A Writer Who Wants to Persuade Or Influence His Audience Can Use a Variety of Methods to Create Rhetorical Appeals
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Appeals Through Syntax Skill Focus Levels of Thinking Remember Understand Apply Analyze Evaluate Create Close Reading Grammar Composition Reading Strategies Sentences Determining Audience Structure Determining Author’s Purpose antithetical Literary Elements balanced Detail loose/cumulative Diction periodic connotation Syntax Techniques denotation Antithesis Imagery Juxtaposition Literary Techniques Omission Argumentation asyndeton emotional appeals ellipsis ethical appeals Parallelism logical appeals Polysyndeton Literary Forms Repetition Nonfiction anadiplosis anaphora epanalepsis epistrophe Reversal antimetabole inverted order (inversion) Rhetorical Fragment Rhetorical Question Analysis of a Text Meaning and Effect related to parts of speech, phrases, clauses, sentences, and syntax Rhetorical Analysis Focused on Syntax Materials and Resources • Excerpts from speeches by George W. Bush, Maya Angelou, and Albert Gore, Jr. Lesson Introduction/Overview This lesson uses the same speech excerpts used in the “Understanding the Appeals” training. The focus in that lesson was the use of diction and imagery to create appeals in the speeches. This lesson continues that focus but concentrates on how syntax supports rhetorical appeals. Complete speeches are available at http://www.americanrhetoric.com/top100speechesall.html. Definitions and Examples: “Syntactical Terms” handout from “Syntax and Persuasion” lesson Copyright © 2010 Laying the Foundation®, Inc., Dallas, TX. All rights reserved. Visit: www.layingthefoundation.org Appeals through Syntax Middle School Lesson A writer who wants to persuade or influence his audience can use a variety of methods to create rhetorical appeals. One of the methods used to bolster pathos, ethos, and logos is the clever use of syntax, or sentence structure. The following activities will help you notice how syntax strengthens the appeals in an argument. Activity One: Read the excerpt carefully, paying attention to the structure of the sentences. Then answer the questions. You may refer to the “Syntactical Terms” handout as a guide. Address to a Joint Session of Congress Following 9/11 Attacks by former President George W. Bush In the normal course of events, Presidents come to this chamber to report on the state of the Union. Tonight, no such report is needed. It has already been delivered by the American people. 1) We have seen it in the courage of passengers, who rushed terrorists to save others on the ground—passengers like an exceptional man named Todd Beamer. 2) And would you please help me to welcome his wife, Lisa Beamer, here tonight. 3) We have seen the state of our Union in the endurance of rescuers, working past exhaustion. 4) We’ve seen the unfurling of flags, the lighting of candles, the giving of blood, the saying of prayers—in English, Hebrew, and Arabic. 5) We have seen the decency of a loving and giving people who have made the grief of strangers their own. 6) My fellow citizens, for the last nine days, the entire world has seen for itself the state of our Union—and it is strong. Activity One 1. To whom is the president speaking? 2. What is the first word of Sentences 1, 3, 4, and 5? 3. How does the use of the first person plural pronoun at the beginning of each of these sentences create a feeling of community? Using the pronoun reinforces the idea that we, the American people, are all ______________________________________. This makes the audience feel ________________________________________________________________. The technique of beginning sentences, clauses, or phrases with the same word(s) is called anaphora. Speech by President George W. Bush. Reprinted from http://americanrhetoric.com/speechbank.htm Copyright © 2010 Laying the Foundation®, Inc., Dallas, TX. All rights reserved. Visit: www.layingthefoundation.org Student Activity—Appeals through Syntax Middle School 4. Highlight Sentence 2. How does the structure of this sentence differ from that of the other sentences in the paragraph? a. Does the use of this differently-structured sentence in the midst of several sentences with the same structure strengthen the appeal of the paragraph, or does it weaken it? b. Explain. 5. Sentence 4 lists several images. a. Which image(s) appeal(s) to patriotism? b. Which one(s) appeal(s) to spiritual feelings? c. Which one(s) appeal to feelings of charity, or altruism? 6. Sentence 4 also contains a syntactical device called asyndeton; the images are listed with no conjunctions. a. Rewrite this sentence in the usual way, as a list with a conjunction before the last image (“the saying of prayers”). b. Is your rewritten sentence more or less effective than the original sentence? Why? Copyright © 2010 Laying the Foundation®, Inc., Dallas, TX. All rights reserved. Visit: www.layingthefoundation.org Student Activity—Appeals through Syntax Middle School A loose or cumulative sentence is one in which the main or independent clause comes first, followed by further dependent clauses, phrases, or words. A cumulative sentence makes sense even if you don’t read the sentence to the end. A periodic sentence has its main clause at the end of the sentence with additional clauses, phrases, or words coming first. A periodic sentence does not make sense until the end. 7. Look back at Sentences 1–5. Are the sentences cumulative or periodic? 8. What effect does this sentence structure have on the persuasiveness of the speech? Copyright © 2010 Laying the Foundation®, Inc., Dallas, TX. All rights reserved. Visit: www.layingthefoundation.org Student Activity—Appeals through Syntax Middle School Activity Two: Read the excerpt from poet Maya Angelou’s remarks at Coretta Scott King’s funeral in February 2006. Then look at the chart below. Column 1 identifies the number of the sentence, and column 2 identifies a syntactical structure found in that sentence. Column 3 provides an example of that structure from the sentence, and column 4 explains how that structure creates ethical appeal. Complete the blank parts of the chart. Remarks by Maya Angelou at the Funeral Service for Coretta Scott King, February 2006 1) I speak as a—a sister of a sister. Dr. Martin Luther King was assassinated on my birthday. 2) And for over 30 years, Coretta Scott King and I have telephoned, or sent cards to each other, or flowers to each other, or met each other somewhere in the world . 3) I stand here today for her family—which is my family—and for my family and all the other families in the world who would want to be here, but could not be here. 4) I have beside me up here millions of people who are living and standing straight and erect, and knowing something about dignity without being cold and aloof, knowing something about being contained without being unapproachable . Sentence Structure Where is it demonstrated Effect on ethos # in the sentence? 1 Repetition “sister” and “sister” The repetition of “sister,” at the beginning of the phrase and at the end creates a complete “circle,” where Angelou and King are the parts, connected and the same, making Angelou’s words more powerful because she speaks for both herself and her “sister.” 2 Polysyndeton “or…or… or” The relationship between Angelou (repeated use of and King has grown through repeated and varied connections between the conjunctions) two women. 3. Parallelism 4. Repetition 5. Repetition and parallelism Remarks by Maya Angelou at the Funeral Service for Coretta Scott King, February 2006. Copyright © 2006 by Maya Angelou. Permission by The Helen Brann Agency, Inc. Copyright © 2010 Laying the Foundation®, Inc., Dallas, TX. All rights reserved. Visit: www.layingthefoundation.org Student Activity—Appeals through Syntax Middle School Activity Three: Read the excerpt from the Nobel Peace Prize acceptance speech given by Albert Gore, Jr., in December 2007. Then answer the questions that follow. Nobel Peace Prize Lecture By Albert A. Gore, Jr. Former Vice-President Al Gore will not grant permission to post this speech on the LTF website. The full text of the speech can be found at http://www.commondreams.org/archive/2007/12/10/5743 1. Highlight the subject and verb near the beginning of Sentences 1 and 2. Gore placed the main clauses (“we dumped” and “we will dump”) before the other phrases and clauses in these sentences. This structure makes these sentences __________________________. (cumulative/periodic) Saying “we dumped” and “we will dump” early in the sentences emphasizes that we are the ones who are ______________________ for/of polluting our planet. After this (adjective) claim, Gore provides details of what and how much we dump, letting these facts accumulate into a shocking accusation that we can not ignore. 2. Now look at Sentence 3. What is the most important information in this sentence? ___________________________________________________________________ The placement of this clause at the end of the sentence makes it a___________________ (cumulative/periodic) sentence. Explain how placing the dramatic information at the end (rather than the beginning) of the sentence creates more of an impact on the listener/reader: 3. Look at Sentences 4 and 5. What word is repeated in the first three words of each sentence? Al Gore, Nobel Acceptance Speech. 10 December 2007 at the Oslo City Hall, Norway. Copyright © 2010 Laying the Foundation®, Inc., Dallas, TX. All rights reserved. Visit: www.layingthefoundation.org Student Activity—Appeals through Syntax Middle School 4. How does this repetition reinforce the logos (logical appeal) of the speech? 5. Look at Sentence 8. “But unlike most other forms of pollution, CO2 is invisible, tasteless, and odorless—which has helped keep the truth about what it is doing to our climate out of sight and out of mind.” If the speaker had used polysyndeton in that sentence, it would read: “But unlike most other forms of pollution, CO2 is invisible and tasteless and odorless…” How does polysyndeton change the effect of the sentence? If the speaker had used asyndeton, it would read: “But unlike most other forms of pollution, CO2 is invisible, tasteless, odorless.