biology. More importantly, more could also produce significant changes in the integrated courses at the teaching level should growth and nutritional status of children be introduced to strengthen the holistic nature (Khongsdier and Mukherjee, 2003a, 2003b)? The of the discipline. In addition, the definitions of point is that bio-cultural studies may also need physical and biological environmental variables BIO-CULTURAL APPROACH 49 should also be acceptable to human ecologists, Enough “Popular Eggs” in Our Basket? pp. 1-20. geographers and other environ-mental scientists. In: Discourse on Development: Anthropological Dimensions, Rajat K Das and Abhijit Guha (Eds.). In that regard, the discipline needs to be more Vidyasagar University, Paschim Medinipur, WB trans-disciplinary in nature. Last but not least, (2004). the most challenging task is to understand the Basu, A.: Trends in Biological Anthropology. pp. 81- causal pathways of the complex interaction 100. 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KEYWORDS Bio-cultural Approach. Research Questions. Models
ABSTRACT This paper is concerned with a bio-cultural/bio-social approach to the study of human variability. The basic premise is that the bio-cultural approach is essential for anthropological study of the survival and well-being of human populations in the 21st century. The chapter is delimited to two basic questions: What and why is bio-cultural approach? How is to go about it? Addressing the first question, it is suggested that bio-cultural approaches should be taken as essential not only for bridging the gap between cultural and biological anthropology but also for popularizing anthropology with integrative thinking especially in India. It is also suggested that anthropology in the 21st century needs to formulate and deal more with research questions that are socially relevant. With respect to the second question, an attempt has been made to provide an overview of different bio-cultural models/paradigms, based on series of assumptions and relationships, which can be modified with new research questions relating to human biological variability – the subject matter of anthropological research. In addition, the operational aspects and challenging tasks for bio-cultural studies were briefly highlighted.
Author’s Address: Dr. R. Khongsdier, Professor & Head, Department of Anthropology, North-Eastern Hill University, Permanent Campus, Shillong 793 022, Meghalaya, India E-mail: [email protected]
© Kamla-Raj Enterprises 2007 Anthropology Today: Trends, Scope and Applications Anthropologist Special Volume No. 3: 39-50 (2007) Veena Bhasin & M.K. Bhasin, Guest Editors