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Home , Biological anthropology, Cultural anthropology

Norris Brock Johnson On the Relationship of To Multicultural Teaching and Learning University of Michigan

To be valued &dquo;What is ~it, what does it mean, to be a relationship between anthropology and multicultural and preserved, being?&dquo; &dquo;Why are human beings similar yet so differ- (here, broadly, human teaching and learning) the unique ent ?&dquo; In one fashion or another, most academic disci- is both reciprocal and intimate. Data, concepts, focus, characteristic of plines study human beings and their works. Uniquely, , and basic concerns involve each other. being similar anthropology provides a synthetic viewpoint, a pano- Both in and its sub- yet different anthropology, general, component ramic a of of is the genius perspective, particular way looking at, disciplines, in particular, provide essential contribu- of being human. conceiving and approaching, the condition of being tions to multicultural teaching and learning. human. After the fact of being human, other disciplines study human beings. The anthropological quest is for knowledge and understanding of the condition of being human. Anthropology is the systematic, comparative study of human similarity and difference as it has developed Anthropology’s view suggests that being human and been expressed, throughout corresponding time means satisfying imperatives of and environ- and space, on the planet . Scientifically, anthro- ment primarily through learned (cultural) rather than pology places emphasis upon the generation of testable neurochemical (instinctual) mechanisms. To learn, explanatory statements or , accounting for regu- rather than to involuntarily respond, is to be human; to larities in patterns of human similarity and difference. be human is to learn. Humanistically, anthropology places emphasis upon Cultural anthropology is concerned with the na- the qualities, , and essential meaning of human ex- ture and character of cultural similarity and difference. perience. Serving as a timeless mirror for humankind, For our purposes, is best conceived as the anthropology reflects our gloriously infinite variety and learned, shared, and symbolic patterns of thinking, feel- essential unity. To be valued and preserved, the unique ing, believing, and behaving on which all human characteristic of similar different is the being yet genius beings, as distinct from other animals, rely as their of human. being primary means of survival. A culture is a distinctive Culture is best As homo sapiens, human animals share similar way of interpreting human culture. A uniquely anthro- conceived as the needs, biology, and . The study of anthropology pological concept, culture is fundamental to multi- learned, shared, reveals &dquo;alien&dquo; to be groups of people solving cultural teaching and learning. and symbolic persistent human problems in unique ways. The proper patterns of study of anthropology fosters recognition and accept- thinking, feeling, ance of the essential unity of humankind. As homo believing, and sapiens, human animals share a planet comprised of behaving on which all human beings, radically differing environments. Human appearance differs as an as distinct from (phenotype) primarily adaptative response other animals, rely to environment. Being human is a continually unfolding as their primary drama of reciprocal interaction between biology, en- means of survival. vironment, and culture. The proper study of anthro- pology fosters recognition and tolerance, if not accept- ance, of human difference. The perspective from anthropology provides val- uable insights, , and a unique approach to the more persistent problems of our own time and place. This article illustrates the importance of anthro- pology to the multicultural approach to education. The

Norris Brock Johnson is Adjunct Visiting Assistant Professor of Anthropology at the University of Michigan and Research Associate, Center for New Schools, Chicago, Illinois

10 Cultural study human teaching provides the empirical information for ethnological To &dquo;understand&dquo; a and learning within the context of the cultural meanings analysis. Both and have signifi- culture or given to stages in the human life cycle. is cant implications for a more effective multicultural means to see it as a whole. the lifelong process of teaching and learning a specific teaching and learning. culture. Every culture gives different meaning to birth, childhood, adolescence, adulthood, old age, and even Ethnology death. Further, if culture is learned behavior, then we The of cultures contributes a ought to be aware of the varied peoples, places, situa- comparative study tions, things, and environments that teach culture. At fresh perspective to concepts central to multicultural and the of some point, every human being is both teacher and teaching learning; specifically, concepts cultural and the learner. Potentially, anything one human being cultur- pluralism plural . ally learns can be learned by any other human being. is a concept developed in the How, when, where, and why something is taught or context of European administration of heterogeneous, implies a process which a learned is culturally conditioned. Every culture or sub- complex ; principally, in Burma, Ceylon (Sri through develops culture gives unique emphasis and style to the human Lanka), and the Caribbean. Created through colonial person competence in for and As concerns intervention, societies are characterized requirements teaching learning. plural by several cultures. data on various cultural styles and meanings of teach- heterogeneous populations drawn together for politio- ing and learning, cultural anthropology has much to economic, not cultural, reasons. Plural societies have a share with multicultural education. characteristic intermix of differing &dquo;races&dquo; and cultural Plural societies are characterized In arguing that each culture is but a different way systems. by social, and of being human, cultural anthropology acts to reduce spacial, normative, cultural, institutional stratifica- , cultural chauvinism, and misplaced ethno- tion and isolation. Plural societies do not evolve effort and sociocultural centricism. Anthropological interest in schooling is not through concensus; societies are the of Plural- new. For the last 20 years, cultural anthropologists plural byproduct conquest. ism is colonialistic and Plural societies are have been extensively involved in public school cur- exploitative. riculum development (Dynneson, 1975; Dwyer-Shick, neither integrative, representative, participatory, nor democratic. The of is as much socio- 1976). As the multicultural nature of our society and the concept pluralism and historical as it is cultural. Multiculturalism intercultural nature of our world grows self-evident, political a which a com- cultural anthropology will be necessary to a proper edu- implies process through person develops cation for the future. The study of cultural anthropol- petence in several cultures. Pluralism implies limited cultural interaction and anthro- ogy itself is a multicultural education. sharing. Ethnological pology suggests that education might strive for a multi- cultural rather than pluralistic society and culture. Ethnography and Ethnology Plural societies are characterized by structurally Pluralism implies subordinate subgroups or exhibiting dif- limited cultural is the Ethnographic anthropology descriptive study ferential patterns of access to strategic and culturally interaction and and of human cultures. Ours is a small analysis existing valued resources. As concerns its component sharing. saturated with thousands of cultures; thousands planet subgroups, the plural society assumes a separate-yet- of of human. ways being unequal stance. This notion of subculture undergirds In their research strategies, ethnographers insist the multicultural approach to education. Within the upon the direct observation of human activity; rather , the educational John than laboratory experimentalism, a Ogbu (1974) distinguishes immigrant from subordinate empiricism is stressed (Williams, 1967). Spending a minorities. Characteristically, immigrant minorities, year or more living with the people under study, the such as Italians or Germans, are historically and lin- ethnographer seeks to understand and to describe that guistically part of a continential, European tradition; culture as a total way of life. Traditionally working in vis-a-vis Anglo superordinates, immigrant minorities rather small groups, ethnographers seek to record become &dquo;White&dquo; ethnics. Comparatively, ethnic social salient cultural elements as they relate, each to the status and degree of sociocultural access is based more other, in patterned ways. This comparative method- on culture and history than on &dquo;race.&dquo; Multiethnic ology and wholistic perspective is reflected in every teaching and learning becomes the comparative, socio- anthropological subdiscipline. Comparisons assume the logical study of differing sociohistorical aspects of an interrelatedness of systemic elements not fully defined encompassing European tradition. Such subordinate in isolation. To &dquo;understand&dquo; a culture or subculture minorities as Native and African-Americans are charac- means to see it as a whole. Anthropological com- terized by a comparatively fixed social status, rank, and parisons are made both within and between cultures. degree of sociocultural access as based on culture, When separate studies () are compared, behavior, language, and &dquo;race.&dquo; A multicultural educa- the ethnographer becomes an ethnologist. Ethnology is tion focuses on non-European cultural traditions and the cross-cultural comparative study of cultures. In . Inherently, multicultural teaching and recording varieties of human cultures, ethnography learning is cross-cultural and anthropological.

11 The more Popularly, it is assumed that individuals have only the plural society suggests that multicultural teaching heterogeneous and a single cultural orientation. However, and especially and learning strive toward a sociocultural of bal- complex the culture, within heterogeneous societies, ethnological material anced cultural alternatives. Multiculturalism must the less a suggests that it is possible, if not normal, for individuals allow individuals to optimize and maximize a vast prototypic to participate in and to understand several cultures array of cultural resources. True multiculturalism is the representative of Multicultural is not cultural freedom at in cul- that culture exists. (Goodenough, 1976). competence to, will, participate many assimilation; being multicultural does not require the tures-each having equal access to socially valued and dropping of one’s parent culture. The experience of strategic resources. In and of itself though, multicul- living in a complex, heterogeneous national and inter- turalism cannot solve the structural inequalities of national society assumes multiculturalism. The more pluralism (Lewis, 1976). Only with the sterilization of heterogeneous and complex the culture, the less a proto- racism and will a true multicul- typic representative of that culture exists. tural society emerge. Multiculturalism though, can act Most Americans have overlapping and often com- so as to foster, it not social, then cultural democracy. peting cultural identities and loyalties. Multicultural The ethnological perspective further yields a more teaching and learning must resist the popular tendency inclusive view of the structure of American society and of conceiving cultures and subcultures as pristine enti- culture. For better or worse, anthropology reflects the ties : fixed, unchanging, and archetypic. There is no reality of how we are related, under what circum- &dquo;Indian&dquo; culture; at present, there are only various indi- stances, one to the other ... and why. The United vidual Americans who have Onondaga or Hopi parent States is a swirl of differing cultural histories and tradi- cultural orientations. One is not so much &dquo;Indian&dquo;- tions. There is no one &dquo;model&dquo; American. The United American as Hopi-American. For both the cultural States is dominated by a national Anglo-Saxon-Judaeo- anthropologist and the multicultural teacher, an over- Christian influence we term &dquo;American.&dquo; The country is emphasis on surface custom promotes stereotyping. An institutionally integrated (i.e., compulsory schooling), exclusive focus on &dquo;stoicism&dquo; or powwows or teepees or yet characterized by structural inequality. The ethno- tomahawks tends to freeze individuals into a rigid, logical record is again useful in suggesting that schools, monocultural image-an image that does not change. in part, are institutionalized mechanisms for differen- From both within and without, a Sioux or Ute wanting tially enculturating subgroups into this national culture to become a corporate banker might be accused of &dquo;not (Cohen, 1970). Culturally, schools seek to integrate a being Indian.&dquo; Custom does not equal culture. An over- plural condition by transferring local, subcultural alle- emphasis on custom, especially &dquo;traditional&dquo; custom, gience to national, supralocal allegience. One pledges denys contemporary Americans multicultural compe- allegience to the United States-not to Burton Comers tence. The cultural alternative for which multicultural- or Grandma Agnes. Vis-a-vis &dquo;Chinese,&dquo; &dquo;Russian,&dquo; or ism might strive is the situation where it is culturally &dquo;African&dquo; national societies (themselves complex multi- logical to be both a Sioux and a banker as well as Jewish cultural entities), we are all taught to be &dquo;American.&dquo; and a cowboy. Schools integrate as much as they segregate. At this An ethnological critique of cultural pluralism and level, we all become &dquo;model&dquo; Americans.

12 Ethnography subculture different from their parent culture. The multicultural teacher might strive to entertain first- If the world is multicultural, then ethnographic an- hand knowledge of the people and the culture(s) about thropology is essential to a proper cultural understand- whom she/he will teach primarily. Supported by their of the world. is the sole ing Ethnography anthropology school systems or by federal funds, inservice multicul- infor- discipline possessing descriptive, encompassing tural teachers might spend a summer or two living in mation on and accounts of the total lifeways for nearly various cultural settings. Teachers might also take all the of the Earth. peoples Ethnography provides every advantage to know culturally the communities in multicultural and with teaching learning empirical which they teach. Through exchange programs, multi- information and materials on thousands of cul- literally cultural students might be encouraged to spend a period tures and subcultures. The ethnographer is a cultural of time living in the teacher’s subculture. Ethnography act cultural fos- historian. The basic of recording ways demands cultural involvement. Developed skills in cul- silizes human alternatives for future generations. tural analysis makes possible the identification and data is a resource for multicultural Ethnographic prime understanding of significant cultural influences on and teaching learning. specific classroom behaviors. As concerns the relative In several to be a multicultural respects, learning influence of , peers, and community, the cultural teacher is similar to to (or learner) quite learning learner establishes a wholistic, comparative perspective become an ethnographer. As concerns preservice multi- from which to apprehend the cultural interpretations cultural teacher training, the applied study of ethno- given to teaching and learning (Eddy, 1968). Utilization is of decided benefit graphic methodology of ethnographic research techniques teaches one how to (Bohannan, 1968). Ethnographers illustrate how to go learn another culture (Lundstrum, 1968). about another culture (Burnett, 1974). To learning Recently, educational anthropologists have given ’learn&dquo; a culture means to internalize often unstated significant attention to the ethnographic study of and rules for to assumptions appropriate behavior; schools and schooling (Johnson, 1976). In alliance with &dquo;learn&dquo; a culture is to interpret and predict the behavior multicultural teachers, ethnographers can indicate the of others as well as to The eth- appropriately respond. manner in which schools function to transmit, or not nographer is a professional cultural learner. As the eth- transmit, local cultural patterns. Ethnographers can nographer spends an extended period of time living the suggest practical ways to reduce the &dquo;clash of cultures&dquo; culture she/he seeks to so too must the understand, in the multicultural classroom (Clark, 1963). Introduc- multicultural teacher and learner. It should not be tory, general anthropology ought to be a multicultural to base cultural on several enough knowledge history, teacher education and inservice requirement. At the ethnic, or literature courses. Preservice multicultural University of Michigan, I introduced a cross-listed teachers ought to be encouraged and supported to course in Anthropology and Education. Centering on their in a culture or spend practice-teaching year living the ethnographic study of cross-cultural teaching and learning, the course gave preservice teachers a more inclusive perspective on which to base a conception and practice of education. The aim here is not to transform educators into ethnographers, but to engender a more effective multicultural teaching and learning. To this end, the multicultural teacher or learner must not just &dquo;do&dquo; multiculturalism; one must practice being multi- cultural.

Preservice multicultural teachers ought to be encouraged and supported to spend a year living in a culture or subculture different than their parent culture They should strive to gain first-hand knowledge of the people and cultures about whom they will teach primarily. Northern Illinois University photo by Barry Stark.

13 archeological anthropologist is concerned with recon- structing a knowledge of extinct human cultures, settle- Linguistic anthropology considers the origin, struc- ment patterns, and activity through the systematic ture, function, and significance of human symbolic study of material artifacts and remains (Thomas, 1974). communication. Language is the prime characteristic of Archeology extends out the time and space frame form- being human. Symbolic communication is the means ing the unique perspective of anthropology; archeology through which we learn to be human (socialization) as contributes a knowledge of and respect for broad cul- well as learn to be Hopi or German or Chicano (encul- tural patterns and processes of change and develop- turation). Anthropological linguists search for the un- ment. Archeological materials illustrate the cultural derlying universals in all languages as well as the more evolutionary sequences bringing about the origin and culture-specific variations of human communication. development of agriculture, towns, , states, and Anthropological linguists want to know how language complex . is related to and expresses human similarity and differ- Archeological materials validate claims concerning ence. all are of As human communication, languages the multicultural reality of ; they can be equal value and should be respected as such. employed to depict the comparative contributions of Attention to relevant data from anthropological various New World cultures to the development of provides multicultural teachers with a clearer North America in general and to the United States in of the of to culture. conception relationship language particular. Archeology permits the placement of con- For each culture or is the mech- subculture, language temporary cultures within a wider spaciotemporal anism which the world is ordered and invested through framework. Again, it can be seen that there is no one with contains information as to the meaning. Language &dquo;model&dquo; America or American. Archeological anthro- meaning of -to the meaning of pology provides the multicultural teacher and learner cultural styles of teaching and learning. It is impossible with tangible proof of multicultural contributions to the to understand another culture without understanding making of present-day America. As they can be seen their language. To participate in various cultures is, in and touched, archeological materials lend substance to to do so is a part, through language. Multilingualism the teacher’s words. To hold in your hand a 900 year reflex of multiculturalism. old potsherd is to realize the persistent reality of the For many school districts, the establishment of past. Contemporary Chicano students might be ap- bilingual programs is federally mandated. For both prised of the historic development and character of the teachers and learners, bilingualism is essential to multi- Aztec and Toltec states in . Contempo- and interaction. rary Native Americans might be apprised of the relative No one person, Of course, multicultural students should be taught importance of the Hohakam, Anasazi, and Hopewell &dquo;American&dquo; or to value their parent language as a unique mode of in- cultures of a thousand years ago to the present charac- otherwise, is a terpreting the world (Labov, 1970). Anthropological ter of America. As a counter to the prevalent dynamic &dquo;model&dquo; or &dquo;average&dquo; linguists suggest that plural societies often employ lan- of racism, Anglo students could be further sensitized to of representative guage as the basis for ranking and stratifying sub- the high-order cultural contributions of other Ameri- their culture. groups. Attention to linguistics, especially anthropo- cans (Citron, 1972). In fact as well as word, arche- logical linguistics, leads one to consider the of ological anthropology suggests that there is indeed no language in culture; in context. Quite importantly, mul- one &dquo;model&dquo; American. ticultural teachers should insist upon both multicul- turalism and bilingualism. It is imperative especially command stan- that subordinate minorities have the of dard English to allow them access to wide cultural par- ticipation. For Anglo students also, bilingualism under- Human beings are biological as well as cultural cuts the cultural isolation characteristic of segregated, animals. Biological anthropology is concerned with plural societies. As with in general, the documenting and understanding the physical nature stress here should be on predicting behavior and and over four million year development of human responding appropriately-not on &dquo;going native&dquo; or beings as homo sapiens; of human beings as an animal dropping one’s parent culture. In studying U.S. subcul- species among other animal species (Campbell, 1976). tures anthropological linguists provide the multicul- Biological seek the genetic causes of tural teacher with direct multicultural and use anthropologists bilingual human and difference. data. similarity An anthropological conception of &dquo;race&dquo; and racism is crucial to multicultural teaching and learning. Biological anthropology suggests that there is no such Archeological Anthropology thing as &dquo;race.&dquo; Phenotypic variation in skin coloring or hair texture varies with respect to environment, geo- As a counterpoint to the ethnographic mission of graphic history, and more recently, with politics. describing and recording existing human cultures, the Again, subgroups in plural societies are often politically

14 stratified by &dquo;race.&dquo; The social conception of &dquo;race&dquo; allows one social segment to dominate other segments. Biologically, the only &dquo;race&dquo; is the human race. &dquo;Races&dquo; are merely intraspecies genetic breeding pools. In terms of being human, &dquo;race&dquo; (phenotypic variation) is of little consequence. Both morphological and phenotypic variations between individuals (say, you or your brother) are vastly greater than morphological or phenotypic differences between populations. As is References popularly thought, phenotypic variation is not due to the differential presence or absence of particular genes; Dwyer-Schick, Susan. The Study and Teaching of Anthro- all human beings have 46 chromosomes. No human pology: An Annotated Bibliography. Athens: Anthropol- being is &dquo;subhuman.&dquo; Human variation is due both to ogy Curriculum Project, publication #76-1. University of natural and cultural selection for particular combina- Georgia, 1976. Thomas. tions of Human variation marks Dynneson, Pre-Collegiate Anthropology: Trends genes. merely varying and Materials. Athens: Curriculum of combinations Anthropology Project, frequencies gene among dispersed publication #75-1. University of Georgia, 1975. populations. Williams, Thomas Rhys. Field Methods in the Study of Cul- For our species, population variation has adapta- ture. : Holt, Rinehart, and Winston,1967. tive consequences. Biologically and culturally, it is Ogbu, John. The Next Generation: An Ethnography of quite dangerous to try to make all peoples alike. Ge- Education in an Urban Neighborhood. New York: Aca- demic Press, 1974. netic variation, and the potential for variation, allows Goodenough, Ward. "Multiculturalism as the Normal our to to environments. species adapt widely differing Human Experience." Anthropology and Education Quar- A radical in one environment will not affect the change terly 7, no. 4 (1976): 4-6. survival of the species. Biologically and culturally, Lewis, Diane K. "The Multicultural Education Model and human variability should be desired and valued as it Minorities: Some Reservations." Anthropology and Educa- broadens the &dquo;pool&dquo; from which to as yet tion Quarterly 7, no. 4 (1976): 32-37. unforseen future environments will be made. Both bio- Cohen, Yehudi. "Schools and Civilizational States." In The logically and culturally, it is quite important that multi- Social Sciences and the Comparative Study of Educational Systems, ed. Fischer. Scranton: International cultural teachers and learners understand and by Joseph appreci- Textbook Company, 1970, pp. 55-147. similar ate how and why people are, at once, yet Bohannan, Paul J. "Field Anthropologists and Classroom different. Teachers." Social Education 32, no. 2 (1968):161-66. Racism is the institutionalized that pheno- Burnett, Jacquetta Hill. 1974. "On the Analog Between Cul- typic characteristics determine cultural characteristics ture Acquisition and Ethnographic Method." Council on Anthropology and Education Quarterly 5(l): 25-29. and behavior. Popular conceptions of &dquo;race&dquo; are based Eddy, Elizabeth M. "Anthropology and Teacher Educa- on sociocultural, economic, and exigencies political tion." 27, no. 1 (1958): 17-20. rather than on scientific fact; one should dis- always Lundstrum, John P. "Anthropology: Preservice Teacher from scientific criteria for the of tinguish popular study Education and Certification." Social Education 32, no. 2 human variation (Marshall, 1968). Biology and culture (1968): 135-41. are distinct, though related, mechanisms; the way a Johnson, Norris Brock. An Ethnographic and Longitudinal person looks does not determine their culture! Much of Methodology for the Description and lllustration of the history of biological anthropology reflects the Schooling as Cultural Transmission. Unpublished Ph.D dis- sertation, Department of Anthropology, University of effort to the causes of continuing clarify scientifically Michigan. Ann Arbor: University Microfilms, 1976. human variation. An consideration of certain abiding Clark, Kenneth B. 1963. "Clash of Cultures in the Class- principles and data better enables multicultural teachers room." Integrated Education 1(4): 7-14. and learners to resist artificial arguments concerning Labov, William. The Study of Nonstandard English. I.Q., &dquo;race,&dquo; and intelligence. Through the celebration Champaign: National Council of Teachers of English, 1970. of human diversity, both anthropology and multicul- Thomas, David Hurst. Predicting the Past: An Introduction to New York: Rine- tural education demonstrate a deep commitment to the Anthropological Archeology. Holt, and continuing struggle against racism and cultural hart, Winston, 1974. imperialism. Citron, Abraham. "White Students and the Multiethnic Curriculum." In Proceedings of a Conference on Multi- ethnic Curriculum and the Changing Role of the Teacher, ed. by Charles D. Moody, et al. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan School of Education, Program for Educational Opportunity, 1972. Campbell, Bernard. Humankind Emerging. Boston: Little, Brown, and Company, 1976. Marshall, Gloria (Niara Sudarkasa). "Racial Classification: Popular and Scientific." In Science and the Concept of Race, ed. by , et al. New York: Press, 1968, pp 147-64.

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