CHAPTER THREE: SHIP’S HISTORIES FOR THE SUNKEN VESSELS

James P. Delgado

Twenty-one target vessels and small craft sank flight deck, which as built was 874 feet long at Bikini as a result of . (later extended to 888 feet) and overhung the The characteristics, histories, and Crossroads hull forward and aft. “Above the water line role of each vessel sunk at Bikini, as well as the hull shape was determined by the Prinz Eugen, are discussed here. requirements for as wide a flying deck as possible. This has given a very pronounced flare both forward and aft.’” From keel to USS SARA TOGA (CV-3) flight deck, the depth of the hull was 74-1/2 feet. The hangar deck below was built to Characteristics accommodate 90 aircraft maximum, Saratoga usually carried 81 to 83 planes. Saratoga’s USS Saratoga (CV-3) was a steel-hulled vessel maximum beam was 105-1/2 feet, with a mean with a waterline length of 830 feet. The draft of 31 feet. Saratoga “officially” displaced hull of Saratoga was wedded to the 33,000 standard tons in compliance with the

43 Naval Treaty. The vessel actually mounted 5-inch/38 caliber guns in four houses; displaced (full combat load) 43,500 tons--later single 5-inch guns of the same caliber were alluded to by “official” tonnage upgrades to added to the sponsons, replacing the original 36,000, later increased to 40,000, tons. The 5-inch/25 caliber weapons. Thirty 20mm ship’s trial displacement was 38,957 tons.2 Oerlikon antiaircraft guns were added, and four Saratoga’s characteristics as an quad 40mm Bofors guns were installed. were influenced by the ship’s original design as a cruiser. Partially completed as when Torpedoed in August 1942, Saratoga after the order was given to convert Saratoga and its repairs was again modified; the L1-inch guns sister Lexington to carriers, they could not be were removed and replaced with 40mm Bofors, economically torn apart and rebuilt. “The making nine such mounts, and twenty-two principal dimensions of the hull, the primary additional 20mm guns were installed, making 52 features of protection against gunfire and of these single-barrel weapons on board. In underwater explosion, and the design of the another refit in December 1943, Saratoga propelling machinery were thus determined received 16 more Bofors mounts; two in new before the plans for conversion to airplane portside sponsons abeam the island, seven in carriers was undertaken. This situation.,. forced the boat recesses to port, two in the boat the acceptance of elements which in a new recess to starboard, three outboard of the flight design might have been changed, The deck off the island, and two in the bow development of the machinery and ammunition machine gun galleries.e Other modifications handling spaces was practically complete, and included reducing the island structure, cutting the airplane carrier development took place it down to an open bridge for air operations, almost entirely above the protective deck.”s with the original flag plot one deck below, followed by the pilothouse and navigating The hull was modified for the first time in bridge, conning tower, and at flight deck level, 1942; a blister was added to the the meteorological platform and air intelligence starboard side, increasing the beam to 108 feet office. The original tripod foremast was and fixing a list caused by the heavy island, replaced by a pole mast mounting SK radar. guns, and funnel on that side. Saratoga’s four In the summer of 1944, Saratoga received an shafts were driven by a GE turbo-electric drive, SM fighter-director set of radar on the forward Eight engines, two on each shaft, produced end of the funnel, and a pair of H Mk II 180,000 shaft horsepower at 32.25 knots. hydraulic catapults were installed forward on Saratoga delivered 32.28 knots on its initial the flight deck (previously the ship had a single trials and 34.99 knots on its final trials. Steam hydraulic catapult). Other modifications was produced by 16 White-Foster oil-burning included the installation of a portside torpedo boilers. The uptakes were swept together into blister.’ a single, flat-sided, 105-foot long, 80-foot tall (later cut down some 15 feet) funnel abaft the Saratoga was heavily damaged off Iwo Jima by island. The flight deck, 47 feet above the Japanese bomb hits on February 21, 1945, waterline, was covered with wood planking, which holed the flight deck and the starboard caulked and painted,4 hull near the bow, starting fires on the hangar deck. Repairs at Puget Sound hastily patched Saratoga’s main gun armament consisted of twin the hull and deck, removed the after elevator, 8-inch/55 caliber guns in four gun houses, with fitted a new 44-foot square elevator forward, an antiaircraft array of twelve 5-inch/25 caliber and filled the aft end of the hangar deck with guns and eight .50 caliber machine guns; the two decks of berths, Saratoga was again latter were later replaced with quad-mount modified for Operation Crossroads. Nearly l.1-inch machine guns. 5 In January-April 1942, two-thirds of the ship’s armament was stripped, following the carrier’s return to the Puget including two of the houses with the twin Sound Navy Yard after being torpedoed, 5-inch guns. Other fixtures, including Saratoga underwent its first major wartime refit, compasses and the ship’s bell (now at the The 8-inch guns were replaced by twin Washington Navy Yard), were taken off, and

44 This arms race, as well as growing interest in naval aviation, conspired to redesign Saratoga before its launch. Despite Congressional insistence that all new ship construction focus on capital ships, the U.S. Navy received funds to convert the collier Jupiter (AC-3) into an aircraft carrier. Conversion of the hybrid ship at Norfolk Navy Yard took two years before USS Langley (CV-1) emerged as the U.S. Navy’s first aircraft carrier on March 22, 1922. By that time, however, plans were already being considered for the conversion of the cruisers Lexington and Saratoga into fully functional fleet carriers.

The post-war naval arms race led to several conferences, conventions, and treaties. The Washington Naval Conference of 1921-1922 led to international agreement to limit the numbers, sizes, and armament of naval vessels. Under the treaty, many of the battleships and cruisers then under construction could either be scrapped or converted to aircraft carriers. Anticipating the order to scrap the six Lexington class cruisers, the Navy prepared Bow view of Saratoga at Puget Sound Navy Yard plans to convert one of the cruisers into a Bremerton, Wmhinzton, Sevtember 1944. (VX. carrier. When the conference agreed to Naval Inshtute) - - - scrapping the cruisers, the U.S. converted two ships, Lexington and Saratoga, into aircraft aircraft, vehicles, and radar were mounted on carriers. The incomplete hulls of the two the ship. Blast gauge towers and other cruisers were redesignated cV-2 and CV-3 on instruments were mounted on Saratoga. July 1, 1922, the day Congress approved their Loaded with 700 gallons of fuel oil, 15 tons of conversion. followed suit, converting the diesel, and two-thirds of its ammunition, battle cruiser Aka#” and the battleship Kaga Saratoga was sent to the bottom in a into fleet carriers .’” At that time, work on near-combat-ready state.8 Saratoga had progressed to the point where the cruiser hull had received its armored barbettes lZiS@2f and decks were being laid. All of this work had to be torn out to reconstruct Saratoga as The aircraft carrier Saratoga was originally a carrier. planned as (CC-3), the second cruiser of a six-vessel Lexington class authorized and Under provision of the Washington Naval appropriated for on August 29, 1916, as part of treaty, carrier conversions were limited to a three-year program of naval construction.g 33,000 tons maximum standard displacement, Laid down on September 25, 1920, at the and no more than ten low-angle guns with a Camden, New Jersey, yard of the New York maximum caliber of eight inches. Both the Shipbuilding Company, Saratoga was completed and Japan interpreted a clause in as a result of a post-WWI naval arms race with the Treaty to permit adding 3,oOO tons of Britain, Japan, France, and Italy in which antiaircraft and torpedo defenses to capital construction efforts focused on capital ships, to apply to their carrier conversions. ships--namely battleships and battle cruisers. As a result, while listed “officially” at 33,OOO

45 tons, Lexington and Saratoga carried in and of a cruiser. We will have excess of the treaty limit, even after sacrificing twelve carriers that need cruiser some of their cruiser armor. Saratoga was the protection and that cannot be sent out first launched, slidlng down the ways into the on independent missions unless they have Delaware River on April 7, 1925. The first of cruiser protection, I feel that we have the two Lexitigton-class carriers, Saratoga’s two carriers, the Lexington and Saratoga launch was the heaviest warship launch on that can be sent out on independent record and in the top dozen heaviest launches missions and if they lose their cruiser for merchant and naval vessels up to that protection they can still protect time 11 The launching program noted that “the themselves with their aircraft and new Saratoga, aircraft carrier, when completed armament. Therefore we feel we should and commissioned... will be the largest and look into that field for future fastest craft of its kind in the world.”12 Fitting carriers,...ie out Saratoga took two years; the carrier was commissioned on November 16, 1927, at the However, the Lexington-class carriers had one Navy Yard. Departing major design flaw--the inclusion of their four Philadelphia on a shakedown cruise on January twin 8-inch gun mounts, which could only be 6, 1928, Saratoga’s first aircraft landed on fired in starboard broadsides. The 8-inch guns, board on January 11.13 intended to battle a surface enemy, were also out of place on a carrier. This was corrected The Navy considered Saratoga and Lexington as after the outbreak of war, when the 8-inch major successes. The most powerful carriers in guns were replaced with 5-inch/38 caliber guns, the U.S. fleet, as well as their first fleet “the correct weapon against the carrier’s true carriers, the two ships were, according to foe: enemy carrier aircraft.”17 Despite Captain historian Norman Friedman, Mitscher’s sentiments, “Lexington and Saratoga were never envisaged as prototypes for a as remarkable in their way as the first heavyweight carrier fleet. They remained British Dreadnought battleship launched one-offs, a unique double product of the only 25 years before, outclassing every Washington Treaty....’”* other carrier in existence. Saratoga and Lexington were faster than their Japanese Saratoga’s prewar career was spent engaged in rivals, they could operate more aircraft, fleet training exercises that defined a strong and their design was so sound that they role for aircraft carriers in naval warfare. This went to war . ..without major included “attacks” on the Panama Canal and reconstruction since their completion.14 Pearl Harbor, usually operating in tandem with Lexington, then in later years with the carriers Just prior to its launching, Saratoga was hailed that followed these pioneers. Based out of San by the Philadelphia Evening Star because “there Pedro or , Saratoga operated in is no counterpart for this first American annual fleet “problem” exercises. According to first-line carrier in any other navy ....”15 Naval the ship’s official Navy history, “in the fleet officers appreciated the vessels. Capt. Marc problems, Saratoga continued to assist in the Mitscher, naval aviation pioneer, captain of development of fast carrier tactics, and her USS Hornet (CV-8), the carrier that launched importance was recognized by the fact that she Col. “Jimmy” Doolittle’s strike at Japan, later was always a high priority target for the commander of the fast carrier task , and, opposing .”le incidently, the first man to land a plane aboard I I Saratoga, testified in 1940 that According to Friedman, “it was with Lexington

I and Saratoga--the matched giants, the biggest we have always felt, a good many of us, carriers in the world--that the U.S. Navy that the Lexington and Saratoga were the learned the rudiments of carrier task force best ships we have ever built for all operations between 1927 and 1941.”2° Fleet purpose ships, carrying the protection

46 W. F. “Bull” Halsey noted in his 1947 Pacific.22 During WWII, Saratoga participated autobiography in several campaigns. Saratoga was involved in the aborted effort to relieve the beleaguered the Sara is a queen and that is why she Marine garrison of , and opened will always have a secure place in my the American attack on . Saratoga heart. First, I loved her as a home; I pounded Japanese bases in the Gilbert and commanded her for two years and flew , providing support for the my rear admiral’s flag on her for two landings at Tarawa and flying combat air more, which means that I lived on board patrols over Eniwetok and Wotje, Saratoga’s her longer than I ever lived anywhere aircraft struck the heavily defended Japanese else. Second, 1 loved her as a ship; she port of Rabaul and airfields at Buka, helped me make my debut in the carrier neutralizing effective Japanese counterstrikes at Navy, and she initiated me into the Bougainvillea in “perhaps her most brilliant marvels of fleet aviation.21 strike of the war,” according to the Navy.2a Admiral Halsey, going aboard the carrier at When the United States Pacific Fleet was Espiritu, Sante, praised Saratoga: “Your strike,” attacked at Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, he stated, “was another shot heard round the Saratoga was in California, entering San Diego world... the Saratoga, when given the chance, harbor after an overhaul at the Puget Sound can be deadly.”24 Operating with a British Navy Yard at Bremerton, Washhgton. Within carrier and a French battleship, Saratoga struck 24 hours, the carrier was on its way into the Japanese-occupied Sumatra and Java, damaging

47 port and oil production facilities. In another At the war’s end Saratoga was steaming toward important wartime assignment, the carrier spent Japan to strike the home islands. Sent to the several months training fliers to operate at West Coast for decommissioning, Saratoga was night. Saratoga then participated in night instead ordered to “Magic Carpet” service in strikes against the Japanese home islands as November 1945. Saratoga ferried naval diversionary aids during the Iwo Jima veterans back to the United States as part of operation, also flying patrols over Chichi Operation “Magic Carpet.” Within 28 hours Jima.25 Considered a “lucky” vessel by its crew “after her last plane was launched Sara was en despite two torpedoing, Saratoga was hit hard route from Pearl Harbor to Alameda, off Iwo Jima when five struck the California, with 3,800 grinning, happy, overseas ship on l?ebruary 21, 1945, killing 123 men, warriors. Her hangar deck had been made wounding another 192, and tearing a huge hole into the world’s largest dormitory with endless in the ship’s side, In June 1945, the Navy rows of 4-tiered bunks for passengers. announced the damage to the by then repaired Recreation facilities replaced planes on her carrier: flight deck.”27 By the end of “Magic Carpet,” Saratoga had carried 29,204 veterans home, Fires broke out and burning planes and more than any other vessel. By the end of its fuel scattered over great areas of the career, Saratoga also held the record for the ship. The forward part of the flight greatest number of aircraft landed on a carrier, deck was battered beyond use, One with a lifetime total of 98,549 landings in 17 enemy suicider penetrated the side of years~8 On January 22, 1946, Saratoga was the ship into the hangar deck where he attached to Task Unit 1,2.2, the aircraft carrier exploded to cause a great fire. The unit of the target ship task group being crane forward of the bridge, the assembled by Joint Task Force One for catapults and many guns were battered Operation Crossroads. Designated as a by the crashing planes and exploding replacement for the carrier Ranger (CV-4) bombsY8 which had originally been designated as a

‘i scores who wanted to save her--and now; the bow is high in the air.” She perhaps she might have been saved, had died like a queen--proudly. The bow there been a crew aboard. But she died slowly reared high; the stern sank deep, a lonely death, with no man upon the and, as if striving for immortality, the decks once teeming with life, with pumps Sara lifted her white numeral “3’’...high idle and boilers dead .... From three into the sun before her bow slipped o’clock on she sank fast, her slowly under. Her last minutes were gone, as the fleet kept the death watch slow and tortured; she fought and would for a “fighting lady. ” The...Sara not sink, but slowly the “3” was engulfed settled--the air soughing from her by the reaching waters ....the tip of her compartments like the breath from mast was the last bit of the Sara seen by exhausted lungs. At 3:45 p.m. the man,,..34 starboard afte rcorner of her fli~ht deck was awash; then the loud speakers The carrier was decommissioned on August 15, blared: “The water is up to her island 1946, and stricken from the Navy Register.35

51 test, Saratoga was lightly damaged, with a fire 011 deck that was extinguished.31 Initial array

Point Naval Slipyard in .28 A January 25, 1946, news release showed the 300-yard radius of the deton~tion point. “gallant carrier” in dock as two 5-inch gun Because this position was deemed likely to sink houses and the majority of the lighter the carrier so quickly that “no photographs antiaircraft weapons were stripped from the could be made of the behavior of her flight ship. Sent to Pearl Harbor “after stripping” deck under the severe hull and wave and reduction of personnel on April 30, 1946, action expected,” Saratoga was changed to a Saratoga arrived there on May 7, From there, 500-yard distant mooring, within the 500- to the carrier was ordered to proceed to Bikini 700-yard “lethal radius” of the blast. Because Atoll, steaming from Pearl on May 23 in the of slack moorings and a wind change, the company of the Anderson and arriving carrier drifted closer in, perhaps to within 300 at Bikini on May 31. yards of the bomb location before the detonation~2 The ship was blown out to a Saratoga was selected as a test ship for position 800 yards distant before drifting back Operation Crossroads because it, as a sole in and sinking 600 yards from the detonation representative of a now obsolete class, had point.33 been replaced by the large number of wartime-built Essex-class carriers now available New York Times correspondent Hanson W. for future fleet use. Additionally, the carrier’s Baldwin, watching nearby as Saratoga slowly compartmentation was “unusually complete” with sank nearly eight hours after the blast, penned more than 1,000 watertight compartments and an epitaph: its “underwater protection was very similar in arrangement to that of modern battleships and There were many who had served her in large carriers.”3° Lexington had not survived the observing fleet and they fought with the war (it was sunk in May 1942 at the Battle her through the long hot hours as the of ). Saratoga was moored 2,260 sun mounted .... Outside the --a safe yards off the actual zeropoint for the Able test distance from the radioactive waters in blast of July 1, 1946; intentionally located at the lagoon--the observing ships cruised, some distance to save the carrier for the Baker while the Sara slowly died. There were

49 ..– —.— / 1 !

I

Uss Am4Nwls (BB”33) in a seaway, were moved up to the main deck, Characteristics and in 1942, ten of the 5-inch guns were removed, leaving three 5-inch guns in midships USS Arkansas (BB-33) was a riveted steel casemates (known aboard ship as the air vessel 562 feet long overall, with a waterline castles) on each beam of the ship. Arkansas length of 555-1/2 feet, a maximum beam of 106 mounted two 21-inch torpedo tubes, which were later removed. The battleship’s original feet, and a draft of 29 feet, 11-1/2 inches. Arkansas originally displaced 23,066 tons antiaircraft battery comprised eight 3-inch/50 caliber guns. In 1942 additional AA guns were standard; the addition of deck armor and torpedo blisters between 1925-1927 increased added; as of 1945, Arkansas mounted nine quad the battleship to 26,100 tons standard 40mm Bofors guns and 28 single-mount lomm dkplacement. The ship had 1,448 crew and oerlikon guns, In its 1925-1927 refit, ~~k~~~~~ was fitted as a flagship.38 also received an airplane catapult atop turret No. 3 and three spotter aircraft,38 Arkansas was heavily armored above the waterline; an 9-to-n-inch armor belt protected Arkansas’ four screws were driven by Parsons the ship amidships, The turrets were covered turbines and four White-Forster boilers which by 9 to 12 inches of armor plate. The hull developed 28,000 shaft horsepower at 20.5 was double-bottomed except in the machinery knots. The boilers vented into two stacks; spaces, where three bottoms were fitted, The between 1925-1927 when Arkansas was battleship received additional deck armor reboilered, a single stack replaced the original between 1925-1927; 3.5 inches of armor covered two. The coal-burning boilers installed in 1912 the top of the armor belt, This increased the were replaced at that time with oil-burners; displacement by 3,000 tons. Arkansas’ bunkers carried 5,425 tons of fuel oil, Other topside changes included replacing the The main battery consisted of twelve 12-inch/50 cage mast with a low tripod between No. 4 and caliber guns, twin mounted in six turrets--two No, 5 turrets. In 1942, the ship was fitted with forward, two amidships, and two aft, The a tripod foremast aft of the bridge; the bridge secondary battery consisted of sixteen 5-inch/51 itself was reconstructed at the same time. Fire caliber guns in casemates,s’ Between 1925-1927 control stations were located atop each mast in some of these latter positions, which were wet the enlarged tops.s9

[

52 lii@Y Following the United States entry into in April 1917, Arkansas spent the first USS Arkansas (B B-33), second of two year patrolling the eastern seaboard before Wyoming-class battleships, was a near-sister of sailing to in July 1918. Attached to four Florida- and Texas-class battleships, which the 6th Battle Squadron of the British Grand included the before-mentioned vessels as well Fleet, Arkansas, along with near-sister Texas as USS Utah and USS New York. Arkansas was present when the German High Seas Fleet and its near-sisters represented the first surrendered at on November 20, “modern” class of U.S. battleships. The 1918, Arkansas served as one of the honor American “dreadnoughts” were designed to win escorts for George Washington when that vessel sea battles through superior fire power and carried President Wilson to France. Returning speed. Arkansas mounted six turret~ with to the United States at the end of 1918, 12-inch guns, and was powered by newly Arkansas resumed training and cruising; this developed steam turbines operating at then time, however, the battleship operated in the unheard-of speeds. Arkansas was built at the Pacific. Between 1919 and 1938, Arkansas Camden, New Jersey, yard of the New York alternated in service between both coasts, Shipbuilding Corporation. The battleship was spending several years in each ocean before laid down on January 25, 1910, just weeks after being attached to Battleship Division 5 of the its near sister Utah was launched from the Atlantic Squadron in October 1938. Arkansas same yard. As Utah was fitted out, Arkansas served on the in the North rose on the ways. Launched into the Delaware Atlantic in 1941, prior to the US. entry in River on January 14, 1911, the new battleship World War II. Following the Japanese attack was fitted out in 20 months’ time, and was on Pearl Harbor and Germany’s declaration of commissioned as USS Arkansas at the Philadelphia Navy Yard on September 17, 1912.40

Prior to the First World War, Arkansas spent its career on the Atlantic coast and in the , with one voyage to the Mediterranean, Arkansas carried President William H. Taft to Panama in December 1912 to inspect work on the Canal.4i In 1914 Arkansas played an important role in the American landings at Veracruz, Mexico, In late Aprilj Arkansas joined other ships in an attempt to contravene the landing of German arms to Mexican President Victorian Huerta, who had succeeded the assassinated elected President Francisco I. Madero. US. President Woodrow Wilson, supporting Madero backers and anti-Huerta revolutionaries as part of his international campaign for human rights, and seeking to stabilize war-torn Mexico (by force of arms if necessary), sent in troops .42 Marines and bluejackets landed from U.8. vessels off Veracruz, took the city, and prevented the landing of German weapons. After this maneuver, between 1914 and 1917 Arkansas’ bow, showing two blast gauge towers am Arkansas trained along the Atlantic seaboard tanks placed on the battleship for the tests. and in the Caribbean. (National Archives)

54 war against the United States, Arkansas served moored within 500 feet of the detonation point on duty, escorting vessels to Ireland, for the Baker Test of July 25, 1946; it was the Scotland, Iceland, and French Morocco. In closest of the target vessels with the exception June 1944, Arkansas participated in the invasion of the vessel that suspended the bomb, LSM- of Normandy, providing fire support on Omaha 60. The detonation is popularly believed to Beach. It also was used in the bombardment have lifted the battleship vertically out of the of Cherbourg, and later assisted in the invasion water within the blast column. Careful analysis of Southern France in mid-August of the same of the sequence of movie photographs, year. Returning to the United States in however, shows what appears to be the September 1944, Arkansas was modernized at battleship’s foremast in the blast column, with the Navy Yard in Boston and sent into the dark “hole” thought to be the up-ended the Pacific.43 battleship caused by the mass of the ship blocking the uplifted water column rising above When Arkansas arrived in the Pacific in late it. Arkansas sank almost immediately the Navy 1944, it was the oldest and smallest of the technical inspection report for Arkansas notes then-existing American capital ships, as well as it disappeared within 19 seconds after the blast. the last American battleship to mount 12-inch According to Bombs at Bikini, “in sinking, she guns. Replaced as a first-line ship by the new carried with her the dubious honor of being battleship North Carolina, Arkansas nonetheless the first battleship to be sunk by an atomic played a major role in the Pacific war. bomb, and the first battleship to be sunk by a Arkansas provided pre-invasion bombardment at bomb that never touched her.”45 both Iwo Jima (February 1945) and Okinawa (March 1945) as well as ongoing fire support for both operations. The battleship fired 1,262 HIJMS NAGATO rounds of 12-inch ammunition at Iwo Jima and 2,564 rounds at Okinawa. Through the war Characteristics Arkansas’ 12-inch guns fired 5,255 rounds in all; the 5-inch guns of the secondary battery The Japanese battleship Nagato was a fired 5,123 rounds, and the ship’s lighter steel-hulled vessel 708 feet in length overall, antiaircraft battery fired 8,422 rounds, while the with a 95-foot beam and a 30-foot draft. battleship steamed 134,141 miles. Returning to Nagato displaced 38,500 tons standard. The the United States in October 1945, Arkansas ship was armored with a 3.9-to-11.8-inch belt; was readied for participation in Operation the turrets were protected by 14-inch thick “Magic Carpet”; the veteran battleship then armor. Nagato’s armament consisted of eight made three voyages transporting returning 16.1-inch/45 caliber guns, twenty 5.5-inch/50 servicemen to Pearl Harbor. Arkansas was caliber guns, four 3.1-inch antiaircraft guns, selected as a target vessel for Operation three machine guns, and eight 21-inch torpedo Crossroads and was prepared for the bomb tubes, four above and four below the waterline. tests at Terminal Island, California, before Between 1934-1936, Nagato was reconstructed: steaming from Pearl Harbor on May 8, 1946. torpedo bulges were added and the Arkansas left Pearl on May 20 and arrived at superstructure was raised and modified. In Bikini on May 29, 1946. June 1944, Nagato had sixty-eight 25mm Hotchkiss antiaircraft guns; by October of the Arkansas was moored off the port beam of same year, the number of antiaircraft guns had USS Nevada, the target ship for the Able test increased to include ninety-eight 20mm guns. on July 1, 1946, The battleship was “one of At that time, Nagato retained eighteen 5.5-inch the three major combatant ships within one guns; Nagato’s full load displacement at that half ‘mile of the zeropoint.”44 The ship was the time was 43,581 tons.4e site of the maximum measured radioactive contamination from the Able test; a pool of Nagato’s four screws were driven by Gihon water on Arkansas was measured at eight steam turbines that developed 80,000 shaft roentgens per eight hours. Arkansas was horsepower at 26.7 knots. By October 1944,

55 the rated speed of the vessel was 24.98 knots.47 Steam was provided by 21 Kanpon boilers. The battleship was originally coal-fired; between The battleship Nagato was built by Kure Navy 1934-1936 the ship’s machinery was replaced Yard for the under with new oil-burning boilers. This led to the provision of the 1916-1917 Programme of Naval removal of Nagato’s forward stack. During the Construction by that nation. Laid down in reconstruction, in addition to new machinery 1917, Nagato was launched on November 9, and torpedo bulges, Akzgato received a triple 1919. The first of two Nagato-class battleships bottom, additional deck armor, and increased (Naguto and Mutsu), Nagato was the first elevation for the 16-inch guns. Nugato carried battleship in the world armed with 16-inch three observation planes launched by catapult guns$50 Completed on November 25, 1920, forward of the “C” turret. According to the Nagato served in its most famous role as U.S. Navy’s confidential report on the Japanese flagship for Adm. Isoroku Yamamoto, Navy, ONI-221-J, issued in June 1945, “the Commander in Chief for the Combined Fleet. most outstanding outboard feature of Nagato is iVagato, “its entire crew manning the sides,” led the large heptapodal foremast with its the combined fleet in its last official public numerous tops and bridges for fire and ship display on October 11, 1940, during an control purposes. The central vertical leg is Imperial review off Yokohama in ceremonies thick enough to accommodate an electric lift celebrating the 2,600th anniversary of the running between the foretop and main deck.”4a accession of Jimmu, Japan’s first emperor.51 Nagato’s hull was reportedly divided into 560 separate watertight compartments; its rated Nagato was the scene of many meetings by complement was 1,333 men,4e Yamamoto and his staff as plans to attack the

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56 Midway in June in which four carriers were sunk by American carrier aircraft.54

Nagato next sortied with the fleet in the Marianas in June 1944. This disastrous battle, Japan’s last opportunity to win a decisive naval engagement, ended in defeat and the withdrawal of the fleet to Japanese home waters.55 The fleet, with Nagato, again sailed in October 1944 to engage the American fleet at the Battle of Leyte Gulf, Nagato, in formation with the super battleships Musashi (sunk in this engagement) and Yamato, was hit by two torpedoes but survived, assisting Yamato off Samar. In retreat Nagato took a heavy pounding from carrier bomberq it was hit by four bombs and was damaged by nine near-misses .56 Upon reaching Japan, Nagato turrets_anddistinctive superstructure, at Bikini, MaY. 1946. (National Archi{es) was left at anchor at Yokosuka, awaiting repairs that never came. Thus, the crippled Nagato, tied up at Yokosuka, missed the last U.S. Pacific Fleet at Pearl Harbor were first sortie of the Imperial Japanese Navy in April broached, discussed, and refined. Final 1945. In that special kikusui (battle of certain preparations for the war were made aboard death) Yamato was sunk, effectively destroying Nagato, and Yamamoto stood aboard Nagato the Imperial Japanese Navy as a fighting with the battleship’s crew as the Pearl Harbor force.57 strike force vessels sortied. With them the Japanese aircraft carriers brought specially Nagato, already badly damaged, was again modified 16-inch shells from Nagato and its mauled by aerial attack while at anchor at sister Mutsu that would be dropped on the Yokosuka on July 18, 1945. The principal American ships at Pearl Harbor as bombs. target of the attack, Nagato was moored close One of these shells would be credited with to shore next to antiaircraft batteries and sinking the battleship An”zona. Nagato was the camouflaged by the removal of its mainmast scene of nervous waiting by Yamamoto and his and stack. The battleship was pounded by staff. They first heard of Japan’s overwhelming aircraft from USS Yorktown (CV-1O). Nagato success at Pearl Harbor when Nagato’s radio was neutralized--the bridge wrecked, and the operator received the famous “to, to, to” signal decks and superstructure holed and damaged~s for a successful attack’s commencement-- Ending the war out of action in Tokyo Bay, crystal-clear reception from the skies over Nagato was the only Japanese battleship to Oahu thousands of miles away.52 survive the war afloat. Following the Japanese surrender, Task Force Thirty-One (the Tokyo Nagato served as flagship for Yamamoto until Bay occupation force) landed and occupied the replaced by the 63,700-ton super battleship Tokyo Bay area. Navy Yamato in February 1942.53 Yamamoto, when Team 18 was assigned to “capture” Nagato on he shifted his flag to Yamato, released the August 30, 1945. Thk act, according to the older battleship for operational duty; thus, U.S. Navy, “symbolized the unconditional and Nagato as part of the Japanese Main Force complete surrender of the Japanese Navy.”5g steamed with the striking force that attempted Unlike some other captured vessels, Nagato was to take Midway and the Aleutians in late May not brought into the U.S. Navy as a special 1942. Nagato, however, was not engaged in auxiliary, as was the case with the German combat in the disastrous engagement off battle cruiser Prinz Eugen. This may have been because Nagato was heavily damaged and was

57 of no use to the United States as a capital await the fateful day when the blow, ship, The vessel was also a symbolically laden mightier than the greatest salvo ever ship, being the “flagship” of the kido butai or produced by man, will descend. “strike force,” as well as the genesis point of the plan for the , which After its arrival at the end of April, Nagato, Americans perceived as a vicious sneak attack, “the one-time pride of the Japanese Navy,” was and onetime quarters of Yamamoto, who, while eagerly explored by sightseeing sailors. a villain in the United States was still very According to the May 4 edition of much a hero to the Japanese. fVagato, not “Crossroads, “ “this huge battleship appears to surprisingly, was selected as a target vessel for have already undergone the blast. Visitors will Operation Crossroads. In early 1946 the ship find that she is pretty-well shattered, her decks was prepared at the Yokosuka Naval Base and and bulkheads rusty, and her equipment highly steamed under its own power close to Bikini picked over, An LST alongside supplies all Atoll in the company of the captured cruiser her water and electricity.” The vessel was HIJMS Sakawa. prepared by a repair ship for the tests at Bikini, and then moored 400 yards to the Nagato’s imminent arrival was noted in starboard of Nevada, target ship for the Able “Crossroads,” the semi-official newsletter of the test. When the bomb missed Nevada, Nagato tests, on April 27, 1946: was only moderately damaged by the Able blast; light plating on the superstructure was Once the lofty pride of the Japanese wrinkled and light non-watertight doors were fleet, the battleship Nagato will strike an blown off their hinges; paint was scorched. ironic contrast as she enters the atoll The report on the ship concluded that “the shortly. Flying the American ensign and Nagato is structurally sound .... The poor manned by an American crew, she will condition of the ship and her equipment is due be the first of the ‘guinea’ ships to take to lack of preventive maintenance and overhaul, her position for what may well be her and to the fact that her engineering plant sat last mooring. Then, humbly, she will idle for over a year.”e” . s- .. J t captured Japanese photograph of Sakawq circa 1945. (US. Naval Historical Center)

The end came for Nagato when the Baker test sources; its sister ship Yahagi, built at the same bomb detonated nearby on July 25, 1946,01 yard at roughly the same time, had a length of The passing of the battleship under these 531 feet b~tween perpendiculars, Sakawa circumstances made a profound impression on displaced 6,652 tons. The ship had a flush the Japanese. Naval historian Masanori Ito deck, “with marked sheer to the forecastle.” wrote: The Agano class cruisers were also fitted with bulbous bows. The four shafts were driven by When World War II began, the Japanese steam turbines; steam was provided by six Navy--the third. most powerful in the Kanpon boilers. Agano was rated at 10,000 world--included some of the mightiest shaft horsepower at 35 knots; Sakawa probably ships in naval history and was a force had the same rating. The vessels were worthy of the pride and trust of the reportedly armed with six 6-inch/50 caliber Japanese people. Then, in less than four guns, paired in three turrets, two forward and years, this great war machine fell from one aft. Sakawa had an antiaircraft battery of glory to oblivion, Of ten battleships four 3.1-inch/65 caliber guns, and thirty-two riding in Hiroshima Bay in December 25mm/65 caliber Hotchkiss guns. Sakawa also 1941, nine were sunk. The lone survivor, mounted eight 24-inch torpedo tubes above Nagato, died at Bikini Island as a target water and carried 16 depth charges. Each in an atomic bomb test.s2 Agano class cruiser also carried two floatplanes for observation, launched from a single catapult .63 HIJMS SAKXWA @KX!L Characteristics The cruiser Sakawa was built at Sasebo Navy Sakawa was a welded steel cruiser of the Yard for the Imperial Japanese Navy as part of Agano class. Particulars of the ship are not that nation’s 1939 Programme of Naval fully documented since Japanese records were Construction. Fourth and last of the Agano destroyed at the time of the surrender. The class cruisers, Sakawa and its sisters were the U.S. Navy’s official report on the Japanese first regular light cruisers to be added to the Navy, ONI-221-J, issued in June 1945, cites a Imperial Japa-nese Navy in more than ten length of 550 feet overall and a beam of 49.6 years,e4 Laid down in 1942, Sakawa was feet. The vessel’s length is not cited in other launched on April 9, 1944, and completed on

59 November 30 of the same year. Sakuwu was the only vessel of its class to survive the war. Intended for use as flagshlps for destroyer flotillas, the Aganos were lost in combat. Agano was sunk by USS Skate off Truk on February 17, 1944; Noshiro was sunk by carrier aircraft from USS Hornet and Wasp on October 26, 1944; Yahagi was sunk while sortying with the battleship Yarnato on April 7, 1945.85 The undamaged Sakawa was at the Japanese naval base at Maizaru (on the coastline of the Sea of Japan) in August 1945.66 After use as a reparations vessel, Sakawa was selected as a target ship for Operation Crossroads. Sakawa sailed to Bikini from Yokosuka in company with the battleship Nagato. Both vessels were readied for the tests at Bikini by a U.S. Navy repair ship. This work included removing the airplane catapults, torpedo tubes, 6-inch guns, on the lajzoon bottom. Sakawa’s bow sank and smaller gun mounts from the cruiser.e7 beneath tie lagoon surface at 10:43 a.m. on July 2. According to the U.S. Navy, “flooding Sakawa was moored off the port quarter of unquestionably started when the Sakawa’s stern Nevada. The actual detonation of the Able was ripped open to the sea by the blast .... Poor bomb took place some 490 yards above and watertight integrity ...permitted progressive slightly to starboard of Sakawa’s stern. flooding. After 24,5 hours the main deck was Following the blast, observers noted that awash. In the next hour rapid progressive Sakawa’s superstructure and hull had suffered flooding, probably due to poorly fitted and major damage. The superstructure aft of the damaged hatches, vent trunks, and other fittings bridge was smashed down, as was the stack, in the main deck, sent the Sakawa to the which collapsed forward. The mainmast bottom.”7i At the time of sinking, the Navy toppled forward and to port until it overhung tug Achornawi (ATT-148) had a line aboard the side by one-third of its length. Reports Sakawa and was attempting to pull the ship also noted that “the tops of the after mounts from astern to shore; the cruiser was moved were crushed, The tops of the forward mounts astern about 150 feet when it finally sank. The were dished in a fore and aft V having a two- Navy was able to board and inspect the cruiser foot maximum depression.”ss The worse prior to sinking; “diving operations on this damage, however, was to the hull. “The stern vessel were assigned low priority and eventually was most badly damaged .... Its deck plating was limited by a time factor to recovery of crushed inward and shell plating about the instruments. Hence no diver’s report is counter was twisted and torn open in several available ....”72 places. Shell plating on the starboard side,..was badly wrinkled from approximately frame 145 aft.’”g Other damage included the USS WWVZ EUGHV (IX-300) dislodging of deck fittings, the smashing of the lifeboats, and a fire that broke out on the stern Characteristics and raged for two hours.70 Prinz Eugen was a welded-steel vessel Immediately after the test Sakawa’s stern sank incorporating substantial aluminum internal two feet. Through the night the stern construction. It was 692 feet in length, with a continued to settle as the cruiser listed to port. 71,2-foot beam and a 24.8-foot draft, and Some 24 hours after the test, the ship lay on displaced 19,553 tons standard. The vessel its port beam, half submerged, with the stern

60 Prinz Eupen at the Krupp Yard in Kiel, circa 1939-1940. (us. Naval Institute)

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carried a complement of 830 crew. The by cranes on either side of the hangar. The armament consi~ted of eight 8-inch/55 caliber ship was armored with 3.15-inch-thick vertical guns in four turrets; twelve 4.1-inch antiaircraft nickel steel side armor, with 2-inch armor on guns; twelve 21-inch torpedo tubes in triple the bridge and 20mm of armor on the deck mounts; six 40mm Bofors AA guns; eight range finder positions. The turret barbettes .30 caliber guns in four twin mounts; and were protected by 3.5-inch-thick steel armor; twenty-eight 20mm flak guns mounted as two the turrets themselves were covered by two to quads and ten twins. Prinz Eugen carried three six inches of armor. The vessel’s three shafts AR-196 spotter aircraft in a hangar between were powered by geared steam turbines the stack and mainmast. The planes were reportedly rated at 80,000 shaft horsepower at launched from a single catapult and recovered 32 knots. The three complete sets of main

61 turbines consisted of a high, intermediate, and 1941, Prin.z Eugen was harassed by British air low pressure turbine, with astern turbines raids. While blockaded at Brest, Eugen was installed in the casings of the main I.P. and damaged by aerial bombing; a hit on July 2, L,P, turbines. The main reduction gears were 1941, destroyed the main gunnery control room single reduction, The engines were powered by and damage control, and killed 52 men.78 high pressure, Lament forced circulation watertube boilers. The ship’s electrical power In another famous breakout, Prinz Eugen, with was provided by six turbo generators and four the battleships Scharnhorst and Gneisenau raced diesel emergency generators. According to up the English Channel between February 11 wartime issues of Jane’s Fighting Ships, “internal and 13, 1942, as allied aircraft, coastal gun arrangements of these ships [were] reported to batteries, and ships attempted to sink them, be decidedly cramped and badly ventilated.” After its escape, Prinz Eugen operated in Prinz Eugen’s capacity was rated at 1,049 crew Norwegian waters. On February 23, 1942, by Jane’s. In many respects, Prinz Eugen however, the cruiser was torpedoed by the resembled the battleship Bisrnurck, its “big British Trident in a Norwegian fjord brother” and running mate: according to and lost its counter. After another harrowing German officers from both, even trained run to Germany under attack by British planes, observers had difficulty telling the two ships the ship was repaired and returned to service apart at a distance when their relative size as a training ship on the Baltic in the summer could not be assessed.73 of 1942. In October 1943 the ship rejoined the fleet as flagship of the German Baltic forces. kkw!t In this capacity, the cruiser provided fire support for German troops and panzers in The heavy cruiser Prinz Eugen was built by Lithuania and Latvia in 1944; Prinz Eugen spent Krupp at their Germania Werft shipyard in the last months of the war on the Baltic coast, Kiel for the German Navy under the 1936 naval supporting ground forces retreating from the construction program. Laid down in 1936, Russian advance, firing more than 5,000 rounds, Prinz Eugen was launched on August 20, 1938, Surrendered at the end of the European war in the presence of Adolf Hitler and on May 7, 1945, at Copenhagen, Pn”nz Eugen Grossadmiral Erich Rader. The cruiser was was taken by the United States as a prize of christened by Madame Horthy, wife of the war.77 Designated IX-300 as a special Hungarian dictator, Admiral Nicholas Horthy,74 auxiliary, Prinz Eugen was taken to the United Second of four Hipper class heavy cruisers States for tests and analysis in January 1946, (Admiral Hipper, Prinz Eugen, Seydlitz, and arriving at Boston on the 24th of the month.’a Lutzow), Eugen was completed in 1940 and commissioned on August 1 of that year, Selected as a target vessel for Operation Constructed principally for high seas commerce Crossroads, Prinz Eugen was readied at the raiding, Prinz Eugen spent most of WWII Philadelphia Navy Yard in February-March blockaded in port. After shakedown exercises 1946. This work involved removing two 8-inch in the Baltic, the cruiser joined KMS Bismarck gun barrels from turret “A” for additional in Norway in May 1941, Prinz Eugen and the evaluation. A fire control tower was also taken battleship made their famous breakout into the from the ship at this time. Prinz Eugen then North Atlantic, where they engaged and sank proceeded to Bikini, arriving on June 11, 1946. the battle cruiser Hood on May 24; Prinz There it was moored between two U.S. Eugen’s shells were credited with setting the off the port quarter of USS British ship afire before a hit from Bistnarck Arkansas, 1,200 yards from the zeropoint. The detonated Hood’s magazines. Prior to being vessel was not appreciably damaged in the met by a superior British task force that sank Able test of July 1, 1946, nor in the Baker test Bismarck after a running sea battle, Prinz three weeks later, when it was moored one Eugen escaped the battleship’s fate by slipping mile off the detonation point, but was away to the Azores,76 Arriving at Brest, contaminated with radioactive fallout. The France, for sanctuary and an overhaul in June cruiser was towed to Kwajalein for

62 decontamination along with several other flooding continued, with the list gradually vessels after the tests. The ship had a slight, reaching 35 degrees to starboard. At 12:43 in but progressive leak, and on the morning of the morning of December 22, 1946, Prinz Eugen December 21, 1946, it was found listing and capsized and sank.’g Subsequent dives on the down by the stern. Boarding parties found the ship found that technically the cruiser could be ship flooding rapidly from what was believed to raised, but radiation prohibited this be a failed sea valve. An attempt was made to action being practical. In 1973, the beach the ship on Enubuj Island, but Department of the Interior requested that the underpowered tugs and strong winds swung Navy relinquish title to Prinz ‘Eugen to allow Prinz Eugen broadside to the beach, portside to scrapping of the ship to commence. A Navy shore, where the ship grounded offshore on a team dove and documented the wreck, and coral ledge at 5:00 p.m. During the nightthe reported in June 1974 that beta and gamma

63 radiation could no longer be detected on the stern lying 15 feet off the bottom, The Eugen, but that the vessel had suffered severe damage that sank the ship was presumed to be hull damage amidships, was partially imbedded on the port side; the starboard hull was in the lagoon bottom, and required removal of wrinkled and “several seams,,.were leaking oil residual fuel oil and ordnance before salvage and air.”84 The worst damage noted was operations could commence, oo As a topside; the mainmast was stripped of fittings consequence, no action to remove the ship was and the yardarm was snapped in half. Radar taken, antenna and the stack were missing. The deckhouses were crumpled, the No. 2 gun shield split open, bulwarks on several USS ANDERSON (DD-411) superstructure decks were torn away, the torpedo crane was bent at a 90-degree angle, Characteristics and the starboard “Y” depth charge launchers were ripped off the deck.a~ The Navy The Sims-class destroyer Anderson was a determined that blast damage and a post-blast welded steel vessel with an overall length of fire and explosion sank Anderson. This was 348.3 feet, a waterline length of 341.4 feet, a the only occasion during the tests that 36,1-foot beam, a 19.8-foot depth, and a shipboard munitions detonated. 17.4-foot draft, Anderson displaced 1,720 tons standard,81 The Sims-class destroyers were EMwi supposed to have been 1,570 tons; lack of communication between the Navy’s Bureau of USS Anderson was the third of twelve Sims- Construction and Repair and the Bureau of class destroyers. The last of the American Engineering led to the overweight problem of “single stackers,” these vessels were the result the Sims class. As a result of this and other of a 1935 request by the Chief of Naval problems, the two Bureaus were merged into a Operations for a new design for destroyers, single organization, the Bureau of Ships, in The U.S. Navy’s General Board forwarded a 1940.82 Anderson’s twin screws were driven by proposal in May 1936 for a 1,570-ton ship with Westinghouse steam turbines and three oil-fired five 5-inch guns and twelve 21-inch torpedo Babcock and Wilcox boilers, rated at 50,000 tubes.8e Twelve destroyers were built to the shaft horsepower at 35 knots. The Navy design, commencing with USS Sims (DD-409). experimented with streamlining these vessels in Authorized in fiscal year 1937, the destroyers an effort to improve speed and fuel were built by different yards to a design by the consumption; a rounded bridge structure on the noted New York firm of Gibbs and Cox. The sims class produced less wind resistance and Sims class had robust hulls and were heavily turbulence than previous classes. Anderson’s armed; more significantly, these destroyers were main battery comprised five 5-inch/38 caliber the first to carry the newly developed Mark 37 guns in single mounts. The ship carried twelve fire control system, which introduced for the triple-mounted 21-inch torpedo tubes on deck. first time in a destroyer a computer room In mid-1941, four .50 caliber machine guns for below decks--an innovation that proved highly AA use were installed. Anderson also mounted successful in combat in WWII and was fitted to two depth charge racks aft.83 all major U.S. combatant vessels by 1945.87

USS Anderson’s superstructure was badly Auderson was laid down in late 1938 at the damaged by the Able test burst; the stack Kearny, New Jersey, yard of the Federal toppled, and a fire started abaft the bridge. Shipbuilding and Drydock Corporation (a The fire subsided in a minute’s time, then subsidiary of U.S. Steel). The destroyer was flared up as Anderson capsized to port. Once launched on February 4, 1939, and fitted out capsized, Anderson sank by the stern, Shortly over the next few months.8a Anderson was after the Able event, Navy divers found the commissioned on May 19, 1939, and began a destroyer in 176 feet of water, lying on its port year-long program of tests aud trials. Sent into side, with the bow imbedded in the bottom and the Pacific in 1940, Anderson spent a year as

64 flagship of Destroyer Division 3 until sent back Anderson stood by to render assistance and to the Atlantic in June 1941. There, the rescued 377 men from the carrier, which was destroyer joined the other Sims class vessels in then sunk with a torpedo from the destroyer Neutrality Patrol and convoy duties between Phelps (DD-360). Anderson was recalled to and Iceland. Anderson was part of the Pearl Harbor, arriving on May 23, 1942, where escort force for three convoys. Following the it sortied with Task Force 17 for the Battle of Japanese attack on the U.S. fleet at Pearl Midway. TF 17 was grouped around the Harbor, Anderson returned to the Pacific. in carrier Yorktown (CV-5), which had been December 1941. The remainder of the ship’s damaged during and quickly repaired after the career was spent in the Pacific.6g Battle of the Coral Sea. At -Midway, Yorktown was the only American carrier located by the Anderson served as part of the screening force Japanese, who struck Task Force 17, bombi~g A second wave of planes again for the Navy’s carriers during the early, Yorktown. attacked as Yorktown’s crew got the fires under decitive battles in the Pacific. In May. 1942, control; Anderson shot down one torpedo Anderson operated with Task Group 17 m the Coral Sea. This force moved against t% plan% but others got through and Yorktown was Japanese, with Anderson screening the ~~~ again hit, this time by two torpedoes’ T? .LeXin@n (CV-2), sister of Saratoga. destroyer managed to destroy four planes m battle, the Japanese light carrier fihoho was the two attacks. Anderson moved in to pick up sunk, along with Lexington, which succumbed. to survivors as Yorktown was abandone~ 204 men ruptured gasoline lines. Accumulating gaso~ were taken off by the destroyer. Damage fumes ignited, setting off internal explosions control crews on Yorktown managed once again that spread flames throughout the ship. to keep the carrier afloat; however, a Japanese

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65 flagship of Destroyer Division 3 until sent back Anderson stood by to render assistance and to the Atlantic in June 1941. There, the rescued 377 men from the carrier, which was destroyer joined the other Sims class vessels in then sunk with a torpedo from the destroyer Neutrality Patrol and convoy duties between Phelps (DD-360). Anderson was recalled to Canada and Iceland. Anderson was part of the Pearl Harbor, arriving on May 23, 1942, where escort force for three convoys. Following the it sortied with Task Force 17 for the Battle of Japanese attack on the U.S. fleet at Pearl Midway. TF 17 was grouped around the Harbor, Anderson returned to the Pacific in carrier Yorktown (CV-5), which had been December 1941. The remainder of the ship’s damaged during and quickly repaired after the career was spent in the Pacific.8g Battle of the Coral Sea. At Midway, Yorktown was the only American carrier located by the Anderson served as part of the screening force Japanese, who struck Task Force 17, bombing for the Navy’s carriers during the early, Yorktown. A second wave of planes again decisive battles in the Pacific. In May 1942, attacked as Yorktown’s crew got the fires under Anderson operated with Task Group 17 in the control; Anderson shot down one torpedo Coral Sea. This force moved against the plane, but others got through and Yorktown was Japanese, with Anderson screening the carrier again hit, this time by two torpedoes. The Lexington (CV-2), sister of Saratoga. In the destroyer managed to destroy four planes in battle, the Japanese light carrier Shoho was the two attacks. Anderson moved in to pick up sunk, along with Lexington, which succumbed to survivors as Yorktown was abandoned; 204 men ruptured gasoline lines. Accumulating gasoline were taken off by the destroyer. Damage fumes ignited, setting off internal explosions control crews on Yorktown managed once again that spread flames throughout the ship. to keep the carrier afloat; however, a Japanese

65 submarine launched two torpedoes that sank the however, Anderson was ordered retained in the carrier and the destroyer Hammann (DD-412), Pacific “in an inactive status in view of a sister ship of Anderson, which was experimental tests.” Selected as a target vessel alongside.go for Operation Crossroads Anderson was “stripped in preparation for use as a target...” Always in the front lines, Anderson screened at Pearl Harbor between January and May USS Wasp (CV-7), which was sunk by torpedo 1946.0s attack on September 15, 1942. The destroyer next screened USS Hornei (CV-8) at the Battles Arriving at Bikini on May 30, 1946, in the of the Eastern Solomons and Santa Cruq in the company of the carrier Saratoga, Anderson was latter battle (October 25-26, 1942) Hornet was moored close to the actual zeropoint for the lost. In both cases Anderson again moved Able test on July 1, 1946. Following the burst, towards the stricken carriers and rescued men; Anderson suffered two explosions within nine in all, the destroyer saved more than 1,000 crew seconds’ time. The ship capsized, while members from the four carriers. The destroyer burning, onto its port side, and sank within was shifted from screening duty to invasion seven minutes,84 Ironically, the destroyer that support in November 1942; Anderson screened had stood by and rendered assistance when transports carrying reinforcements to Lexington went down, sank at Bikini with Guadalcanal and shelled Japanese troops on the Saratoga, sister of the lost carrier. island. It then went on escort duty and anti-submarine patrols in the New Hebrides. In Of 12 Sims-class destroyers, none survived past July-September 1943 Anderson served in the 1948; five were lost during the war, Anderson Aleutians, participating in the bombardment of was sunk at Bikini in 1946, three were broken the Japanese garrison on occupied Kiska. The up in 1947, and three were sunk as targets in destroyer then screened transports and provided 1948.05 Anderson was stricken from the Navy fire support for troops invading Tarawa. register on September 25, 1946. The ship’s bell Anderson then steamed to the Marshalls for the and nameplate were presented to the city of invasion of those heavily defended islands. The Anderson, South Carolina, by Congressional destroyer bombarded Wotje and screened request. These had apparently been removed vessels shelling Kwajalein, Anderson was hit by at Bikini and given to an Anderson, South an enemy 155mm shell off Wotje, which killed Carolina, press representative on board USS the captain and five other officers and wounded Appalachiao?8 18 men. While transferring the wounded off ship, Anderson struck an uncharted pinnacle that badly damaged the destroyer, which was USS LAWON (DD-367) then towed to Pearl Harbor for repairs.81 Characteristics After repairs, Anderson was deployed to assist the Sansapor, Morotai, and Leyte operations; at USS Lamson was a welded steel destroyer of Leyte on November 1, 1944, the ship was again the Mahan class, Lamson was 341.3 feet long badly damaged when a struck the overall, with a waterline length of 334 feet, a deck, killing 18 and wounding 21 members of 34.8-foot beam, a 9,9-foot draft, and a 1,726-ton the crew. Anderson steamed to San Francisco displacement.g7 Lamson’s twin screws were for repairs at Hunter’s Point. After these driven by General Electric geared turbines, repairs and an overhaul, Anderson joined the which were powered by four Babcock and 9th Fleet operating off the Kuriles on Wilcox, oil-burning, Express boilers. The ship’s anti-submarine patrols and shore bombardment. plant was rated at 46,000 shaft horsepower at Anderson ended the war by participating in the 37 knots. Armament consisted of a main occupation of northern Honshu after the battery of five 5-inch/38 caliber guns and three Japanese surrender. ‘2 The ship was ordered to quad 21-inch torpedo tubes mounted on deck. the Atlantic for decommissioning. Anderson Lamson additionally carried four .50 caliber arrived at San Diego on November 8, en route machine guns, two depth charge tracks, and to Philadelphia. On November 14, 1945, “K’’-type depth charge projectors!8

66 Loaded with 50 percent of its fuel and and the foremast, which was bent aft at a 90- ammunition, Lamson was badly damaged by the degree angle. “At frame 70 a Z door and Able test burst, which tore off the light topside frame are blown out. The port side of the superstructure, stacks, and mainmast, and badly deckhouse aft of mount 2 is opened up top and smashed the bridge. The vessel capsized to bottom for a short distance fore and aft.’’102 starboard and sank (after floating bottom up) The guns remained in their mounts, “at sometime between 200 p.m. and 5:00 p.m., five maximum elevation,” and the quad 21-inch to eight hours after the blast. Divers found the torpedo tubes “are apparently intact. Only one ship resting on its starboard side; “the stern torpedo is in the tubes and it is broken and was lying in a hole which makes it appear that hanging there.” The depth charge racks “are the ship went down stern first, pivoted around twisted and torn almost beyond recognition,” and ended up heading southwest on the with “a large number of depth charges around bottom.”g’ Navy reports made just after Able the bottom aft. The special weapon NORD indicate that “the portion of the stern aft of 5130 was not in its chocks on the stern and frame 178 has twisted counterclockwise until the could not be located.’’103 sheer strakes are separated about three feet. This rotation appears to pivot about the - centerline of the deck.’”o” A “large dent” was noted in the bottom shell plating extending Prior to World War II the United States from the port propeller guard to the centerline, focused considerable attention on destroyer with an 18-inch-deep “wrinkle” in the main deck design and construction; in 1922 it possessed plating at the stern, with another wrinkle “of the largest destroyer fleet in the world.104 The varying depth and width in the port side shell basic pattern for prewar destroyers was set with plating. It is 2.5 feet deep and 18 inches wide the Farragut class destroyers of 1934; they were at frame 170 and tapers to nothing at frame followed by larger “leader” destroyers of the 130. The sheer strake appears crushed between Porter class of 1935-1936. The next class, and frame 70 and 80.’’101 The starboard side was the first to introduce “extreme steam conditions” not examined because the destroyer was lying was the Mahan class. The Mahan destroyers on it. “incorporated prototypes of a new generation of destroyer machinery, which combined increases Damage topside included the missing stacks and in m-essure and steam tem~erature with a new mainmast, “badly damaged” light superstructure, typ~ of lightweight, fast-ruining turbine.’’105

67 Thus was introduced a class “whose long antisubmarine warfare screen until April endurance was so important for Pacific 1943.’09 warfare o’’lOe The Mahan class was also important in that additional above-the-waterline Returning to Pearl Harbor on May 6, 1943, 21-inch torpedo tubes were added and gun Lamson was soon dispatched to . The crew shelters were built for the superimposed destroyer participated in the bombardment of weapons fore and aft for the first time.i’~ The New Britain and was one of four destroyers Mahan destroyers were the first destroyers that penetrated Japanese lines some 160 miles fitted with emergency diesel generators. to bombard the main Japanese naval base at Eighteen of these destroyers were built between Madang in on November 29, 1943. 1935 and 1936, among them, Lamson. As part of the U.S. Fifth Fleet, Lamson served off New Guinea and in the Marshall Islands Lamson was laid down on March 20, 1934, at through much of 1944. On October 20, 1944, the Corporation, Bath, Maine. Lamson was ordered to join the Seventh Fleet The ship was launched on June 17, 1936, and and proceeded to the Philippines. In was commissioned on October 21, 1936, at the December 1944, Lamson was deployed off . After a shakedown cruise Leyte as fighter director ship for small convoys to South America, the destroyer proceeded going through the Surigao Straits to reinforce through the Panama Canal on July 1 for the troops ashore, Attacked by kamikazes, these Pacific. For the entire month of July, Lamson convoys were badly mauled. On December 6, searched the Marshall and Gilbert Islands for 1944, Lamson’s sister ship Mahan was sunk at missing aviatrix Amelia Emhart. Returning to 11:00 a.m.; at 3:00 p.m., the convoy was again the United States, Lamson was based at San attacked, A kamikaze came in low from astern Diego for the next four years except for a and hit Lamson’s after stack with its right wing one-month deployment on the East Coast in before cartwheeling into the superstructure: 1938. Ordered to Pearl Harbor in October 1941, Lamson was deployed with other vessels The flame of the explosion reached to the in an unsuccessful search for the Japanese Task top of the mast and flashed from stem to Force on December 7-8, 1941. The destroyer stern. 21 enlisted men and 4 officers was then detached and sent to Johnston Island were either killed instantly or died of to rescue civilians from the advancing Japanese. wounds received, 1 man was missing and With refugees aboard, Lamson arrived at Pearl 54 men wounded. The superstructure Harbor on January 3, 1942,106 from the forecastle deck up and both stacks were completely destroyed. The In February 1942, Larnson was sent south to forward fireroom was flooded. A join the ANZAC squadron in . This tug.,. attempted to put out the fires but it six-vessel squadron (USS Chicago, USS Perkins, appeared hopeless, all remaining men HMAS Australia, HMZNS Achilles, HMZNS aboard the Lamson were put aboard the Leander, and Lamson), was formed to keep tug. Just as the USS Flusser, which was South Pacific supply lines open, The destroyer standing by, prepared to sink the Larnson was sent back to Pearl Harbor on June 1 to with torpedoes, the tug reported making serve in the reserve line for the Battle of headway against the fires and the ship Midway. Detached from this unit on June 13, was saved.’ 10 Lamson was sent to Mare Island Navy Yard for an overhaul before being deployed again to Towed to safety, the destroyer received the South Pacific. On October 22, 1942, rudimentary repairs and proceeded under its Lamson and sister ship Mahan raided Japanese own power to Pearl Harbor and then to picket boats between the Gilbert and Ellice Bremerton for repairs. Lamson made the trip Islands; together they sank a 7,000-ton armed with its torpedo tubes loaded “with enough auxiliary. After a month-long duty patrolling torpedoes to sink a battleship” but jammed by Guadalcanal, Lamson joined Task Force 67 and the kamikaze attack,’ 11 fought in the Battle of Tassafaranga and then patrolled the as part of an After arriving at Bremerton on January 16, 1945, 90 percent of the ship’s superstructure

68 artist Grant the destruction during Able. :al Center)

The stern of the sunken Lamson after Able. (U.S. Naval Institute) was removed and a new deckhouse was 12 seconds after the burst show the destroyer installed; “electrical repairs on the Lamson upright, but with heavy superstructure damage; required four times more work than usually is a second photograph, taken nearly six minutes required for a complete electrical overhaul .... after the burst, shows the same. At 9:40 a.m. Bomb fragmentation had pierced cables in a reconnaissance plane, PBM Charlie, noted the remote places, More than 200 major circuits destroyer was on its beam ends, “on her had to be installed and 25 percent of the total starboard side with her bridge structure battle damage repair fell to the electrical underwater, and the port side of her bottom shop.’’ 112 The destroyer steamed from above the surface. A large oil slick... trailing to Bremerton on April 15 for San Diego, and then leeward.’’115 Lamson remained afloat at least quickly proceeded back to the Pacific. until 2:00 p.m., when PBM Charlie departed the Stationed off Iwo Jima, Lmnson spent the lagoon; at 5:00 p.m., USS Reclaimer (ARS-42) remainder of the war rescuing downed aviators made a quick tour of the lagoon and found “no who ditched while returning from striking the trace of the Lanzson.’’118 Lamson was Japanese home islands. At the war’s end, the decommissioned on July 29 and stricken from destroyer was sent to Sasebo as part of the the Navy Register on August 15, 1946. occupation force, departing for Pearl Harbor on October 29, and arriving there on November 9, 1945. Lamson was ordered retained in inactive USS APOGON (SS-308) status on November 15 “in view of experimental tests” and was sent to San Diego on November Characteristics 29,1’3 At year’s end, the destroyer returned to Pearl Harbor, where it was prepared for USS Apogon was a welded, riveted, and Operation Crossroads. high-tensile Ba/ao-class steel submarine--311.8 feet long overall, with a 27.3-foot extreme Lamson steamed from Pearl on May 21, 1946, beam, a height of 47.2 feet, and a 15.3-foot for Bikini, The destroyer sailed with Submarine draft at surface trim. Apogon displaced 1,525 Division 111, made up of Skipjack, Tuna, Skate, tons standard surfaced and 2,424 tons and Searaven, also bound for Crossroads. On submerged. ii’ The boat’s two shafts were the afternoon of Thursday, May 30, 1946, driven by twin Elliot electric motors, each rated Lamson arrived at Bikini and was anchored at at 2,740 shaft horsepower for a total of 5,480 “Berth 142” in 21 fathoms of water, According SHP. While surfaced, electricity was provided to the ship’s log for June 30, 1946, the main by four Fairbanks-Morse diesel engines, each engines were secured on 12 hours notice, the rated at 5,400 brake horsepower. While gyro was secured, and boiler No. 4 alone was submerged, Apogon’s motors were powered by lit for auxiliary purposes, That morning the 252 Exide battery cells. Apogon was capable of crew was mustered, evacuated to USS Hervico 20.25 knots surfaced and 8.75 knots (APA-45), and the last inspection of the ship submerged.118 The boat’s primary armament was made. In the afternoon the fires were consisted of ten 21-inch torpedo tubes--six allowed to die under the No. 4 boiler, the located forward and four aft. Apogon carried engineering plant was secured, and condition 24 Mark torpedoes. The boat also mounted a “affirm” was set: “ship is secured throughout” single 5-inch125 caliber gun on deck; lighter AA before the last of the crew departed. The log guns were also fitted. reported on Monday, July 1, “Anchored as before, 0902 Bomb for Test ‘ABLE’ was EMQzY detonated. 0930 Lamson was reported as capsized, with her keel in the air, as a result of The built hundreds of “fleet the atom bomb detonation. In the early boat” during the Second World afternoon the Larnson rolled onto her port side War. One hundred thirty-two of the Balao and sank stern first in 21 fathoms of water,’”’4 class, the most common U.S. submarine of the war, were constructed at shipyards throughout Lamson was anchored approximately 700 yards the country, As part of this effort, beginning abeam and slightly aft of the actual zeropoint in 1940, an order was placed for 73 Gate-class for the Able bomb’s detonation. Photos taken vessels, “in response to the realization that the

70 U.S. would probably become involved in the amphibious landing force, and the submarines war.’” lg Longer, tougher, and with worked together to invade Tarawa and the more endurance, the Gates were supplemented Gilbert Islands and prevent a Japanese after Pearl Harbor by an order for 132 counterstrike. Apogon and two additional near-identical Balao-class submarines. The submarines were stationed at the entrance to Balaos were slightly reconfigured for Truk, the Japanese naval stronghold, in order prefabrication and were built with a higher to attack Japanese ships attempting a sortie to tensile steel that extended their diving depth the Gilberts. One of the boats, USS Corvina 100 feet beyond the Gato boats’ 300-foot (SS-226), was lost in the operation, but Apogon operating limit. escaped without harm.122 Not long after this, the sub scored its first kill on December 4, Of these submarines, all 73 Gato and 101 of 1943, when Daido Maru, a former gunboat of the Balao boats saw combat, all of it in the 889 tons, was sunk north of the Marshalls.123 Pacific.’zo These boats waged a terrible war of In February 1944, U.S. carrier aircraft pounded attrition against Japan’s navy and merchant the Japanese fleet anchored in Truk Lagoon as marine, particularly the latter. U.S. submarines part of Operation Hailstone. Following this sank most of Japan’s merchant fleet, crippling highly successful action, a second strike at the industrial capabilities of the empire and Saipan was orchestrated with a pack of four forcing the abandonment of far-flung outposts. submarines, including Apogon, surrounding the area. The raid was a success, and submarines USS Abadejo (SS-308) was laid down at the sank six ships escaping from Saipan. In June Portsmouth Navy Yard in 1942. Renamed 1944, Apogon sailed with three other boats, Apogon on September 24 of the same year, the Guardfish (SS-217), Piranha (SS-389), and submarine was launched March 10, 1943. After Thresher (SS-200) in a wolf-pack known as the fitting out, Apogon was commissioned on July “Mickey Finns.” Working off Formosa, the 16, 1943, and proceeded to the Pacific.121 The wolf-pack sank 41,000 tons of Japanese boat made eight war patrols, sinking three shipping, but Apogon did not get a kill.124 The Japanese vessels totalling 7,575 tons, Apogon’s boat’s next sinking was on September 27, 1944, first patrol was out of Pearl Harbor on when the 1,999-ton freighter Hachirogata Maru November 3, 1943. In later patrols, the was torpedoed.125 submarine sortied from Majuro and Midway. Apogon was one of ten submarines deployed for Apogon played an important role in Operation Galvanic in November 1943. In this coordinating attack information with the other coordinated action, a carrier task force, boats as had been done when the sub was a

I member of the “Mickey Finns.’’12E Apogon’s last for a total of 5,480 SHP, While submerged, kill came in June 1945 as the submarines Pilotfish’s motors were powered by 252 Exide blockaded Japanese ports and commenced battery cells. Pilotfish was capable of 20.25 finishing off the rapidly diminishing merchant knots surfaced and 8,75 knots submerged.131 marine of the nearly defeated nation. North of The boat’s primary armament consisted of ten the Kuriles, Apogon ambushed the 2,614-ton 21-inch torpedo tubes; six tubes were located transport Hakuai Maru on June 18, sending it forward and four tubes aft. Pilotfish carried 24 to the bottom. 127 Apogon returned from its last Mark 14 torpedoes. As built, the boat carried patrol on September 2, 1945. a 5-inch/25 caliber gun on the deck aft of the sail and a single 40mm Bofors antiaircraft gun Consigned to the Operation Crossroads tests, forward of the sail. When sunk at Operation Apogon arrived at San Diego on September 11, Crossroads, Pilotfish had been modified to a 1945, There the boat was readied for the tests. late-war configuration; the 5-inch gun had been One of eight submarines selected for removed, and twin 20mm Oerlikon AA guns Crossroads, Apogon was modified to submerge had been mounted aft of the periscope shears and surface without a crew on board. on the sail, According to Bombs at Bikini, “never before had there been occasion to submerge a EMQY submarine without crew aboard, The method used was to fill part of the ballast tanks with USS Pilotfish (SS-386) was laid down at the water, then suspend heavy from the Portsmouth Navy Yard, New Hampshire, on bow and stern by cables of carefully chosen March 15, 1943. The submarine was launched length. These weights overcame the August 30, 1943. After fitting out, Pilotjish was submarine’s residual buoyancy and drew her commissioned December 16, 1943, and down to the desired depth. She could be proceeded to the Pacific after training on surfaced again by pumping air back into her March 29, 1944, arriving at Pearl Harbor on ballast tanks.’’i28 April 26,132 At this time submarines were deployed in wolf-packs, and on its first patrol, Lightly damaged during Able, Apogon sank Pilotfish was sent out with the pack known as during Baker. Shortly after sinking, Navy divers “Blair’s Blasters,” which included Pintado and located the submarine in 1.80 feet of water, Shark under tactical command of Capt. L, N, entered the boat, and began salvage operations, Blair of Pintado.i33 The boat made five war which included blowing air into the flooded patrols, beginning the first, to the Marianas, in hulk. The salvage efforts were abandoned, May 1944. (By this time, the Pacific war had however, before the boat was brought to the turned against Japan. Submarines played an surface. Apogon was decommissioned and important role by sinking merchant ships stricken from the Navy Register on February seeking to supply, reinforce, or withdraw troops 25, 1947,129 cut off in the Marianas.) Subsequent patrols took Pi/otfish to the Benin Islands, the East China Sea, Marcus Island, and off the southeast USS P/LOTF/SH (S3-386) coast of Japan. The submarine was not able to make a successful attack except on the third Characteristics patrol, when the submarine hit and badly damaged a Japanese cargo ship off the USS Pilotfish was a welded and riveted, Bonins,i34 In 1945 Pilotfish served as the high-tensile-steel submersible Balao-class boat. command vessel for a coordinated-attack group Pilotjish was 311.8 feet long overall, with a sent to the east China Sea. This group was 27.3-foot extreme beam, a height of 47,2 feet, credited as being strategically essential to the and a 15.3-foot draft at surt%ce trim. Pilotfish success of the Iwo Jima assault.is6 In its last displaced 1,525 tons standard when surfaced war patrol, Pilotjish served on lifeguard picket and 2,424 tons when submerged.’so The boat’s duty off the Japanese home islands, armed with two shafts were driven by twin GE electric AA guns and standing by to rescue downed motors, each rated at 2,740 shaft horsepower, airmen returning from the bombing of Japan.’ae

72 1947.140 Pilotfish lies on the bottom of the lagoon at its mooring for the Baker test.

USS G/U./AM (APA-57)

Characteristics

USS Gilliam was a welded steel vessel 426 feet long overall, with a waterline length of 400 feet, an extreme beam of 58 feet, a maximum depth of hold of 37 feet, and a 15.6-foot draft. Gilliam displaced 6,800 tons standard. The twin screws were driven by Westinghouse Steam Turbines that developed 6,000 shaft horsepower at 18 knots. Steam was provided by two After provisioning at Guam, Pilotfish departed oil-burning Babcock and Wilcox boilers. The for its sixth war patrol on August 9, 1945. vessel was armed with a single 5-inch/38 caliber Taking up position off Japan, the submarine gun, four twin-mounted 40mm Bofors was ordered to cease hostile action on August antiaircraft guns, and ten single 20mm Oerlikon 15 when the Japanese surrendered. After guns. Gilliam carried thirteen LCVPS (Landing cruising off K1 Suido on lifeguard duty and Craft Vehicles, Personnel), one LCPL (Landing neutrality patrol, Pilot$ish was ordered to stand Craft Personnel, Large), and 1,032 tons of in to Tokyo Bay as part of the fleet making the cargo or 849 troops.’41 The superstructure was formal occupation of Japan, With 11 other located in the center of the ship; two masts, submarines, Pilotfish was present, moored one forward and one aft, were fitted with alongside the submarine tender Proteus (AS-19), booms and steam winches that handled cargo during the formal surrender ceremonies on and the ship’s landing craft. September 2, 1945.137 Departing Japan on September 3, Pilotjish arrived at Pearl Harbor E&!2D! on the 12th. From there the sub was sent to San Francisco for lay-up after 18 months’ duty USS Gilliam, a type S4-SE2-BU1 transport, was in the Pacific, with 313 days and 75,075 miles built under a U.S. Maritime Commission of war patrols.i38 After arrival in the United contract in 1944 by the Consolidated Steel States, the submarine was consigned to Corporation of Wilmington, California.142 Operation Crossroads. Pilotjish was one of Launched on March 28, 1944, Gilliam was the eight submarines originally slated for scrapping first of 32 Gilliam-class attack transports, or reserve fleet lay-up, that were instead specially designed vessels that served as modified for use in the atomic bomb tests. amphibious ships. “Unlike conventional Lightly scorched while moored on the surface freighters and transports, attack transports were for Able, Pilotfish was submerged for Baker. designed to unload their cargoes over the side Closest of the submarines to the zeropoint, into landing craft which they carried; in a sense Pilotjish was sunk by the Baker blast. their beaching craft were their main batteries.’’143 Gilliam was acquired by the U.S. According to some accounts, Pilotfish, although Navy on July 31, 1944, and commissioned the decommissioned August 29, 1946, little more next day as APA-57. Gilliam departed San than a month after sinking, was in fact raised, Francisco Bay on October 16, 1944, with 750 towed away, and “resunk” on October 16, 1948, Army troops bound for New Guinea. Gilliam as a target off Eniwetok.’ag This report is in ferried troops to the Philippines in support of error; Navy records indicate the ship was the reconquest of those islands and served as a “exp’ended” at Bikini on July 25, 1946, receiving ship for crews and injured personnel decommissioned on August 29, 1946, and of damaged or lost warships during the Battle stricken from the Navy list on February 28, of Leyte Gulf. Gilliam also participated in the assault on Okinawa. At the war’s end the

73 US. Naval Institute) - trans~ort carried occupation troops to Sasebo, The vessel was armed with a single 5-inch/38 Japa~, and ferried re~urning troops home as caliber gun, four twin-mounted 40mm Bofors part of Operation “Magic Carpet.’’i44 antiaircraft guns, and ten single 20mm Oerlikon guns. Carlisle carried thirteen LCVPS, one Gilliam was selected as a target vessel for LCPL, and 1,032 tons of cargo or 849 troops.i47 Operation Crossroads. Arriving at Pearl The ship’s superstructure was located Harbor on February 16, 1946, the ship was amidships; two masts, fore and aft, were fitted readied for the tests.’ 45 Gilliam was moored with booms and steam winches to handle aft of Nevada, the projected target for the Able landing craft and cargo. test detonation. The bomb instead detonated off Nevada and close to Gilliam, “the only ship 11.@Z3! located within 1,000 feet of the projected zeropoint .“l46 The vessel sank in less than two USS Carlisle, a type S4-SE2-BU1 transport, was minutes. built under a U.S. Maritime Commission contract by the Consolidated Steel Corporation of Wilmington, Californiaoi4* Carlisle was one USS CARLISLE (APA-69) of 32 Gilliam class attack transports.i4g The keel was laid on May 12, 1944; Carlisle was Characteristics launched little more than two months later on July 30. Named for Carlisle , Kentucky, USS Carlisle was a welded steel vessel 426 feet the vessel was completed and acquired by the long overall, with a waterline length of 400 feet, U.S. Navy on November 28, 1944.150 It was an extreme beam of 58 feet, a maximum depth commissioned the next day at Terminal Island, of hold of 37 feet, and a 15.6-foot draft. Los Angeles. After provisioning, outfitting, and Carlisle displaced 6,800 tons standard. The some alterations at San Pedro, the ship twin screws were driven by two Westinghouse underwent a shakedown cruise in December steam turbines that developed 6,000 shaft 1944, First sent to San Diego for amphibious horsepower at 18 knots. Steam was provided landing training, the transport was finally by two oil-burning Babcock and Wilcox boilers. ordered to Pearl Harbor on January 23, 1945,

74 -- -.. ._ PORT SIDE

RECONSTRUCTED FROM DIVERS REPORTS

fnst’s 1Y40 arawlng 0] ttte sunken Carllsle. (National Archives)

75 arriving there on January 31. The ship’s main watertight compartments, four on each side, in propulsion motor had shorted and burned while addition to fore and after peak tanks. i53 The underway to Pearl Harbor; after landing the ARDC was capable of drydocking submarines, troops and cargo aboard, Carlisle was sent to destroyers, and LSTS. Two Christmas trees San Francisco for repairs. Returning to San were mounted on the wing walls for Crossroads. Diego in March 1945, Carlisle loaded personnel and cargo and again sailed for Pearl Harbor on Hi@3! March 17, 1945, arriving on March 26, Carlisle was used for crew training in the Hawaiian ARDC-13 was rushed to completion in March Islands before the vessel returned to the West 1946 to serve as a target vessel for Operation Coast in June 1945. After a trip to Seattle and Crossroads. No armament was fitted, and the San Francisco, the ship returned to Pearl, main discharge pumps and cranes were never where it was sent to Eniwetok, Ulithi, and installed, Only one anchor windlass was fitted. Samar, arriving at the latter port on August 11, The vessel was only 60 percent complete when 1945,16’ towed to Bikini. “Otherwise, the dock was essentially complete insofar as required to At the war’s end the ship was detailed to perform its function as a target ship,’’164 “Magic Carpet” service, carrying troops from ARDC-13 was moored off Saratoga for the the Philippines, Pearl Harbor, and Japan to Able test blast. The pressure wave from the Seattle and San Francisco. In this capacity, blast came from approximately 12 degrees Carlisle had loaded 44 officers and 92 enlisted forward of the port beam; this cracked the port men at Tokyo, and on January 26, 1946, sailed wingwall, carried away the control house, for Seattle. Four days later, while at sea, the spalled concrete and strained the hull ship was ordered to Pearl Harbor for “sufficiently to open hairline cracks, for the assignment to Joint Task Force One for most part, throughout the length of the dock. Operation Crossroads. Arriving at Pearl on A few of the cracks are well defined.’’155 February 4, the ship was “stripped” during that Beached on Enyu where temporary repairs were month before sailing to as one of effected, ARDC-13 was remoored in the array eighteen attack transports slated for the tests.15e for Baker, Refloated and moored in the target Moored close to Gilliam, Carlisle was sunk by array for Baker, ARDC-13 was damaged by the the Able test burst on July 1, 1946. Uss detonation, but remained afloat. It was not Carlis[e was stricken from the Navy Register on inspected until eight days after Baker, At that August 15, 1946. time, “slow leakage was observed through cracks in the underwater body which had resulted from Test A, The rate of flooding was ARDC-13 calculated to be approximately 30 percent of that which was observed before temporary Characteristics repairs,.,, Two days later the dock capsized as a result of progressive flooding of the port side The floating drydock ARDC-13 (Auxiliary compartmentso’’i58 After capsizing, ARDC-13 Repair Drydock, Concrete) was built of remained afloat, with its starboard side up, steel-reinforced concrete with a lift capacity of until sunk by demolition charges on August 6, 2,800 tons. The dock’s overall length was 389 1946. feet, with an 84-foot width, and a height of 40 feet, The dock floated with a 9-foot, 6-inch draft, The dock was built of three sections; (1) YO-160 the 5-3/4-inch to 6-inch thick slabs that formed the hull, which consisted of the side, bottom, Characteristics and dock floor; (2) the 5-1/2-inch-thick port; and (3) the starboard wing walls, each YO-160 (Yard Oiler) was a steel-reinforced containing a 5-inch-thick intermediate and concrete barge, 375-feet long overall, with a 6-1/2-inch-thick top deck. The vessel was 56-foot beam and a 28.6-foot draft. The barge further reinforced by concrete transverse frames displaced 6,422 tons, and was registered at every six feet, The hull was divided into eight 5,426 tons gross and 5,295 tons net. The

76 barge’s capacity was 62,900 cubic barrels of fuel were Mark 5 and Mark 6 versions. The latter oil.i57 was an improved design that permitted stern loading and had increased living Hism?! accommodations. One purpose of the Mark 6 modification was to serve as links in floating YO-160 was ordered by the Maritime causeways between LSTS (Landing Ships, Tank) Commission from the Concrete Ship and the shore. They had a detachable stern Constructors of National City, California. The plate, “with a lip beneath it for the LST ramp hull was converted to naval use almost to engage; ...the superstructure was split in half immediately as construction proceeded in May to permit vehicles to run the entire length of 1943. The completed barge was acquired by the craft.’’1E3 LCTS were propelled by three the llth Naval District, which purchased it screws, each driven by a single 225 HP Gray from the Maritime Commission on August 31, Marine that developed a maximum 1943, at a cost of $2,900,000.156 The barge was speed of 9 knots. The fuel capacity was 11.12 towed to Pearl Harbor by the fleet tug Tawasa tons in addition to 140 gallons of lube oil.1e4 (ATF-92), arriving on November 5, 1943. These craft were usually armed with two single There YO-160 was assigned to. the advanced 20mm antiaircraft guns. According to a bases in the Pacific, arriving at Funafuti in the wartime manual, the LCT was often seen Ellice Islands in December 1943.158 Presumably “transported on LSTS or in sections on APAs the barge spent its entire wartime career there and AKAs. They are the largest of the U.S. before being ordered to Bikini Atoll to open-deck, bow-ramp types.’’1e5 participate in Operation Crossroads in March 1946.

Heavily damaged during Able, YO-160 was sunk The LCT was the largest of all U.S. shipborne by the Baker test blast; Navy reports credit the amphibious warfare craft and the smallest U.S. descending water column as the probable cause. landing craft to receive numbers in their own Photographs of the blast taken from Enyu show right. 168 LCTS were the result of a November the barge’s bow lifted some 36 feet by the blast 1941 British request for a U.S. version of a wave.160 Subsequent photographs show the tank lighter for a projected European invasion. water column covering the vessel. When the The first LCT was completed on June 29, 1942; air cleared, YO-160 was no longer afloat. No the last wartime-built LCT was finished on dives were made. The vessel was stricken from December 22, 1944. In all, five hundred LCTS, the Navy Register on August 15, 1946.161 Mark 5 models were built, along with 965 Mark 6 LCTS.187

LCT-414, 812, 1114, 1175, 1187, and 1237 LCT-1114 was a late-model Mark 6 unit. The vessel was one of ten LCTS requisitioned for Characteristics Operation Crossroads and placed in the target array. LCT-1114 capsized as a result of the The LCT (Landing Craft, Tank) was a welded Baker test detonation and the resulting wave of steel “light but extremely rugged vessel designed water. After the blast, it was observed floating for direct ‘on-the-beach’ loading and bottom up, bow ramp secured, with the “stern unloading .... Equipped with a bow ramp..,the awash and the bow four feet out of the water” bottom is especially designed for next to ARDC-13.16* LCT-1114 remained afloat ‘beaching’ . . . . docking facilities are not for four days, gradually drifting in a westerly required.’” 82 These standardized craft were direction “until it was finally sunk off Amen 117.5 feet long overall, with a beam of 32 feet, Island with a demolition charge to prevent it and a light draft of 1.5 feet forward. The from becoming a menace to navigation.’’ieg loaded draft was 3.75 feet forward. LCTS displaced 134 tons light and 286 tons loaded Similarly, the other LCTS were sunk in the days and could carry 150 tons of cargo; this could after the Baker test as hazards to navigation. be four medium or three heavy tanks. The A total of 18 vessels were beached off Bikini LCT came in several models: the target LCTS Island during the Baker test; among them were

77 –, I I

six LCTS: the Mark 5 LCT-412, and five Mark Vol. XXXVIII (New York Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, 1928), p. 64. 6 LCTS--NOS, 812, 1175, 1187, and 1237, which were beached between the high and low 2 mark on the lagoon side of the island. LCT- Roger Chesnau, ed. Conway’s All the World’s Fighting Ships, 1922-1946 (New York: Mayflower Books, 1980), p. 1187 and LCT-1237 “suffered major flooding as 101. Also see the specifications for Saratoga in the a result of apparent bottom damage due to contract book, contract No. 199, Saratoga, in the New pounding against coral ledges and working in York Shipbuilding Corporation Collection, Philadelphia Maritime Museum, Philadelphia, and the official ship’s the surf.’’ 170 They were also displaced by wave characteristics card on file at the Ships History Branch, action. LCT-812 suffered major damage, with Naval Historical Center. its bow ramp torn free and missing after the 3 test; both it and LCT-412 became waterborne Rock, “Some Observations on the Design of Airplane “as a direct result of the waves which Carriers,” p. 64. immediately followed the test ....’’i71 4 Ibid., p. 69, Also see Lieut. Commander J, T. Post-Baker inspection of LCT-1187 found that Alexander, USN, “Trial Trip Data of the U,S.S. Saratoga, ” Transactions of the Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, Vol, XXXVH (New the tanks from about midships aft were York: Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, completely flooded. The manhole cover 1929), p. 201. plate to the void below the forward s starboard wing tank deckhouse was not Norman Friedman, US. Aircraft Carriers: An Illustrated secured in place. This void was flooded. Design History (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1983), The galley was flooded to a depth of two p, 48, Hereafter cited as Friedman, Aircraft Carriers,

feet from water coming in over the 6 stern .... This craft was slightly above Ibid., p. 51. Also see Saratoga, War Damage Report, radiological tolerance when boarded on 1 Final report, Torpedo Damage, 11 January 1942, no serial, Box 615, and Saratoga, War Damage Report, 21 August 1946.172 September 1942, serial 0120, World War II Action Reports, Operational Archives, Naval Historical Center. After the Baker detonation, LCT-1237 was 7 displaced about 20 feet along the beach and Friedman, Aircraft Carriers, pp. 53-54. swung around parallel to the water’s edge. 8 Director of Ship Material, Joint Task Force One, This craft was leaking badly before the “Bureau of Ships Group Technical Inspection Report, test and by Baker day the engine room USS Saratoga (CV3), Test Able, Operation Crossroads,” were completely flooded. The tanks just p. 14. National Archives Record Group 374, Records of the Defense Atomic Support Agency, National Archives. forward of the crew’s quarters was Hereafter cited as “Technical Inspection Report, completely flooded. The tanks just aft of Saratoga, Test Able;” the identical report, from Test the forward stowage compartments Baker, will be similarly cited.

contained about one foot of water, The 9 after end of the galley contained 1-1/2 feet Navy Department Press Release, March 20, 1925. On of water. The sounding hole covers were file at Ships History Branch, U.S. Naval Historical Center. Also see Chesnau, Conway’s All the Worlds missing from the flooded tanks. Fighting Ships, p. 10L Indications are that much of the tank flooding was due to waves washing over 10 Richard Humble, U.S. Fleet Carriem of World War II, the vehicle deck, but leaky propeller shaft fPoole: Blanford Press. 1984). DD. 18-19. Hereafter cited glands probably caused flooding of the is Humble, Fleet C&rie& -‘ Also see Harold and engine space.’ 73 Margaret Sprout, Toward a New Order of Sea Power: American Naval Policy and the World Scene, 1918-1922 (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1940), pp. 230-235. NOTES 11 E, H. Rigg, “The Launch of the Airplane Carrier U.S,S. 1 Saratoga, ” Transactions of the Society of Naval Rear Admiral George R. Rock, USN, “Some Architects and Marine Engineers, Vol. XXXIH (New Observations on the Design of Airplane Carriers and York: Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, Notes on the Saratoga ant Lexingt&,” Transactions of 1925), p. 148. the Socie~ of Naval Architects and Marine -?3ngineers, 12 29 Launch program, USS Saratoga, April 7, 1925. Original Commander, Joint Task Force One, “Report on Atomic cow on file, Shim Historv Branch, Naval Historical Bomb Tests Able and Baker (Operation Crossroads) C&iter. The same quote ‘may also” be found in the Conducted at Bikini Atoll, Marshall Islands, 1 July 1946 Philadelphia Evening Star, March 21, 1925, and 25 July 1946,” Vol. 1, Chapter VII, p. 7. Copy on file at Operational Archives, Naval Historical Center. 13 Mooney, Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships, 30 vol. VI, p. 339. Shurcliff, “Technical History,” Vol. II, p. 6.S.

14 31 Humble, Fleet Carriers, p. 21. Director of Ship Material, “Technical Inspection Report, Saratoga, Test Able,” p. 7. 15 Philadelphia Evening Star, March 21, 1921. 32 Shurcliff, “Technical History,” p. 6.12. 16 As quoted in Friedman, Aircraft Carn”ers, p. 49. 33 Director of Ship Material, Wechnical Inspection Report, 17 Saratoga, Test Baker,” p. 8. Humble, Fleet Carriers, p. 21. 34 18 Hanson W. Baldwin, dispatch of 22:02 to The New York Ibid., p. 27. Times, July 25, 1946, from on board USS Appalachian. Press bis~atches, July 25, 1946, from nos. 2~3~ to 2644, 19 National Archives Record Group 374, Records of the Mooney, Dictiona~ of American Naval Fighting Ships, Defense Atomic Support Agency: vol. VI, p. 340. 35 20 Ship’s characteristics card, Ships History Branch, Naval Humble, Fleet Carriers, p. 27. Historical Center.

21 36 William F. Halsey and Joseph Bryan 111}Admiral Chesnau, Conway’s All the World’s Fighting Ships, p. 91 llalse~s Stoy (New York McGraw-Hill, 1947), p. 62. and Jane’s Fighting Ships, 1920 (London: Sampson Low, Marston & Co., Ltd., 1920), p. 187. Also see the 22 original contract specifications for Contract No. 97, Mooney, Dictionary of Amen”can Naval Fighting Ships, Arkansas, in the New York Shipbuilding Corporation vol. VI, p. 340. Collection, Philadelphia Maritime Museum, Philadelphia, and the ship’s characteristics card, Ships History Branch, 23 Naval Historical Center, Washington, D.C. Ibid., pp. 340-341. 37 24 Jane’s Fighting Ships, 1935(New York D. Van Nostrand Cited in Ships Section, Office of Public Information, Company, Inc., 1935), p. 492, and Chesnau, Conwa~s All Navy Department, “History of USS Saratoga (CV-3),” the World’s Fighting Ships, p. 91. (August 29, 1946), p. 5. Copy on file in Ships History Branch, Naval Historical Center. Hereafter cited as Ship 38 Section, “History of USS Saratoga.” Jane’s Fighting Ships, 1944-45, Corrected to April 1946 (New York The MacMillan Company, 1947), p. 458, and 25 Chesnau, Conway’s All the World’s Fighting Ships, p. 91. Mooney, Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships, vol. VI, p. 341. 39 Ibid. 26 Ibid., p. 341. Also see Navy Department Press Release, 40 June 15, 1945, “The ‘SARA’s’ Luck Runs Out,” on file Contract Data, USS Arkmzsas (BB-33), New York at Ships; History Branch, Naval Historical Center. Also Shipbuilding Corporation Collection, Philadelphia see a reminiscent account by an officer, Irwin Patch, Jr., Maritime Museum; also see James L. Mooney, “USS Saratoga at Iwo Jima,” Shipmate, Volume LII, No. Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships, p. 62. 5 (June 1989), pp. 20-22. Shipmate k the magazine of the United States NavaI Academy Alumni Association. 41 A detailed report on the action and the damage suffered Ibid. is found in Saratoga report, serial 007 of 21 February 1945,Box 616, World War 11Action Reports, Operational 42 Archives, Naval Historical Center. Ibid.

27 43 Ships Section, “History of USS Saratoga,” p. 10. Ibid. 28 44 Ibid. Shurcliff, Bombs at Bikini, p. 134.

79 45 60 Ibid,, p. 164, I am indebted to Charles Haberlein, Director of Ship Material, Joint Task Force One, Curator of Photoerauhs. Naval Historical Center, who “Bureau of Ships Group, Technical Inspection Report, conducted a det~il;d ‘analysis of the Baker “Blast Nagato @x-Jap BB), Test Able, Operation Crossroads,” photographs and spotted the mast in the blast column. pp. 105-106. National Archives Record Group 374. 46 61 Hansgeorg Jentschura, Dieter Jung, and Peter Mickel, Director of Ship Material, Joint Task Force One, Warships of the Imperia! Japanese Navy, 1869-194S “Bureau of Ships Group, Technical Inspection Report, (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1986), p. 28. Nagato (13x-JapBB), Test Baker, Operation Crossroads,” p. 6. 47 Ibid, 62 Ito and Pineau, The End of the Imperial Japanese Nayv, 48 p. 1. U.S. Division of Naval Intelligence, ONI-221-J (June 194s). 63 Jentschura, Jung, and Mickel, Wamhips of the Zmperial 49 Japanese Navy, 1869-1945, p. 111. Also see ONI-221-J Jatws Fighting Ships, 1945, rt.p, and Jane’s Fighting Ships, 1944-45, Corrected to April, 1946 (New York The MacMillan Company, 1947), p. 307. 50 Jentschura, Jung and Mickel, Warships of the ImpetiaI 64 Jaoanese Naw, D. 2& also see Ste~hen Howarth. The Zbid. F&hting Ship;’ ;f the Rising Sun: ‘The Drama of the Imperial Japanese Navy, 1895-1945 (New York: 65 Atheneum, 1983), p. 134. Jentschura, Jung, and Mickel, Warships of the Imperial Japanese Navy, p, 112. .51 Hiroyuki Agawa, The Reluctant Admiral: Yamamoto and 66 the Imperial Navy, trans. John Bester (Tokyo and New Ibid, York Kodansha International Ltd., 1979), pp. 200-201. 67 52 Director of Ship Material, Joint Task Force One, Gordon W, Prange, Donald M. Goldstein, and Katherine “Bureau of Ships Group, Technical Inspection Report, V. Dillon, At Dawn We Slept; The Untold Story of Pearl Sakawa (Ex-Jap CL), Test Able,” p. 9. National Harbor (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1982), Archives Record Group 374. pp. 503-504. 68 53 [bid., p, 6, Agawa, The Reluctant Admiral: Yamamoto and the Imperial Na~, pp. 269-270. 69 Ibid., pp. 5.6. 54 Gordon W, Prange, Donald M, Goldstein, and Katherine 70 V. Dillon, Miracle at Midway (New York: McGraw-Hill Zbid., pp. 6-7. Book Company, 1983); also see Mitsuo Fuchida and Masatake Okumiya, Midway: The Battle that Doomed 71 Japan, The Japanese Navy’s Story (Annapolis, Maryland: Ibid,, p, 5, United States Naval Institute Press, 1955). 72 55 Zbid., p. 8, Masanori Ito and Roger Pineau, The End of the Imperial Japanese Navy (New York Jove Books, 1986), pp. 93-110, 73 passim, The ship’s specifications are found in a circa January 1946 document, “A Short Historical Sketch of the ‘Prinz 56 Eugen’ IX-300,” with “General Statements Involving the Zbid., p. 181. Ship’s Characteristics,” Serial 1O-OOC,Operational Archives, U.S. Naval Historical Center, Additionally, 57 statements regarding the ship are found in Jane’s Ibid., pp. 198-205, passim, Fighting Ships for 1941-1946, though these entries are not completely reliable. Also Director of Ship Material, 58 Joint Task Force One, “Bureau of Ships Group, Samuel Eliot Morison, HistoW of United States Naval Technical Inspection Report, Prinz Eugen (Ex-German Operations in World War 11, Volume XIV: Victory in the CA), Test Able,” p. 3. National Archives Record Group Pacific, 1945 (Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1975), 374, p. 316. 74 59 Paul S. Schmalenbach and Commander James E. Wise, Certificate of Commendation on file at the USS Arizona Jr., USN, “Prinz Eugen Album,” U.S. Naval Institute Memorial, , , Proceedings (August 1969). Also see “A Short Historical Sketch...” Mr. Schmalenbach was a member of Prinz

8[1 Eugen’s German crew throughout its career and 90 accompanied the vessel to the United States. He and Ibid.; also see Anderson, Action Report, Battle of the other German members of the crew left the ship at Midway, June 5, 1942, Serial 0109, Operational San Diego before it steamed for Pearl Harbor and Archives, Naval Historical Cente~ and Rober~ Cressman, Bikini. That Gallant Ship: USS Yorktown (CV-5) (Missoula, Montana: Pictorial Histories, 1985), pp. 158-160. 75 Ibid. 91 “Historyof USS Anderson.” 76 Ibid. 92 Ibid. 77 Zbid.;, also see “Prinz Eugen,” Our Navy, July 1969, p. 7. 93 Ship’s service record, Ships History Branch, Naval 78 Historical Center. Schmalcnbach and Wise, “PrinzEugenAlbum;”also see Mooney, Dictionary of Amen-can Naval Fighting Ships, 94 p. 388. Director of Ship Material, “Technical Inspection Report, USSAnderson, Test Able,”pp. 8-9. Also see Shurcliff, 79 Bombs at Bikini, p. 131. Captain George L. Dickey, Jr. USN, “The End of the Prinz.” U.S. Naval Institute Proceeding Aurmst 1969, 95 pp. 149-151. Capt. Dickey, then a you~g’offic~r, was in Chesnau, Conwa~s All the Workfs Fighting Ships, p. charge of the attempt to beach Pn”nzf.?ugenat Kwajalein. 127.

80 96 Battelle, Inc. “Summary Report on Salvage Survey of Memorandum, H. C. Bruton, Administrative Aide to Pn”nz Eugen, Supsalv Report No. 6-74, to US Navy, CNO to Vice Admiral Carpender, June 17, 1946. On Supervisor of Salvage, Naval Ships System Command,” file in Anderson’s jacket, Ships History Branch, Naval (June 1974), manuscript on file in the ship’s history file, Historical Center. Ships History Branch, Naval Historical Center. 97 81 Ship’s characteristics card, Ships History Branch, U.S. Chesnau, Conway’s All the Worl@s Fighting Ships, p. Naval Historical Center. 127. Also see the ship’s characteristics card, Ships History Branch, Naval Historical Center, p. 127. 98 Ibid. Also see Friedman, Destroyem, p. 405. 82 Ibid. Also see Norman Friedman, U.S. Destroyers:An 99 Mustratcd Ifistoy (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, Director of Ship Material, Joint Task Force One, 1983), p. 93. Hereafter cited as Friedman, Destroyers. “Bureau of Ships Group, Technical Inspection Report, USS Lamson (D D367), Test Able, Operation 83 Crossroads,” pp. 8-9. National Archives Record Group Chesnau, Conway’s All the World’s Fighting Ships, p. 374. 127. 100 84 Ibid., p. 5. Director of Ship Material, Joint Task Force One, “Bureau of Ships Report, Technical Inspection Report, 101 USSAnderson (DD411), Test Able,” pp.5, 9. National Ibid., p. 6. Archives Record Group 374. 102 85 Ibid. Ibid., pp. 5-6. 103 86 Ibid. Chesnau, Conwa~s All the World’s Fighting Ships, p. 127. 104 Chesnau, Conwa~s All the Worl@s Fighting Ships, p. 87 125. Friedman, Destroyerx, p. 93. 105 88 Friedman, Destroyem, p. 88. “HistoWof USSAnderson(DD 411),” (May 26, 1948), Ships History Branch, Naval Historical Center. 106 Chesnau, Conway’s All the World’s Fighting Ships, p. 89 126. Ibid. 107 Ibid.

81 108 126 “Battle History of the USS Lamson (DD367), 21 October Ibid., p. 364. 1936 till 1 October 1945,” (October 1945), typescript, Ships History Branch, Naval Historical Center, 127 Ibid., pp. 478, 527. 109 Ibid. 128 Shurcliff, Bombs at Bikini, p. 141 also see plate 17, 110 caption, between pp. 118-119. Ibid., also see “Commander John V. Noel, Jr, USN, Awarded Bronze Star Medal,” (October 31, 194S), press 129 release, Navy Department, Lamson file, Ships History John D. Alden, The Fleet Submarine in the US, Navy: Branch, Naval Historical Center, and Capt. John V. Noel, A Design and Construction History (Annapolis: Naval Jr. USN (Ret.) “Homeward Bound,” Shipmate, May 1984, Institute Press, 1979), p. 260. pp, 17-18. 130 111 Chesnau, Conway’s All the Worl@s Fighting Ships, p, Seattle Star, June 19, 1945 and Sun, June 19, 145. Also see the ship’s characteristics card on file at 1945. the Ships History Branch, Naval Historical Center. 112 131 “The USS Haraden and USS Lamson Go Back to War,” Ibid. (June 18, 194S) press release, Navy Department, Lamson file, Ships History Branch, Naval Historical Center, 132 Mooney, Dictiona~ of American Naval Fighting Ships, 113 Vol. V, p. 308. Ship’s service record, USS Lamson, Ships History Branch. 133 114 Roscoe, United States Submarine Operations in World Log Book, USS Lamson, entries for May 30, June 30, War H, p. 341. and July 1, 1946. National Archives Record Group 4S. 134 115 Mooney, Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships, Director of Ship Material, “Technical Inspection Report, p. 309. USS Lamson,” p. 8, 135 116 Ibid. Ibid. 136 117 Ibid. Ship’s characteristics card, Ships History Branch, Naval Historical Center. 137 Roscoe, United States Submarine Operations in World 118 War II, p. 491. Ibid. 138 119 Mooney, Dictiona~ of American Fighting Ships, Vol. 5, Robert C, Stern, U.S. Subs in Action (Carrollton, Texas: p. 308-309, Squadron/Signal Publications, 1983), p, 34, 139 120 Alden, The Fleet Submarine in the US. Navy, p. 268. Ibid. Also see Chesnau, Conwa~s All the Workfs Fighting Ships, p. 145; and Mooney, Dictionaq of American 121 Fighting Ships, Vol. V, p. 308. “History of USS Apogon (SS-308),” (1945), Ships History Branch, Naval Historical Center. Also see ship’s service 40 record, also on file at Ships History Branch. Characteristics card for USS Pilotfish, Naval Historical Center. 122 Theodore Roscoe, United States Submarine Operations 41 in World War ZI (Annapolis: United States Naval Chesnau, Conway’s All the Worlffs Fighting Ships, p. Institute, 1949), pp. 28S-286, 288, 160. 123 142 Ibid., p. 521 also see “History of USS Apogon.” Mooney, Dictiona~ of Amen”can Fighting Ships, Vol. V, p. 308. 124 Roscoe, United States Submarine Operations in World 143 War II, p. 343, Chesnau, Conway’s All the World’s Fighting Ships, p. 160. 125 Ibid., p. 527.

82 144 161 Mooney, Dictionay of Amen”can Fighting Ships, Vol 111, Ship’s characteristics card and service record, Ships p. 97. History Branch, Naval Historical Center.

145 162 Ibid., p. 97, War Shipping Administration and Maritime Commission, U.S. Army and U.S. Navy Floating Equipment, Landing 146 Craft and Misc. Vessels, For Sale (Washington, D.C.: Shurcliff, Bombs at Bikini, p. 130, War Shipping Administration, nsl. [ea. 19S5]) n.p. entry for LCTS. 147 Chesnau, Conwa~s All the World’s Fighting Ships, p. 163 160. ~&anau, Conway’s All the Worl@s Fighting Ships, p.

148 Ship’s characteristics card, Ships History Branch, U.S. 164 Naval Historical Center, Washington, D.C. War Shipping Administration, U.S.Army and U.S. Navy Floating Equipment, n.p. 149 Chesnau, Conway’s All the World’s Fighting Ships, p. 16S 160. U.S. Division of Naval Intelligence, ONZ-54Series: U.S. Naval Vessels (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Navy, 1943) n.p., 150 section on landing craft. This work has now been Ship’s service record, USS Carlisle, Ships History Branch, reprinted, with an ‘introduction by A. D. Baker 111,as Naval Historical Center. Also see “Ship’s History USS US Naval Vessels. 1943 (Annapolis:. . Naval Institute Carlisle (APA-69),” (April 1, 1946) Ships History Branch, Press, 1986). ‘ Naval Historical Center, and Mooney, Dictionary of Amexr”can Naval Fighting Ships, Vol. l,p. 36. 166 Chesnau, Conwajs All the World’s Fighting Ships, p. 151 163. Ibid. 167 152 Zbid. Also see Major L. F. Ellis, C. R. G. Allen, A. E. Ibid. Warhurst, and Sir James Robb, Victo~ in the West: Volume Z: The BattIe of Normandy (London: Her 153 Majesty’s Stationary Office, 1962), pp. 511-512 for a Director of Ship Material, Joint Task Force One, discussion on the development of the LCT. “Bureau of Ships GrouR Technical Inspection Report, USS ARDC-13, Test Able, Operation Crossroads,” p. 13, 168 National Archives Record Group 374. Director of Ship Material, Joint Task Force One, Bureau of Ships Group, “Technical Inspection Report, USS 154 1,~’s 705, 816, 818, 874, 1013, 1078, 1112, 1113, 1114, Ibid, 1115, Test Baker, Operation Crossroads,” p. 170, National Archives Record Group 374. 155 Zbid., p. 7. 169 Ibid., p. 172. 156 Director of Ship Material, Joint Task Force One, Bureau 170 of Ships Group, “Technical Inspection Report, USS Director of Ship Material, Joint Task Force One, Bureau ARDC-13, Test Baker, Operation Crossroads,” p. 3, of Ships Group, “Technical Inspection Report, Beached National Archives Record Group 374. Landing Craft, Test Baker, Operation Crossroads,” p. 3, National Archives Record Group 374. 157 Ship’s characteristics card and service record, Ships 171 Histories Branch, Naval Historical Center. Ibid., p. 4. 158 172 Ibid. Zbid., pp. 10-11.

159 173 Ibid. Funafuti is the capitol of (formerly the Ibid., p. 11. Ellice Islands), and liesat 8.30 S- 179.12 Ebetween the Gilberts and in the South Pacific. 160 Director of Ship Material, Joint Task Force One, Bureau of Ships Group, “Technical Inspection Report, USS YO-160, Test Baker, Operation Crossroads, ” p. 5, National Archives Record Group 374.

83 ARDC 13 ,,.4(,$ R,;,

3B NAGATO

% APA GILLIAM N B ARKANSAS >s PILOTFISH %

APA CARLISLE

YO 160

. ,, \ “~, — CV SARATOGA SS APOGON

Actual positions of the sunken ships at Bikini, asplottedby the U.S. Navy, 1989. (Redrawn by Robbyn Jackson, HABSIHAER)

84