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Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Reproduced with with permission permission of the of copyright the copyright owner. owner.Further reproduction Further reproduction prohibited without prohibited permission. without permission. A HISTORY OF ROADS IN FAIRFAX COUNTY,
VIRGINIA: 1608-1840
by
Heather K. Crowl
submitted to the
Faculty of the College of Arts and Sciences
of American University
in Partial Fulfillment of
the Requirements for the Degree of
Master of Arts
In
Anthropology
Chair: Richard J. Bern, PhD.
o ______T/Emlen Myers, Ph.D.
Dean oi the College Date 2002
American University
Washington, D.C. 20016
mammmsBimm 95 j q
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Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. A HISTORY OF ROADS IN FAIRFAX COUNTY,
VIRGINIA: 1608-1840
by
Heather K. Crowl
ABSTRACT
This thesis documents the history of roads in Fairfax County, Virginia from 1608
to 1840. It describes historic road development, changes in road construction, and the
relationship between roads and the rise of towns and commerce. Historic routes are
mapped on current maps and related to modem transportation routes.
Like other aspects of material culture, roads reflect the transition from the Post
Medieval to the Georgian Order. Initially, bridle paths and rolling roads followed paths
of least resistance to churches and river landings. From 1740 to 1780, the county road
system expanded, towns emerged, and the disparity between the wealthy (who controlled
where roads were built) and other residents widened. From 1780 to 1840, entrepreneurs
formed turnpike companies operated with a combination of private and public funds to
promote regional commerce. After 1840 until the advent of automobile travel, the focus
of transportation shifted to railroads and canals.
n
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6440 General Green Way, Alexandria, VA 22312 Telephone: (703) 750-0510 Toll Free: 1-800-ADC-MAPS Telefax: (703) 750-3092 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT...... ii
LIST OF TABLES...... v
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS...... vi
Chapter
1. INTRODUCTION...... 1
Project Background and Significance ...... 3
Methods...... 5
County Description ...... 7
County Formation ...... 10
2. EARLY ROAD CONSTRUCTION (1608-1740)...... 12
Historic Context...... 12
Early Historic Roads ...... 22
3. EXPANDED ROAD CONSTRUCTION PERIOD (1740-1780)...... 41
Historic Context...... 41
Eighteenth Century Roads ...... 47
Roads to the First Courthouse ...... 53
Roads to Alexandria ...... 56
4. INTENSIVE ROAD CONSTRUCTION PERIOD/TURNPIKE ERA (1783-1840)...... 72
Historic Context...... 72
Late Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Century Roads...... 93
Turnpikes...... 94
Alexandria City Streets ...... 123
iii
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Public Roads ...... 127
5. CONCLUSION ...... 138
BIBLIOGRAPHY...... 142
iv
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Tolls Outlined in the General Turnpike Act o f 1817 ...... 88
Table 2. Tolls Specified in the Act Establishing the Little River Turnpike...... 104
Table 3. Tolls Specified in Faquier and Alexandria Turnpike Act ...... 109
Table 4. Tolls Specified for the Georgetown and Leesburg Turnpike ...... 116
v
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure 1. The Fall Line in Fairfax County ...... 8
Figure 2. Modem Map of Fairfax County ...... 9
Figure 3. Evolution of Fairfax County...... 11
Figure 4. Detail of John Smith’s Map of Virginia Dated 1608 ...... 14
Figure 5. Detail of Augustine Herrman’s Map of Virginia and Maryland Dated 1673 ...... 17
Figure 6. Rolling a Hogshead of Tobacco (Artist’s rendering 1959) ...... 21
Figure 7. Anonymous Map of Fairfax County Drawn Between 1745 and 1748 ...... 23
Figure 8. Early Roads Overlain on a Modern Map of Fairfax County ...... 24
Figure 9. Early Roads Overlain on a Modem Map of the Southeast Quadrant of Fairfax County ...... 25
Figure 10. Early Roads Overlain on a Modem Map of the Northeast Quadrant of Fairfax County ...... 26
Figure 11. Early Roads Overlain on a Modem Map of the Northwest Quadrant of Fairfax County ...... 27
Figure 12. Early Roads Overlain on a Modem Map of the Southwest Quadrant of Fairfax County ...... 28
Figure 13. George Washington’s Map of the Environs of Alexandria Dated c. 1765 ...... 30
Figure 14. Plat of a Survey of 7269 Acres in Stafford County for Robert Carter, Jr. Dated November 14, 1729 Showing the “Waggon Road to the Copper Mine”...... 38
Figure 15. Roads in Existence before 1780 Overlain on a Modem Map of Fairfax County ...... 48
Figure 16. Eighteenth Century Roads Overlain on a Modem Map of the SE Quadrant of Fairfax County ..49
Figure 17. IS^-Century Roads Overlain on a Modem Map of the NE Quadrant of Fairfax County ...... 50
Figure 18. 18Ih-Century Roads Overlain on a Modem Map of the NW Quadrant of Fairfax County ...... 51
Figure 19. ^-C entury Roads Overlain on a Modem Map of the SW Quadrant o f Fairfax County ...... 52
Figure 20. Anonymous Map of Fairfax County Drawn C. 1745, possibly drawn by Daniel Jennings ...... 55
Figure 21. Detail of a Map of Virginia and Maryland Prepared by Joshua Fry and Peter Jefferson around 1755 ...... 59
Figure 22. Detail of a Map of the “Middle British Colonies” Drawn by Lewis Evans c. 1756 ...... 60
vi
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Figure 23. Map of Alexandria in 1782 (Rochambeau 1782) ...... 63
Figure 24. Plan of Alexandria as Laid Out in the 1749 Charter (Washington 1749) ...... 64
Figure 25. Washington’s Map of His Farm on Little Hunting Creek Drawn in 1766 ...... 70
Figure 26. Washington’s Map of the Farms Comprising Mount Vernon, Dated c. 1793 ...... 71
Figure 27. Little River Turnpike through Fairfax at the end of the 19lh Century...... 75
Figure 28. Overview o f the Roads in Existence before 1840 Overlain on a Modem Map of Fairfax County ...... 95
Figure 29. Turnpike Era Roads Overlain on a Modem Map of the Southeast Quadrant of Fairfax County ...... 96
Figure 30. Turnpike Era Roads Overlain on a Modem Map of the Northeast Quadrant of Fairfax County ...... 97
Figure 31. Turnpike Era Roads Overlain on a Modem Map of the Northwest Quadrant of Fairfax County ...... 98
Figure 32. Turnpike Era Roads Overlain on a Modem Map of the Southwest Quadrant of Fairfax County ...... 99
Figure 33. Detail of a Map of the Potomac River, Showing the Columbia Turnpike and the Long Bridge (Kearney et. al. 1838)...... 112
Figure 34. Detail of David Burr’s 1839 Map ofVirginia and Surrounding Regions...... 120
Figure 35. Map of the Middle Turnpike as Proposed in 1827 (Sommers 1827) ...... 122
Figure 36. Plan of Alexandria in 1845 (Ewing 1845) ...... 125
Figure 37. Detail of a Map of the U.S. Exhibiting Post Roads, Drawn by Abraham Bradley in 1787 ...... 129
Figure 38. Route 1 through Dumfries in 1919...... 130
Figure 39. Detail of Bishop James Madison’s 1807 Map ofVirginia ...... 133
Figure 40. Detail of Herman Boye’s Map ofVirginia Dated 1826 ...... 135
vii
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Although the Northern Neck of Virginia was not the first area settled by
Europeans in the seventeenth century, it did not take long for colonists to move into the
area (including Fairfax County) along the Potomac River and other navigable rivers. As
settlement in areas away from rivers increased, roads became an essential component of
the local economy. Roads connected dwellings, churches, government buildings, and
businesses and were important for communication and commerce.
Until very recently, road location has at least in part been influenced by
topography. Roads almost always followed the shortest route between two points with
the fewest major stream crossings and steep slopes. Therefore, continuous ridges were
particularly attractive for road locations. This remained true into the modem era as roads
were improved for cart and wagon, coach, and eventually automobile traffic. Therefore,
modem roads often follow the exact or approximate route of historic roads. However,
certain stretches of historic roads may be cut off and disappear as roads are re-directed to
newly-important places. Through the use of modem machinery for construction, parts of
the routes of historic roads have been straightened or redirected.
1
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This thesis documents the history of roads in Fairfax County, Virginia, from c.
1608 to c. 1840. It describes historic road development, changes in road construction,
and the relationship between roads and the rise of towns and commerce in the county. To
the extent possible, historic routes of roads are mapped on current maps and related to
modem transportation routes.
Changes in road construction occurred throughout history. In Fairfax County,
prior to c. 1840 there were three distinct phases of road development. During the first
period (c. 1608-1740) the few roads that did exist were bridle paths and rolling roads,
which followed the path of least resistance to the churches and to river landings. The
second period (1740-1780) saw the emergence of Alexandria and the establishment of a
more extensive county road system. Advances during the final period under
consideration (1780-1840) included construction of graveled roads by companies
operated with a combination of private and public funds. After around 1840 until the
advent of automobile travel, Fairfax County invested more interest and money in railroad
and canal construction than in the county road system.
Interest in accurately recording the locations of roads increased through time.
Changes in roads related to increased settlement and trade with the interior ofVirginia. It
is possible that the changes also correspond to a cultural phenomenon in the eighteenth
century that scholars have called a change from the Post Medieval to the Georgian Order
(notably Deetz 1977; Glassie 1975). The shift involved a change from a natural, cyclical,
and communal way of life to a more ordered, secular, and private way of life. Because
the Georgian order has been tied to the rise of Capitalism (Leone 1988), and because
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roads were important to economic development, it is likely that road construction would
reflect the shift to the Georgian order.
Project Background and Significance
A history of roads in Fairfax County has the potential to be a research tool for
archaeologists and historians working in the local area. Roads tied historic communities
together and linked people with churches, government, and businesses. Knowledge of
the locations of historic roads may indicate where historic archaeological sites and
buildings are likely to be found. The history of road construction provides insight into
the evolution of settlement in particular areas and the development of commercial
centers. Because the original location of historic roads is no longer known and older
roads have been incorporated into the modem highway system, documentary research is
needed in order to identify the historic routes of roads in the county.
Previous studies on the history of roads in Virginia have primarily focused on the
Board of Public works, the history of Virginia statutes dealing with roads, or the political
environment’s effect on transportation in Virginia during the nineteenth century. From
1931 to 1965, several historians wrote Ph.D. dissertations on aspects of the history of
Virginia roads. Philip Rice (1948) focused on the development of the Board of Public
Works and political factors that affected transportation in Virginia. He dealt more with
canals and railroads than with roads. Roberts (1965) likewise outlined the history of state
road administration; his report included a map study tracing construction of major roads
in Virginia over time. Robert Hunter (1957) and Joseph Durrenberger (1931) both
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researched the history of turnpikes. Hunter documented the financing, construction, and
maintenance of Virginia turnpikes “from the point of view of the persons upon whom
those tasks fell” (Hunter 1957:i). Early road studies conducted in the 1920s and 1930s
reflected the increase in automobile travel in America. Likewise, studies done in the
1950s and 1960s followed the establishment of a national highway system.
In 1972, the Virginia Department of Transportation in cooperation with the
University of Virginia sponsored a number of studies about historic road construction in
Virginia. As part of those studies, Nathaniel Pawlett outlined the history of Virginia
roads, focusing on Abemarle and surrounding counties (Pawlett 1977, 1979, 1980). A
series of articles about the history of transportation in Virginia was published in the
Bulletin of the Virginia Department of Highways and Transportation; the articles were
later incorporated into one publication (Newlan and Pawlett 1985). Pawlett prepared an
annotated bibliography following the series (Pawlett 1983). The interest in transportation
in the 1970s was related to the emergence of industrial archaeology as a discipline and
the recognition that potentially significant historic buildings and structures along older
roads were quickly disappearing as highways were widened to support increased traffic.
Pawlett claims that a history of roads provides an essential context for researchers in
anthropology, architectural history, genealogy, environmental science, folklore, history,
and sociology. Although Pawlett may have overstated the importance of road histories,
his assessment that the information collected may be useful to people in a wide variety of
disciplines seems accurate. Other individuals have documented the history and
development of particular roads or particular locales throughout the state. However, no
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comprehensive discussion of the history of roads in Fairfax County as a separate entity
has been completed.
Methods
The intent of this thesis was to document where roads were constructed, how they
were constructed, why they were constructed, and how road development related to the
development of towns and commerce. A variety of both primary and secondary sources
was consulted, including historic maps, county court orders, historic newspaper and
journal entries, county and local area histories, secondary histories of particular roads,
and general histories of technology and road construction. These sources were available
at the Fairfax County Courthouse, the Virginia Room of the Fairfax County Public
Library, the Lyceum in Alexandria, the Library of Virginia in Richmond, the map room
of the Library of Congress, and university libraries in the Washington, D.C. area.
County histories and other secondary sources provided the historic context for
interpreting information gained from map sources and other primary sources. Local town
histories, usually available on the internet or from local libraries, provided information on
the development of towns in Fairfax County. Historic maps indicated where roads were
located in the past, particularly during the final period under consideration. Both historic
maps and the quantity of court orders relating to roads show the relative numbers of roads
cleared during each time period. Court orders, newspaper articles, and journal entries
occasionally indicate what purpose particular roads served. The Virginia statutes were
useful for determining the *ypes of issues important to local residents at the time.
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This thesis discusses road construction from the earliest documented historic
settlement of what became Fairfax County through the end of the turnpike era around
1840. The thesis is limited in scope to the present boundaries of Fairfax County.
However, areas outside of the county, such as the City of Alexandria and parts of
Loudoun County and Arlington County, are referred to as needed. Because responsibility
for road construction and maintenance in Virginia rested with the county court system
from an early date, an investigation of roads lends itself to study at the county level.
Throughout history specific roads are referred to by a variety of names by
different people in different contexts. Roads are sometimes referred to by the name of
the person whose property the road crosses, especially earlier in the eighteenth century
(for example, a 1751 court order refers to the road by Anthony Russell and Vincent
Lewis). Later, roads are generally referred to by their perceived end point, which
changes depending on which direction the traveler is heading (for example, what is now
Route 1 is sometimes referred to as “the road to Colchester”, “Colchester Road”, or “the
road to Alexandria”). For consistency, I have tried to choose the name for each road that
appears to have been the most common in each particular time period; in some cases,
however, the historic name of a road is not known, and I refer to it by its current name.
For each time period, historic road locations are related to the modem highway
system in the county. The relationships between the old and current roads were
determined based on an analysis of topography and secondary sources. In addition,
modem maps were compared with USGS topographic maps from the 1940s and 1950s,
and maps made in the late nineteenth century (Hopkins’ 1877 and 1879 atlases in
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particular). In this thesis, I present what I feel is the most accurate description of the
history of roads and road locations. However, as with all artifacts of past human activity,
the roads and their past locations are open to interpretation.
County Description
Fairfax County is located in northeastern Virginia. Currently, Fairfax County is
bound on the north and east by the Potomac River and Arlington County, on the south by
the Occoquan River, and on the west by Loudoun County. The modem neighbors of
Fairfax County include Arlington, Loudoun, and Prince William Counties in Virginia,
Montgomery County, Maryland, and the District of Columbia.
The geography of Fairfax County affected road construction, especially during the
early years of settlement. The county is partially in the Piedmont physiographic province
and partially in the Coastal Plain. The Coastal Plain is a relatively low-lying region
bordering the Atlantic Ocean, which includes low-lying land along the Chesapeake Bay
and its major tributaries. In general, major streams within the Coastal Plain are navigable
or were navigable in the past before farming practices caused increased erosion and
siltation of the streams. The Piedmont region is an area of rolling, hilly land lying
between the Coastal Plain and the Appalachian Mountains. The division between the
Piedmont region and the Coastal Plain is the fall line, a zone where falls occur on the
streams. The falls represented a major obstacle to early settlers in Virginia who
depended on the streams for transportation and commerce. Figure 1 shows the location
of the fall line, which separates the Coastal Plain and Piedmont in Fairfax County.
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Figure 1. The Fall Line in Fairfax County (based on a map available at http://www.co.fairfax.va.us/maps/gallery)
The numerous streams that run through the county and form the county
boundaries were important to early settlers; smaller streams were generally hindrances
that had to be crossed, while larger streams aided communication and transportation. The
major waterways include the Potomac River, Occoquan River, Pohick Creek, Accotink
Creek, Dogue Creek, Little Hunting Creek, Cameron Run/Great Hunting Creek, Difficult
Run, Four Mile Run, Pimmit Run, and Cub Run. Over thirty additional smaller creeks
run through the county.
Figure 2 is a concise modem map of Fairfax County showing the major locales,
streams, and roads. This map will help to relate the discussion to modem places and
streams. The county seat is in the City of Fairfax. Although the Cities of Falls Church,
Fairfax, and Alexandria are now considered independent of Fairfax County, the towns are
included in this discussion of roads.
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Figure 2. Modem Map of Fairfax County
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. County Formation
Fairfax County was originally part of a proprietary held by a group of English
men and called the Northern Neck. The Northern Neck encompassed the region between
the Potomac River in the north and the Rappahannock River in the south; this area
included what are now Fairfax, Loudoun, Arlington, Stafford, Prince William, King
George, Caroline, Fauquier, Northumberland, Lancaster, Westmoreland, and Henrico
Counties in Virginia, as well as all counties in between and to the west of those listed.
The holders of the proprietary had power equal to an English court baron; they could
grant and sell land, establish towns and settlements, create colleges, and build “castles
and forts” (Netherton et al. 1992:5). In the eighteenth century, the Fairfax family
eventually came to control the entire proprietary.
The area was only sparsely settled in 1648 when Northumberland County,
including all the land between modem Henrico County and the Potomac River, was
formed. Westmoreland County was formed out of Northumberland in 1653; it included
the northern part of Northumberland County along the Potomac River. Westmoreland
County was divided in 1664, and Stafford County was formed. Population had increased
enough by 1731 to require formation of a new county. Prince William County was
formed from the western part of Stafford County in 1731. In 1742, Fairfax County was
created out of the northern half of Prince William County. The western half of Fairfax
County became Loudoun County in 1757; a small part of eastern Loudoun County
returned to Fairfax in 1797 (Doran 1987). In 1791, the area that currently includes the
City of Alexandria and Arlington County became part of the newly formed District of
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Columbia. Figure 3 shows the evolution of the formation of Fairfax County. For the
purposes of this thesis, Arlington County and the City of Alexandria are included in the
discussion of road history because they, with Fairfax County, form a contiguous
geographic unit separated from Maryland by the Potomac River.
Northumberland County 1645
Lancaster County Westmoreland County 1651 1653
Stafford County 1664
Prince William County 1731
Fairfax County Fauquier County 1742 1759
Loudoun County District of Columbia City ofFalls Church City of Fairfax 1757 1791-1846 1948 1961
Cameron Parish returned Alexandria County to Fairfax County 1847 ______1797 ______Renamed Arlington in 1920
City o f Alexandria 1852
Figure 3. Evolution of Fairfax County (based on a figure on file at the Fairfax County Courthouse)
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER 2
EARLY ROAD CONSTRUCTION (1608-1740)
The first period of history under consideration saw the gradual European
settlement of the area that would become Fairfax County as land became scarce in the
Tidewater area of Virginia. Although seventeenth-century Virginians had little use for
roads and relied on rivers for transportation, road development increased in importance
during the early eighteenth century as people moved farther from the rivers. Early roads
led to wharves and warehouses on navigable rivers and to churches and courts.
Historic Context
The first European settlements in Virginia were focused around the lower
Chesapeake, in the Tidewater region. In 1570, Spanish Jesuits from St. Augustine
established a mission along the York River in the lower Chesapeake region. A Powhatan
Indian raid in 1572 left the mission destroyed. At about the same time, French attacks on
Spanish Florida forced the Spanish to abandon operations in the Chesapeake region
(Lewis and Loomie 1953). The first permanent English colony was established at
Jamestown in 1607. Jamestown remained the center of English settlement until 1699,
when the capitol of the Virginia colony was moved to nearby Williamsburg.
12
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European exploration of the area that is currently Fairfax County began in 1608,
when Captain John Smith first sailed up the Potomac River and its tributaries looking for
a northern outlet of the Chesapeake Bay. Smith’s map shows the locations of major
Indian settlements that he observed along the Chesapeake (Figure 4). At that time
Algonquian-speaking Indians, controlled by the Powhatan chiefdom, occupied the
Coastal Plain, and the Siouan-speaking Manahoac lived near the fall line. The map
shows the Tauxenent “Chiefs House” on the Occoquan River, and the Namassingakent,
Assomeck, and Nome houses further upstream on the Potomac River. The Iroquois
drove the Manahoac from Virginia during the seventeenth century. Other Siouan
speakers occupied the Piedmont. Smith’s expedition initiated relations with the Indians,
and trading posts were soon established near the Indian villages (Potter 1993:181).
The earliest roads in Fairfax County were created by Native Americans prior to
the arrival of European settlers, and continuing into the contact period. The locations of
most of the original Indian roads or trails are not known, but the roads likely followed the
edges of rivers and the tops of long ridges. Early court records from Virginia
occasionally mention “Indian paths.” For example, a Virginia land grant dated 1720
described the property as “...five thousand acres, Beginning upon the west side of the
third creek above Christanna Fort, where an Indian Path crosses the said creek...”
(Floumey vol. 1 1892:199).
During the initial period of European settlement, the Virginia legislature
established a framework for road development and administration in the colony. The
House of Burgesses passed the first law regarding road construction in Virginia in 1632.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Figure 4. Detail of John Smith’s Map ofVirginia Dated 1608
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This law stated that “Highwayes shall be layd in such convenient places as are requisite
accordinge as the Governor and Counsell or the commissioners for the mounthlie corts
shall appoynt, or accordinge as the parishioners of every parish shall agree” (Hening vol.
I 1823:199). A law passed in 1657 established the county courts as having the primary
responsibility for clearing roadways. In particular, the county courts were to clear roads
between the counties, to courts, and to churches (Hening vol. 1 1823:436). An act passed
in 1662 required counties to:
...appoint surveyors of highwayes who shall first lay out the most convenient wayes to the church, to the court, to James Towne, and from county to county, and make the said wayes forty foote broad, and make bridges where there is occasion, and the wayes being once thus layed out, and the bridges made they shall cause the said wayes to be kept cleere from loggs, and the bridges in good repaire that all his majesties subjects may have free and safe passage about their occasions (Hening vol. II 1823:103).
The 1662 act also established fines for building fences or felling trees across roads and
established that each tithable in the colony either work on the roads a given number of
days a year or send someone to work in their place. This labor law remained in effect for
over 250 years (Gage 1969:22). The system of road administration established in
Virginia in the seventeenth century was based largely on the English system, which
placed responsibility for roads in the smallest English governmental unit, the parish
(Pawlett 1977:3).
The early road laws were largely ignored, especially in the sparsely populated
area of northern Virginia. Throughout the seventeenth century, rivers remained the
primary mode of transportation in Virginia. The early settlers and landowners occupied
large tracts of land that invariably included access to a major waterway. Their properties
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fronted the water (and their houses’ backs faced the interior). Goods were bought off of
ships from England, and products produced in Virginia were sold primarily to English
traders from landholders’ private wharves.
Early roads that did exist were simple paths only wide enough for travel on
horseback or foot. Roads followed the path of least resistance to neighbors’ properties,
churches, and the court. The paths did not require any clearing because they went around
large trees and rocks. The roads were seldom forty feet wide as specified in the 1662
Virginia Act regarding roads (VDOT 1992:2; Hatch nd: 11).
Like elsewhere in Virginia, early settlement in the Northern Neck centered along
the major navigable rivers, including the Potomac and Occoquan Rivers. One of the first
land grants in what would become Fairfax County was issued to Robert Turney in 1651
for 2,109 acres on the peninsula bounded by Pohick Creek, the Potomac River, and
Occoquan River (where Gunston Hall now stands) (Netherton et al. 1992:12). By 1680,
the court had granted more than one hundred patents for land along the Potomac River
from the Occoquan to Great Falls. Most of these grants were speculative; the grantees
generally did not occupy the land, but instead sent slaves or tenants to establish a
residence and claim the land (Netherton et al. 1992:13). According to Augustine
H erm an’s map of the Chesapeake Bay, several residences were located along the
Potomac River by 1673 (Figure 5).
In the early eighteenth century, prominent Virginia landowners began to
physically reside in what would become Fairfax County. Eventually, four plantations
were built on the banks of the Potomac River below the falls. Col. Dennis McCarty built
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Figure 5. Detail of Augustine Herrman’s Map of Virginia and Maryland Dated 1673
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his Cedar Grove plantation in 1718 near the location where George Washington would
later build his Woodlawn plantation. In 1741, William Fairfax completed the Belvoir
mansion. George Mason HI occupied the family plantation by 1725, and George Mason
IV built Gunston Hall there in 1758. Lawrence Washington built Mount Vemon some
time before his death in the 1750s. These plantations probably contained private roads
that could accommodate wagon travel, as well as travel on horseback and foot. However,
access to the rivers remained of primary importance.
In 1722, Alexander Spotswood (Governor of Virginia from 1710 to 1722)
completed a treaty that forced tribes of five Indian nations to move west of the Blue
Ridge Mountains (Harrison 1987:87). Once the threat of Indian confrontations had
decreased, Piedmont land grants were easier to obtain, and settlement of Piedmont
Virginia followed. From the river, the colonists spread out into the backcountry using the
smaller tributaries of the Potomac River as access routes.
An increase in population led to the formation of Prince William County from the
northern part of Stafford County in 1731. The new Prince William courthouse was
situated on the Occoquan River. The presence of the courthouse near what would
become Fairfax County spurred an expansion of settlement in the area. Early eighteenth
century land grants included tracts of between 11,000 and 20,000 acres issued to land
speculators like the Carter family, as well as numerous 200 to 500 acre tracts issued to
people actually seeking to settle in northern Virginia (Netherton et al. 1992:15). In 1742,
Fairfax County was formed out of the northern half of Prince William County.
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Increased settlement of the interior of northern Virginia and settlement above the
fall line increased the need for roads. The fall line represented a major hindrance to
shipping for people living in the Piedmont. Planters needed a way to get products to
wharves on parts of the rivers that were navigable to the ocean. Whereas earlier settlers
had direct access to navigable rivers and therefore markets in England, people in the
interior had to travel over land before reaching navigable water.
In 1705, the Virginia legislature passed a new road law in response to increased
upland settlement throughout Virginia. The new law repealed all previous road laws.
The act stated,
For the more convenient travelling and carriage, by land, of tobaccos, merchandises, or other things within this dominion, be it enacted ... that where the same is not already done, public roads shall be laid out by the surveyors of the highways, in their several precincts, in such places as shall be most convenient for passing to and from the City of Williamsburg, the court house of every county, the parish churches, and such public mills and ferries as now are, or hereafter shall be erected, and from one county to another (Hening vol. El 1823:392).
Like the previous 1662 act, the 1705 act also set forth fines for felling trees or building
fences across roads and penalties for male tithables refusing to work on roads. The new
act, however, made more specific mention of transport from the interior to public
wharves, “for the greater conveniency of such persons as inhabit upon plantations far
distant from rivers and creeks” (Hening vol. HI 1823:394). The law also allowed
counties to raise a levy to pay skilled workers to construct bridges and stated that county
courts were to divide the county into road precincts, each with their own surveyor. After
this act, the legislature made only minor revisions to the road laws until after the
Revolutionary War.
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The need for roads was intensified by the needs of tobacco cultivators. Tobacco
cultivation was at the center of the colonial Virginia economy and was the primary means
of exchange, since little paper money was available in the colonies. The wealth of a
tobacco grower depended on his ability to transport and sell the product. Farming
practices aimed at ensuring adequate drainage for tobacco had the negative result of
increasing soil erosion. The topsoil was depleted and unsuitable for further tobacco
farming within four or five years. Tobacco fanning, therefore, required vast amounts of
land. As the tobacco planters moved inland and away from navigable waterways, new
roads were built connecting the planters with warehouses and landings.
From 1705 through 1730, Virginia passed several laws dealing with tobacco
warehouses. The 1705 Virginia act (discussed earlier) allowed for roads to public
wharves and warehouses; it stated:
Be it enacted, that all such landing places, as have store-houses, commonly called rolling-houses, built at or near them, or have heretofore been commonly used for bringing tobaccos unto, and to which there are plain roads already made, shall be held and accounted public landings: And the roads to such landings, or any other public landings hereafter to be appointed by the county courts, shall be kept in repair sufficient for carts to pass to and from the same (Hening vol. Ill 1823:394).
An Act passed in 1712 provided for the establishment of public warehouses. In 1730,
Virginia reinforced this act and established that public tobacco warehouses were to be
built within a mile of navigable rivers and established tobacco inspection at the
warehouses to enforce minimum standards of quality for export (Gage 1969:20). Early
public warehouses in what is now Fairfax County were located on the Occoquan River,
Pohick Creek, Hunting Creek, and Pimmit Run (Netherton et al. 1992:20).
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Roads from the interior to the warehouses were often called rolling roads.
Planters packed tobacco in “hogsheads”; hogsheads were wooden, cylindrical canisters
that held a specified amount of tobacco. In order to transport hogsheads from the interior
to the shore of a navigable river, planters would drive a stake into each end of the
canister, build crude shafts, and attach them to harnessed animals, usually an ox and
horse together (Figure 6) (Gage 1969:20). Planters had slaves or indentured servants
transport the tobacco from the fields to a wharf or warehouse along a navigable river.
From there the tobacco was shipped to English markets.
Figure 6. Rolling a Hogshead of Tobacco (Artist’s rendering 1959)
The paths of the early rolling roads were designed to follow high ground to the
extent possible in order to reduce the number of water crossings (Gage 1969:18; VDOT
1992:3). Rolling tobacco further distances to water required roads better cleared than the
earlier bridle paths that were only sufficient for horseback or foot travel. Still, the
clearing of roads generally only consisted of cutting down trees, but not removing the
stumps. Rolling roads were rutted, muddy when it rained, and full of stumps - all
hindrances to wagon travel. Rolling the hogsheads themselves, with their wide surface
area, was probably more effective for dealing with rough or muddy roads than
transporting tobacco on carts would have been (Gage 1969:22).
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Earlv Historic Roads
Primary documents describing the exact location of roads before 1740 are scarce.
Few accurate surveys were completed before 1740 of the area that would become Fairfax
County. Most boundary and location descriptions that can be found are vague, referring
to impermanent landmarks such as someone’s house or particularly large trees. Also, it is
likely that the course of roads changed over the years as sections became impassable.
The earliest maps of what would become Fairfax County do not indicate the
location of roads in the area. For example, John Senex’s 1719 map of Virginia and
Maryland only shows rivers and other major geographic features. Likewise, John
Warner’s map of Lord Fairfax’s land dated 1747 shows the major rivers, streams, and
mountains in the area, but not roads or other man-made features. The first map to include
roads is an unsigned map of the county drawn between 1745 and 1748, possibly by
Daniel Jenings, Surveyor of Fairfax County (Figure 7). This map shows the location of
many of the roads that were in existence before 1740 in both Truro parish and Cameron
Parish, which would later become Loudoun County.
Figures 8 through 12 illustrate the approximate locations of roads in existence
before 1740 overlain on a modem map of Fairfax County. The locations of roads were
extrapolated from descriptions and historic maps. The historic roads’ relationship to
modem roads was based on an analysis of topography, secondary resources, and a
comparison with nineteenth-century maps and IJSGS topographic quadrangle maps made
in the 1940s and 1950s. These roads are discussed below.
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Figure 7. Anonymous Map of Fairfax County Drawn Between 1745 and 1748, possibly by Daniel Jenings (Road Names Added)
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 24
(Figure 11)
(Figure 10)
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(Figure 12) V^Warehouse Occoquan Warehouse
(Figure 9)
t = Historic Church 12 = Warehouse/Landing Historic Road
Base map printed from Fairfax County Web Site 2001 Figure 8. Early Roads Overlain on a Modem Map of Fairfax County
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 25
Whhnton* >ARX! Poict NSTON HAU. JCTATJON .
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?j«i000rr£> CCi?000m P, 's E. ^IS.OOOmg. ia*cm appnntcd trom TURO! CIVVV WitdtkrwcrRroducttoos .
12 = Warehouse/Landing County Boundary Historic Road Figure 9. Early Roads Overlain on a Modem Map of the Southeast Quadrant of Fairfax County
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 26 (mail
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mapprimal 7rom wlyyy \Vildilowcr7ro3ucuon»" = County Boundary ------> Historic Road
Figure 10. Early Roads Overlain on a Modem Map of the Northeast Quadrant of Fairfax County
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 27 Ouum £, WwStM- Zon* l&S
aSSShers 1—, S>GEMENT AJ?Ea] J>A!W
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— = County Boundary ------Historic Road
Figure 11. Early Roads Overlain on a Modem Map of the Northwest Quadrant of Fairfax County
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 28
frSj4;V. UTM -MmociogO: ‘N ujiioo^6^i» N wofjQ^S;t» 'Nmooo?? Figure 12. Early Roads Overlain on a Modem Map of the Southwest Quadrant of Fairfax County
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 29
The first roads in what would become Fairfax County were probably private roads
within and between the major plantations. In the early eighteenth century, four large
plantations fronted the Potomac River. They included Col. Dennis McCarty’s Cedar
Grove, William Fairfax’s Belvoir, the Mason family plantation, and Lawrence
Washington’s Mount Vernon. Despite the planters’ reliance on the river, the plantations
probably contained private roads that could accommodate wagon travel as well as travel
on horseback and foot. In addition, bridle paths likely extended from the nearest public
road to the planters’ houses.
The Virginia road act of 1705 stated “...every person having a plantation is
hereby directed and required to make a convenient passage for man and horse to go to his
dwelling house” (Hening vol. Ill 1823:394). The anonymous map of Fairfax County
from c. 1745 depicts a road leading from the Potomac Path (a public road) to the Mason
Plantation (see Figure 7). A map drawn by George Washington in 1765 shows roads
leading from the Potomac Path to Fairfax’s Belvoir Mansion and Mount Vernon, and
from the Back Road (labeled Road from Alexandria to Colchester on Washington’s map)
to McCarty’s plantation (Figure 13). It is likely that these roads existed before 1765,
when the map was drawn.
According to Virginia road laws passed from 1662 to 1705, public roads were to
be maintained to church, to the court, to the capital, from county to county, and to ferries
(Hening vol. HI 1823). Early public road construction in Fairfax County appeared to
follow this pattern. Also, churches, and later the courthouses, were built along roads that
led to a tobacco warehouse or landing.
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Figure 13. George Washington’s Map of the Environs of Alexandria Dated c. 1765
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The first public roads in northern Virginia were rolling roads from the interior to
ferries, wharves, landings, and tobacco warehouses. Many of the roads were initially
private, but became public over time. Early public warehouses in Fairfax County were
located at the mouths of the Occoquan River, Pohick Creek, Great Hunting Creek (where
Alexandria would later be founded), and the head of navigation below the falls on the
Potomac River, roughly at the mouth of Pimmit Run. An act dated 1730 provided for the
establishment of the Hunting Creek tobacco warehouse (Miller et al. 1999:2). The
Pohick warehouse was constructed at the location of a seventeenth-century landing on
Pohick Creek. Because planters only brought a small amount of tobacco through the
Pohick warehouse, Virginia closed Pohick and opened the Occoquan warehouse in 1734
(Netherton et al. 1992:24). However, the Pohick warehouses are still shown on a map of
the area drawn by George Washington in 1765 (see Figure 13). Thomas Lee took out
land grants along the Potomac River and established a tobacco warehouse at the mouth of
Pimmit Run around 1742, where a public ferry had been in operation since 1738
(Netherton et al. 1992:24; Beauchamp 1992). Rolling roads led from the interior to these
waterfront warehouse locations.
One of the first documented roads in Fairfax County was the Potomac Path
(Harrison 1987:446). The road stretched from Fredericksburg north to Woodbridge, and
eventually to the warehouse on Great Hunting Creek (see Figures 7 through 9). The road
reportedly followed an old Indian trail; although no direct evidence for this claim could
be found, it does make sense that both the Indian trails and the trails used by the colonists
would follow the same path of least resistance. In the Lower Northern Neck, the path
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followed a ridge between the Potomac River and the Rappahannock River, north of
Falmouth, the path followed the route of the Potomac River.
Seventeenth-century court orders of Stafford County record the history of clearing
the Potomac Path. The path did not enter what would become Fairfax County, however,
until early in the eighteenth century when it was extended north past the Occoquan River
(Harrison 1987:446). The Potomac Path crossed the Occoquan downstream from the
natural fords, requiring ferry service (Gage 1969:18). But, in general, stream crossings
on the road were located on the most downstream ford of the rivers. North of Accotink
Creek, the Potomac Path diverged from the earlier Indian trail (which became the Back
Road) and followed a route closer to the Potomac River, which was more convenient for
the wealthy colonists living on plantations along the Potomac River (Netherton et al.
1992:20).
After people began to settle further upstream on the Occoquan River, a road was
maintained from near the headwaters of Quantico Creek (in present-day Prince William
County) to the Hunting Creek Warehouse. This road is referred to in deeds as the Back
Road. The Back Road passed the Occoquan warehouse via the Occoquan ford. At
Hunting Creek, the Back Road met the Potomac Path (see Figures 8 and 9). Part of the
Back Road may have followed the old route of Tillet’s Rolling Road to the ford in the
Occoquan River and a landing established downstream from the ford (Gage 1969:24).
The Back Road provided people on the interior with more direct access to the warehouses
at Hunting Creek and Occoquan than was provided by the Potomac Path, which primarily
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served the river plantations. Modem day Telegraph Road follows the approximate
historic route of the Back Road.
Another early road that provided residents with access to the Hunting Creek
Warehouse was the Eastern Ridge Road, or Vestal’s Gap Road. This road led from the
Hunting Creek Warehouse and (later) from Alexandria to Vestal’s Gap (now Key’s Gap)
in the mountains (see Figure 8 through 11). In the early eighteenth century, the road
probably ended in the Piedmont of what would become Loudoun or Fairfax Counties
rather than continuing all the way to Vestal’s Gap in the mountains. The road served the
needs of the Piedmont inhabitants by providing access to the tobacco warehouse at
Huntington Creek. Reportedly, in 1699 the Governor of Virginia, Francis Nicholson,
sent a party to see the leader of the Piscataway tribe on Conoy Island, near present-day
Point of Rocks in Loudoun County; the group probably followed the line of ridges that
would become part of the Eastern Ridge Road (Gage 1969:25; Cooke 1977:11). Today,
Leesburg Pike (VA Route 7) generally follows the historic route of the Eastern Ridge
Road, although the road was probably straightened during the turnpike era.
At least two early roads provided access to the Pohick Warehouse: Ravensworth
Rolling Road and Pohick Rolling Road. By 1700, the Ravensworth Rolling Road
connected William Fitzhugh’s 22,000-acre Ravensworth plantation near Great Falls on
the Potomac with a landing on Pohick Creek, where the Pohick Warehouse would soon
be built (Netherton et al. 1992:20). Ravensworth Rolling Road met the Potomac Path
near the present site of Pohick Church. After 1733, part of the rolling road branched off
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to lead to the New or Upper Church (later Falls Church) of the Truro Parish (Netherton et
al. 1992:20) (see Figures 8 through 10).
Ravensworth Rolling Road probably roughly followed the current route of
Backlick Road and Gallows Road. Backlick Road leads north from Pohick to Lee
Highway, where its name changes to Gallows Road. Gallows Road runs from Lee
Highway north to Leesburg Pike (old Eastern Ridge Road); it joins Leesburg Pike
roughly at the location of the original courthouse (now a subdivision near Tysons Comer
called Old Courthouse). The branch of the Ravensworth Road that led to Falls Church
split off just below Holmes Run and crossed the run as it headed northeast towards the
Falls Church. Modem Annandale Road roughly follows this route and may be the
approximate location of the historic Ravensworth branch road.
Pohick Rolling Road led from Ox Road in the west to the Pohick Warehouse (see
Figures 8, 9, and 12). This road is also depicted on the map drawn by George
Washington in 1765 (see Figure 13). Modem day Pohick Road follows the route of the
old rolling road.
Two known rolling roads led to the warehouse below the Little Falls of the
Potomac River, near the mouth of Pimmit Run (where the Chain Bridge would later be
built): the Sugarlands Rolling Road and the Falls Rolling Road (Gage 1969:26). This
was an important location throughout history because it was where the Potomac River
channel narrowed and could be crossed. Thomas Lee operated a public ferry at this
location after 1728. Indians probably used the crossing before European settlement
forced the Indians westward.
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By 1728, the Sugarlands Rolling Road connected properties in the west with the
ferry and (later) the tobacco warehouse at the mouth of Pimmit Run, often referred to as
the Falls Warehouse. The road was initially designed to serve the needs of tobacco
farmer Daniel McCarty, who owned property in the “sugarlands” after 1709 (Hatch nd:
32; Cooke 1977:22). The sugarlands were an area of sugar maples located near the
Potomac and the modem boundary between Loudoun and Fairfax Counties. The road
was mentioned in correspondence between Robert “King” Carter and Daniel McCarty in
1728 (Harrison 1987:483). It is also possible that at least part of the Sugarlands Rolling
Road followed the route of an earlier Susquehannoc Indian trail that led to the Carolina
Road west of Fairfax County (Cooke 1977:11). The Sugarlands Rolling Road became
the main access route to the Falls Warehouse.
The Sugarlands Rolling Road originated in Daniel McCarty’s Sugarlands
holdings near the current boundary of Loudoun and Fairfax Counties along the Potomac
River. From there it headed south to the current location of Dranesville; the road then
turned southeast and paralleled the Potomac River downstream, across Difficult Run, to
the mouth of Pimmit Run. The rolling road roughly followed the current route of
Georgetown Pike. North of Dranesville, the road likely followed or paralleled the path of
what is now Seneca Road (Cooke 1977:22).
In the 1980s, local historian Winslow Hatch spent a lot of time investigating the
area around Georgetown Pike, walking along old paths and road traces. He believed that
he had found traces of the old Sugarlands Rolling Road in their un-improved state that
had not been incorporated into the Georgetown Pike. With modem machinery, VDOT
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constructed Georgetown Pike along a straighter, more direct route than was used for the
rolling road. Parts of the old road, however, are preserved alongside the modem
highway. One major difference that Hatch cites between the old and new roads is where
they crossed Difficult Run. Currently, Georgetown Pike crosses Difficult Run close to
the mouth of the stream. According to Hatch, Difficult Run was impassable at this
location during high water (Hatch nd:24). The original Sugarlands Rolling Road would
have forded Difficult Run farther upstream, at a place where the water was more
consistently calm and shallow. A plat of Great Falls Manor drawn by John Warner in
1739 shows the road crossing Difficult Run at Bridge Branch, now Colvin Run, (Hatch
nd:32). This is roughly the location where Leesburg Pike crosses Difficult Run today.
The Sugarlands Rolling Road may have followed the current route of Old
Towlston Road south of what is now Great Falls National Park to meet the Eastern Ridge
Road (Leesburg Pike). The rolling road crossed Difficult Run roughly at the same point
that Leesburg Pike does today (Hatch nd:17). The road then followed the route of the
Eastern Ridge Road west to the present site of Dranesville, and then turned northward,
following or paralleling Seneca Road.
The Sugarlands Rolling Road met the Falls Rolling Road just south of the little
falls of the Potomac. The Falls Rolling Road ran north-south, connecting the Eastern
Ridge Road in the south to the Falls Warehouse (see Figures 7, 8, and 10). The
Intersection of Falls Rolling Road and Eastern Ridge Road was the location for the Upper
Church, later renamed Falls Church (Gage 1969:1). The Falls Rolling Road roughly
followed the current route of the north end of Glebe Road (in present-day Arlington
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County) and Little Falls Road from Glebe Road south to Falls Church. An historical
marker has been erected at the intersection of Little Falls Road and George Mason Drive
in Arlington to commemorate the historic road.
Although most early roads in the area of Fairfax County were designed to serve
the needs of tobacco planters, one road, the Ox Road (also called the Copper Mine Road),
was built to serve the mining enterprise of Robert “King” Carter. Carter was the land
agent for Thomas, sixth Lord Fairfax, and he patented more than 90,000 acres in the area
for the proprietor. By the early 1700s, most of the land along the rivers was occupied,
and Carter and others became interested in moving into the interior (Harrison 1964).
Robert Carter is often referred to as “King” Carter because of his large land holdings.
Around 1727, after finding green sandstone along Frying Pan Run, Robert Carter,
his two sons — Robin and Charles — and his son-in-law Mann Page formed the Frying
Pan Company. Carter mined some of the sandstone and sent it to England for evaluation,
thinking it to be copper bearing. While waiting for word from England, Carter opened a
road from the mine, located about a mile from the present town of Floris, southeast to
Occoquan. Figure 14 is a plat from a survey done on November 14, 1729 for Robert
Carter showing a segment of the “Waggon Road to the Copper Mine” between Horsepen
Run and Difficult Run. Carter built a wharf at Occoquan so that the supposed copper ore
could be loaded on boats for shipping. Analysis of the green sandstone showed that no
copper was actually in the rock (Netherton et al. 1992:25).
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Figure 14. Plat of a Survey of 7269 Acres in Stafford County for Robert Carter, Jr. Dated November 14,1729 Showing the “Waggon Road to the Copper Mine” (Plat map on file in the Map Room of the Library of Congress, Washington, DC.)
Although the road was never used to transport copper ore, Ox Road became an
important access road to the Occoquan wharves and the warehouse that was opened there
in 1734. The modem Ox Road (VA Route 123) generally follows the course of the
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original Ox Road between Occoquan and Fairfax. When the first Fairfax County
courthouse was built along the Eastern Ridge Road (near present-day Tysons Comer) in
1742, a spur of the Ox road was diverted toward the courthouse in the northeast. This is
the modem path of Ox Road and Chain Bridge Road. Northwest of Fairfax, West Ox
Road follows the original course of the Ox Road roughly between Fairfax and Floris,
along Frying Pan Run. Colchester Road southwest of Fairfax may be the approximate
original route of Ox Road between what are now Ox Road and West Ox Road.
Soon after the Ox Road was completed, Walter Griffin opened a rolling road from
his property in the west to Ox Road. Griffin’s road allowed him direct access to shipping
facilities at Carter’s landing in Occoquan (Gage 1969:27). Griffin’s rolling road was
extended west across Little Rocky Run to meet Braddock Road later in the eighteenth
century. Modem Compton’s Road may roughly follow the historic route of Griffin’s
Rolling Road.
Traffic along the early roads affected settlement and development of towns in
what would become Fairfax County. Colchester arose around the ferry established to
transport travelers on the Potomac path across the Occoquan River. In the eighteenth
century, Colchester grew to include ordinaries, residences, and warehouses (Gage
1969:27). The first church of Truro Parish, Pohick Church, was located along the
Potomac Path (see Figure 7). The Back Road passed the Occoquan warehouse via the
Occoquan ford. The second Pohick Church would later be constructed along the Back
Road in 1774. The town of Pohick arose around this church and the intersection of
several rolling roads.
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The town of Falls Church grew up around the New or Upper Church of the Truro
Parish, which was established near the intersection of the Eastern Ridge Road and the
Falls Rolling Road. The wooden church was completed in 1734; George Washington and
George Mason were among the church’s early members. Ordinaries (inns or taverns)
were established along the major rolling roads and at the locations of warehouses to serve
the needs of travelers. Later in the eighteenth century, towns arose as people started
businesses or mills near the ordinaries.
It is likely that many more paths were in use during the seventeenth and early
eighteenth centuries for which no documentation survives. In particular, private bridle
paths within and between plantations certainly existed throughout the county. Most early
roads that we know the location of today are known because the paths continued to be
used long after their initial clearing.
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EXPANDED ROAD CONSTRUCTION PERIOD (1740-1780)
Road construction and maintenance in Fairfax County increased in importance as
the county changed from a scattered frontier settlement to an established community.
Formation of Fairfax County with its own courthouse, and the establishment of
Alexandria as an important center of commerce, population, and wealth affected
settlement and road development from 1740 through the Revolutionary War. During the
middle and late eighteenth century, an interest in accurate surveys led to production of
maps showing roads in the county.
Historic Context
After the formation of Prince William County in 1731, with its courthouse on the
Occoquan River, settlement increased in the area that would become Fairfax County. In
1742, Fairfax County was formed out of the northern half of Prince William County. In
1757, Loudoun County was formed out of the western half of Fairfax County (Cameron
Parish). The decision to form a new county was made in part as a response to the
movement of the Fairfax County courthouse further from Cameron Parish, to Alexandria.
The 1757 act created the basic modem boundaries of Fairfax County (although Arlington
County and Fairfax City, and the Cities of Alexandria and Falls Church would later split
off as well). 41
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The first courthouse in the newly formed Fairfax County was located along the
Eastern Ridge Rolling Road (now Route 7), near what is now Tyson’s Comer. In 1753,
the courthouse was moved to Alexandria, which had grown near the Hunting Creek
Warehouse. The courthouse was not relocated to its current location in Fairfax City until
1798, after Alexandria had become part of the newly formed District of Columbia. New
roads were cleared to connect the county residents with the first courthouse on Eastern
Ridge Road and later with the courthouse in Alexandria.
The eighteenth century saw a great increase in population and wealth in Fairfax
County, including the formation of seaport towns like Colchester and Alexandria.
Between 1742 when Fairfax County was formed and 1754, the population of the county
increased by 85 percent (Netherton et al. 1992:32). From 1757, when Loudoun County
was formed out of the western part of Fairfax, to 1773 the population of Fairfax County
increased an additional 95 percent (Netherton et al. 1992:33).
A census completed in 1749 showed that most of the Fairfax County residents
lived in Truro Parish; 1,240 tithables were recorded in Truro Parish, while only 707
tithables were recorded in Cameron Parish (which would become Loudoun County in
1757). Another census completed that same year by Reverend Mr. Charles Green listed
black and white residents separately. Green’s census showed that 71% of the residents
were white and 29% of the residents were black slaves (Netherton et al. 1992:29). Of the
slave holders in Fairfax County, fifteen men owned more than half of the enslaved
population. The men who owned the most slaves included Washington, Fitzhugh, Lee,
Colville, Alexander, Broadwater, Fairfax, and Mason (Netherton et al. 1992:30). By
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1773, enslaved made up 41 percent of the total county population. In that year, nine men
each owned more than 40 slaves, constituting 23 percent of the enslaved population.
These men were among the largest landowners, were lawmakers, and were among the
most powerful men in the county. Census data indicate that from the mid- to late
eighteenth century, the wealth of the county was concentrated in the hands of relatively
few men.
The main city that affected road construction and settlement in Fairfax County
was Alexandria. Although other towns were present in the county before Alexandria,
none of the towns had as much of an affect on the county as Alexandria. An act dated
1730 had provided for the establishment of the Hunting Creek tobacco warehouse; the
warehouse was built on land owned by Robert Alexander and conveyed to his son and to
Hugh West (Miller et al. 1999:2). After Fairfax County split off from Prince William
County, Fairfax needed a port of its own, and residents petitioned the House of Burgesses
for the charter of a town to be established at the Hunting Creek warehouse (Miller et al.
1999:1). In 1749, the House of Burgesses issued a charter for the town of Alexandria.
As a port city, Alexandria took a central place in the commerce, trade, and economy of
Fairfax County. A class of wealthy citizens arose in the county.
In 1753 the Fairfax County courthouse was moved to Alexandria, encouraging
new business and settlement in the town. In the 1750s, Alexandria included a
courthouse, jail, six ordinaries, warehouses, a kiln, and both small, rustic houses and
more substantial brick, Georgian style houses owned by wealthy men, like John Carlyle.
By the 1760s, the town included carpenters, merchants, doctors, wig makers, and a
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school. By the end of the eighteenth century, Alexandria ranked third in traffic among
port cities in the new United States (Miller et a l 1999:3). As a result of the rise of
Alexandria, new roads were built to the city, and earlier roads leading to the Hunting
Creek warehouse were improved during the eighteenth century.
At the same time that Alexandria was developing, settlement west of Fairfax
County in the Alleghany Mountain region also increased. Roads were extended and new
roads were built to connect the western settlements to Alexandria. Roads generally led to
the main gaps in the mountains, including Vestals Gap (now Keys Gap) and Williams
Gap (now Snicker’s Gap). Increased trade within the colony rather than exclusive trade
with England increased the importance of access routes between Alexandria and the
mountains. Western settlers brought goods to Alexandria for export, and Alexandria
merchants benefited from access to trade with the west.
Increased population and wealth both in Alexandria and in the county in general
led to the need for more and better roads that could be passed by cart as well as on
horseback. Early roads, such as the Potomac Path, took on new importance as stage and
post roads. During wet weather, however, roads remained barely passable, as carts would
get mired in muddy ruts. The path of some roads was not even clear to travelers. For
example, a diary entry of Archdeacon Burnaby recorded in 1760 recounts his difficulty in
following either Braddock Road or Griffin’s Rolling Road from the west; he states,
...rose early in the morning and proceeded upon my journey, being distant from Colonel Washington’s not more than thirty miles. It was late, however, before I arrived there for it rained extremely hard; and a man who undertook to shew me the nearest way led me among precipices and rocks and we were lost for above two hours. (Travelers through the Middle Settlements, 1798, quoted in Harrison 1987:478).
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The great expansion of the county road system during the eighteenth century is
reflected in the court registry books. From 1749 to 1757 when Loudoun County was
formed, 166 court orders dealing with roads were recorded, averaging 20 a year (court
records prior to 1749 are missing). This number includes roads in both Cameron Parish,
which became Loudoun County, and Truro Parish, which became Fairfax County. From
1758 through 1773, more than 300 additional road court orders were recorded in Fairfax
County alone, averaging between 12 and 30 each year (court records for the years 1774 to
1783 are missing). In order for a new public road to be cleared, either a person would
come before the court and request a road or the court would decide a road was needed
and appoint a surveyor to view the route. According to Virginia law, tithables living
along a proposed route were responsible for clearing and maintaining it. Court orders
reflect both the interest in preparing adequate roads and the problem of maintaining them.
Unfortunately, court orders are not often useful for determining the locations of
roads. Court orders refer to impermanent objects, such as large trees or rocks, or to
landmarks known only to the eighteenth century residents, such as someone’s house or an
old road. For example, a court order dated September 24, 1751 stated, “Samuel Mead is
Appointed Surveyor of the Road from Edward Thompson’s to Thomas Davis’es...”
(Court Book 1749-1754, page 163). The next court order similarly stated, “Thomas
Davis is appointed Overseer of the road from his house to Goose Creek...” (Court Record
book 1749-1754, page 163). One would have to trace the location of everyone’s property
in the eighteenth century to make sense of court orders like these. Although most court
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orders are not useful for determining location, the court orders do show that road
construction and maintenance were important to eighteenth-century residents.
In addition to the public roads recorded in the county records, anyone could build
a private road on their own property. Little documentation of these private roads exists
because residents were not required to get a court order, and mapmakers did not record
private roads. Occasionally, private roads would become public, especially when
changes in the county would increase travel on the roads. For example, if a mill was built
near a private road, then the road may have been opened to the public.
Throughout the eighteenth and much of the nineteenth century, Fairfax County’s
economy was primarily agricultural. Tobacco was the major cash crop; com and wheat
were grown for local use. In the late eighteenth century, wheat became a valuable
commodity because tobacco had depleted the soil. Wheat provided an alternative to
tobacco that lessened the farmers’ dependence on trade with England. One result of the
increased interest in wheat and other grain crops was a subsequent increase in the number
of grist and flourmills needed to process the grains. The water-powered mills often
spawned new communities as other merchants began to locate near the mills. New roads
were cleared at the end of the eighteenth century in the interior of Fairfax County to
provide access to the mills.
The final event that occurred during the intensified period of road construction
was the Revolutionary War. Although the war had little direct effect on the county, many
county residents participated in it. The end of the war marked the end of the era of
intense growth and prosperity in the county.
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Eighteenth Century Roads
Information on the history of roads during the mid- to late eighteenth century is
more readily available than for the earlier period just discussed. Although the court
records books prior to 1749 have been lost or destroyed, court orders for Fairfax County
survive for the remaining years of the eighteenth century until the Revolutionary War; the
court records provide a good idea of the number of and types of issues with which
residents and the court were concerned. Unfortunately, the court orders are not often
useful for determining the locations of roads. Court orders reference impermanent
landmarks and do not consistently refer to the same road by the same name.
Several maps of the state that illustrate road locations were completed in the mid-
to late eighteenth century. The proliferation of maps reflects the increased population
and the subsequent increased need for accurate surveys. In addition, an interest in
scientific surveying and exact measurements appears to correspond to a change in
peoples’ mindset often referred to as a change from the Post Medieval to the Georgian
mindset (see Glassie 1975; Deetz 1977; Leone 1988).
Figures 15 through 19 illustrate the approximate locations of roads in existence
before 1780 overlain on a modem map of Fairfax County. The locations of roads were
determined from court orders, secondary descriptions, and historic maps. The historic
roads’ relationship to modem roads was based on an analysis of topography, secondary
resources, and a comparison with nineteenth-century maps and USGS topographic maps
from the 1940s and 1950s.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 48
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rgste-''.r2s UTM ‘NwooocOgt 4Nujqc Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 53 As Fairfax County was transformed from a frontier settlement into an established and prosperous community, numerous new roads were cleared. The creation of Fairfax County, with its courthouse along the Eastern Ridge Road and the development of Alexandria had the greatest effect on the development of roads from 1740 through the third quarter of the eighteenth century. At the end of the century, an increase in grain cultivation, with the subsequent establishment of gristmills, affected road construction. For the sake of clarity, the discussion that follows refers to roads consistently by a single name, even though many of these names were not widely recognized by the eighteenth- century residents of Fairfax County. Court records call the same road by different names, referring to where the road led or by whose house it passed, depending on the context. Often existing roads are simply called “the old road.” Roads to the First Courthouse The first courthouse in the newly formed Fairfax County was built in 1742 along the Eastern Ridge Rolling Road (now VA Route 7); the courthouse was located near what is now Tysons Comer. A spur of Ox Road (first opened in 1730 to serve Robert Carter’s copper mine) was soon after cleared from Butts Comer to the new courthouse (see Figures 15, 17, 18, and 19). A court order dated March 28, 1751 may refer to this road; the order states, “John Jackson is appointed overseer of the road from the courthouse to the Ox Road. Ordered that he do keep the same in repair and erect posts or stones...” (Court Record Book 1749-1754, page 136). A second court order dated September 25, 1751 appointed Joshua Ferguson surveyor of the road “from the courthouse to Ox Road near Capt. Lewis Ellzoy’s” (Court Record Book 1749-1754, page 165). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 54 The western branch of Ox Road was cut off from major commerce, and, over time, faded into relative obscurity. Part of the western section between Floris and Route 29 was eventually paved and officially renamed West Ox Road. The eastern branch still retains the name Ox Road (VA Route 123) into Fairfax City, where the name changes to Main Street and Maple Avenue, and finally Chain Bridge Road. An unsigned map of the county drawn c. 1745 includes both the western and eastern branches of Ox Road (Figure 20). Daniel Jennings, Surveyor of Fairfax County, may have drawn the map (Stephenson 1981:22). Another road is depicted on the c. 1745 map leading west from the courthouse, crossing Ox Road, and meeting Braddock Road before continuing with Braddock Road to Williams Gap (Figure 20; see Figures 15, 17, and 19). A court order dated March 27, 1751 may be related to this road; it states, “Ordered that George William Fairfax Gent., John Anderson, Jacob Lasswell and Isaac Pennington view and mark out the most convenient way for a road from the court house of this county to William’s Gap and report to the next court” (Court Record Book 1749-1754, page 130). The fact that the court order dates later than the map seems to contradict the assumption that the two roads are related. It is, however, possible that a road existed in some form before the court officially recognized it. Or, the road discussed in the court order may have never been built because the courthouse was moved to Alexandria only three years later. No other roads are depicted on historic maps leading from the first courthouse to Williams Gap, except for the one shown on the c. 1745 map. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 55 V*I ■^.vT-s-h- 1 * < * 4 $ 'T Figure 20. Anonymous Map of Fairfax County Drawn Between 1745 and 1748, possibly by Daniel Jening (Road Names Added) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 56 Present day Lawyers Road may be the road depicted on the c. 1745 map as leading from the courthouse to William’s Gap. Lawyers Road currently starts at Ox Road, but nineteenth-century maps and mid-twentieth century topographic maps show the road continuing west past Ox Road. Lawyers Road follows a long ridge between two streams and crosses Difficult Run at a natural ford, suggesting that the road may be quite early. Where Lawyers Road today makes an abrupt turn to the southeast, just past Difficult Run, to head to the current courthouse in Fairfax City (established 1800), the road may have originally continued in a northeast direction to the first courthouse. Meadowlark Road and Old Courthouse Road from Meadowlark Road to Freedom Hill (where Old Courthouse Road is the original route of the Eastern Ridge Road) may have been part of the first Lawyers Road. The road’s name reflects its history as a feeder to the court; it is likely, however, that the road was named for the fact that it leads to the third (and current) Fairfax County courthouse. Roads to Alexandria In 1749, the Virginia Assembly approved the charter for the town of Alexandria. In 1754, the Assembly moved the county courthouse to Alexandria. Numerous new roads were added in the mid- to late eighteenth century in response to the increased importance of Alexandria as a port city. It is likely that internal trade also increased as merchants started buying supplies and producing products for the local market and the market west of the mountains. New roads were authorized to support transport of goods to and from Alexandria and settlements further west, and to provide access to the second Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 57 county court. In addition, old roads that had led to the Hunting Creek Warehouse were improved and redirected to the town center. The rise of Alexandria’s importance and the construction of roads from the city west to the mountains cut Colchester and Occoquan off from most commerce; their businesses and industries, which had been established before those of Alexandria, suffered. Siltation of the Occoquan River also reduced the ability of Colchester and Occoquan to support shipping. After the courthouse was moved to Alexandria and the town began to develop, a road spur was cleared from the Back Road and Potomac Path to the town itself (see Figures 15 and 16). In the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries, these roads had led to the Hunting Creek Warehouse. A court order dated March 30, 1750 may refer to the road spur; the record states, “William Ramsey Gent, is appt. overseer of the road from the Ferry Road [Potomac Path?] to the Town of Alexandria to Hunting Creek Ford and from thence to Four Mile Run Ford...” (Court Record Book 1749-1754, page 64). The order suggests that the road first went to Alexandria, then turned west and roughly followed what is now Duke Street to the Hunting Creek ford, and then turned north generally following a route similar to modem Quaker Lane to Four Mile Run. The section of this road from the Back Road to Alexandria is still in use today as Kings Highway, reflecting the road’s historic use as a postal route in the nineteenth century. Similarly, Eastern Ridge Road, an important feeder to Hunting Creek Warehouse, was redirected to the center of Alexandria, via King Street. The road became even more significant after tobacco production waned and grains and livestock were transported to Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 58 Alexandria from the western Piedmont and the Shenandoah Valley (Gage 1969:25). Joshua Fry and Peter Jefferson’s map of 1755 shows the Eastern Ridge Road running from Alexandria west to Vestal’s Gap (now Key’s Gap) in the mountains, and continuing on to meet the Philadelphia Wagon Road (Figure 21). The Eastern Ridge Road provided access between Alexandria and the Valley of Virginia and Pennsylvania. The Eastern Ridge Road and the Potomac Path were the most important access routes to Alexandria during the eighteenth century, and among the most important roads in Fairfax County. Lewis Evans’ map of Virginia drawn c. 1756 shows only these two roads in Fairfax County, excluding several other public roads that existed at the time (Figure 22). Numerous eighteenth-century court orders provide for roads to the Eastern Ridge Road (often referred to as the Main Road) and the Potomac Path (referred to as the Alexandria Colchester Road). For example, a court order recorded on June 19, 1754 directed Daniel French and John Peake to “view and mark the most convenient way for a road from Posey’s Ferry to the Main Road” (Court Record Book 1754-1756, page 105). In March of 1755 at the request of William Ashford a group of men were ordered to “view the most convenient way for a road from the Main Road to the said Ashfords house and report on oath to the next court” (Court Record Book 1754-1756, page 288). Subsequent court records, in June and July of 1755 respectively, order George Thrift to open the road, and then cite Thrift for not opening the road to Ashford’s. By 1745 a road was cleared from the Hunting Creek warehouse west to Ox Road, roughly at the point where Griffin’s Rolling Road connected from the opposite direction (see Figure 20). Although the court order establishing this road is missing, a court order Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Figure 21. Detail of a Map of Virginia and Maryland Prepared by Joshua Fry and Peter Jefferson around 1755 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Figure 22. Detail of a Map of the “Middle British Colonies” Drawn by Lewis Evans c. 1756 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 61 dated May 16, 1749 may relate to the road; it states, “We present Thomas Lewis for not keeping the road in repair between Ravensworth and the Ox Road by the knowledge of two of the jury” (Court Record Book 1749-1754, page 3). After Alexandria developed, the new road was redirected to the center of town, and extended west to Williams Gap in the mountains (see Figures 15, 16, 18, and 19). The road contributed to the decline of Occoquan and Colchester because it provided a direct route from the west to Alexandria whereas before travelers would pass much closer to Occoquan on their way east. Alexandria absorbed most of the business of Colchester and Occoquan. This road became Braddock Road. In the 1750s, the French and Indian War broke out between France, aided by Native Americans, and England. The struggle over the Ohio territory indirectly affected Virginia. In 1755, General Edward Braddock led an army of troops from Alexandria to Fort Duquesne in western Pennsylvania. Because the new road from Alexandria to William’s Gap was one of the routes Fairfax residents expected Braddock to use, the road became known as Braddock’s Road (Braddock Road today). Braddock’s company included Virginia Riflemen, British troops, and an artillery and baggage wagon. The inclusion of a wagon loaded with artillery suggests that a substantial road had to be cleared for the journey. Most local historians believe, however, that Braddock’s troops did not actually follow Braddock Road, but used other routes (Harrison 1987:479; Gage 1969:28). Although it may not have been directly involved in the French and Indian War, Braddock’s Road remained an important access road between William’s Gap in the west Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 62 and Alexandria. Braddock Road was considered to be one of the most important roads in the county during the eighteenth century. Fry’s map of 1755 shows only four roads in Fairfax County: the Eastern Ridge Road from Alexandria to Vestals Gap (now Keys Gap); Braddock’s Road from Alexandria to Williams Gap (now Snickers Gap); the Potomac Path from the south to Alexandria; and the Dumfries and Falmouth Road from Dumfries to Ashby’s Gap, which did not enter the current boundaries of Fairfax County but ran through what became Loudoun County (see Figure 21). Braddock Road’s inclusion on the map, with the exclusion of numerous other roads that were present at that time, such as Ox Road, indicates the importance of Braddock’s Road to eighteenth century travelers. The map also shows that Alexandria was the focus of the county. The unsigned map drawn in c. 1745 of Fairfax County shows a road running north-south from the Falls Warehouse to Alexandria, parallel to the Potomac River (see Figures 15, 16, 17, and 20). This road roughly follows the modem route of Glebe Road in Arlington County. Glebe road was named for the 500-acre farm provided for the rector of Fairfax Parish, which included Christ Church, Alexandria, and the Falls Church. It was called Glebe Road in order to distinguish it from the other roads leading to the falls. An historical marker has been erected on the southeast comer of Glebe Road and Wilson Boulevard (another early road) to commemorate the historic crossroads. A road was cleared between Alexandria and Georgetown some time in the late eighteenth century. Georgetown had grown around a trading post, landing, and tobacco warehouse at the mouth of Rock Creek on the Potomac River. The town lots were laid out in 1751 (Bushong 1990:16). By 1780 a road led from Alexandria north to a ferry Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 63 crossing on the Potomac via what is now Theodore Roosevelt Island and on to Georgetown. A map drawn in 1782 of the camp sites of the French Army near Alexandria shows two spurs of the road to Georgetown as well as the road to Colchester (Figure 23). Iq . (Yr '*' c ltrarati Figure 23. Map of Alexandria in 1782 (Rochambeau 1782) Court records suggest that other roads were in existence that led to Alexandria. The starting point for many of these roads cannot be determined based on the court orders alone because they refer to impermanent objects or unknown locations. One interesting court order, dated May 22, 1754 states, “On the motion of John Alexander by his Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 64 Attorney it is ordered that the order made for clearing a road from the Lower Cross Street in Alexandria to the road which leads to Cameron be quashed” (Court Record Book 1754-1756, page 94). In addition to the streets leading to Alexandria, roads were built within the town. The 1749 charter for Alexandria provided for a grid street plan with three main north- south streets and seven cross streets (Figure 24). The grid plan allowed the town to be easily expanded. Figure 24. Plan of Alexandria as Laid Out in the 1749 Charter (Washington 1749) The grid streets of Alexandria (and Colchester) reflect a change people’s mindset from the Post Medieval to the Georgian Order. The roads oriented at right angles show an interest in imposing a geometric order on nature, whereas earlier roads merely Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 65 followed the contours of the topography. The hierarchical names of the east-west grid streets in Alexandria also reflect the Georgian Order (Miller et al. 1999:3). The street names descend in order from King to Prince to Duke going south, and from Queen, to Princess, to Oronoco (a type of South American tobacco leaf) going north. Later in the eighteenth century, wealthy residents of Alexandria further asserted their control over nature by filling in the mud flats where Lee Street (formerly Water Street) is now located in order to extend the waterfront and provide easier access to the deep water of the Potomac River. Mark Leone has argued that in historic Annapolis there is a correlation between the change to the Georgian order with emerging capitalism (Leone 1988). This argument seems to hold true not only for Annapolis, but also for Alexandria. Alexandria was the center of wealth, commerce, and trade in Fairfax County. Some of the earliest Georgian homes in the county were built in Alexandria when the number of wealthy landowners was solidifying (Miller et al. 1999). There was a drastic difference between the poorer neighborhoods and the rich neighborhoods along the waterfront in the eighteenth century. Leone argues that wealthy people sought to justify their wealth (whether intentionally or unconsciously) by showing that they could order nature through symmetry and straight lines. Rolling Roads In addition to roads that led to the courthouse and the town of Alexandria, new roads were cleared in the county to provide access to the river landings and tobacco Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 66 warehouses that were in existence by the early eighteenth century. During the mid- and late eighteenth century, ordinaries, ferries, mills, and other businesses were often established at the locations of the warehouses. The spur of the Ox Road that had been opened in the 1740s to the first Fairfax County courthouse was extended in the 1750s to the Falls Warehouse, where the Lee family operated a mill and ferry. The new road was often called the Falls Road. Falls Road was an important cross street connecting Sugarlands Rolling Road and the Eastern Ridge Road. Falls Road is today Chain Bridge Road (part of VA Route 123). A short side road was cleared later in the eighteenth century from Falls Road to the town of Lewinsville; this road today is Lewinsville Road. Another cross street connecting Sugarlands Rolling Road with Eastern Ridge Road was Great Falls Road, which George Washington reportedly surveyed in the eighteenth century (Hatch nd:13). Part of this road is now Great Falls Street. In 1764, the Fairfax County court ordered that “Sampson Trammell, William Noding, Hugh Conn, and William Trammell... view the most convt way for a road to be opened from the Great Falls to Difficult Run to meet a road to be cleared from thence ... to the Falls Warehouse...” Hatch believes this road to be what he calls the Sandy Landings Road. The road originated near Great Falls, passed the sandy landing, where a ferry to Maryland was in operation by the 1760s, and led southeast to Difficult Run (Hatch nd:28). Once across Difficult Run, the route joined the Sugarlands Rolling Road, which led to the Falls Warehouse. The Sandy Landings Road is still in existence today as a trail within Great Falls National Park (Hatch nd:28). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 67 In the 1740s, a road was cleared from near Falls Church to Awbrey’s (Awbury’s) Ferry on the Potomac River (where Rosslyn is now situated). The ferry landing on the Maryland side of the Potomac River was where Georgetown developed. Awbrey’s Ferry Road crossed Glebe Road at Ball’s Crossroads in Fairfax Parish (now Arlington County). Ball’s Tavern was established at the crossroads in the early 1800s. Awbrey’s Ferry Road was later renamed Wilson Boulevard in honor of President Wilson (Harrison 1987:484). Before 1760, a second road was opened to Awbrey’s Ferry. The road led east from near the intersection of Ox Road and Braddock Road, passed Falls Church, and continued on to Awbrey’s Ferry. This road is often referred to as the Church Road in court records because it passed the Falls Church. The modem course of VA Route 237, Old Lee Highway and Washington Street through Falls Church, generally follows the route of the eighteenth century Church Road. Although the Virginia Assembly officially closed the Pohick Warehouse in 1734, the location remained an important landing. The warehouses are still shown on a map of the area drawn by George Washington in 1765 (see Figure 13). In addition, in 1767, the Pohick Church Vestry ordered construction of the third Pohick Church at the intersection of the major early rolling roads leading to Pohick Warehouse, Potomac Path, and Back Road. George Washington selected the site, and the structure was completed in 1774. The church is still located there today. At least two roads were cleared during the eighteenth century that led to the Pohick landing, and past the new Pohick Church (Mitchell 1987). These roads remain in use today as Pohick Road and Rolling Road. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 68 Pohick Road connected Ox Road in the west to Pohick. Rolling Road led from John Hollis’s property and Braddock’s Road in the northwest to Pohick. On April 18, 1754 a court order was entered directing Joseph Jacobs, William Reardon and Abraham Higgins to “view and mark the most convenient way for a road from the Ox Road to Occoquan Ferry...” (Court Record Book 1754-1756, page 82). On May 21,1754, Peter Wagnor, William Leake and William Simpson were ordered to clear the road “the way it is marked by the viewers” (Court Record Book 1754-1756, page 87). This road provided a more direct access route to the Occoquan ferry and Colchester from the west. The road may have been cleared in part as a response to silting of the Occoquan River, which limited shipping abilities from the old Occoquan landing at the end of the original Ox Road. Modem Furnace Road, which runs along a natural ridge, may roughly follow the route of the road from the Ox Road to the Occoquan Ferry. Roads to Mills In the late eighteenth century, residents began to grow wheat and other grains rather than tobacco. A hundred years of tobacco farming had depleted the soils. Also, increased trade within the colonies rather than solely with England meant a greater need for grains as well as tobacco. At the fall line, swift-moving water ran down a relatively steep grade, providing an ideal environment for the development of mills and other industries. The falls provided enough fast water to operate a mill, and process the increasing amounts of grain being grown in the county. New roads were built in the Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 69 interior of Fairfax County that led to the mills. In addition, existing private roads were improved and opened to the public. In 1781, Samuel Adams, a resident in what is now McLean, requested permission to build a mill on Old Leesburg Road. The request indicates that the road was present prior to 1781. Old Leesburg Road ran between the Sugarlands Rolling Road and the Falls Rolling Road. It crossed Kirby Road just east of Pimmit Run; Kirby Road ran north-south between Sugarlands Rolling Road and Falls Road (Hatch nd:10). The road was named after the Kirby family who lived along the route by the 1860s; the original eighteenth-century name of the road is not known. Both Old Leesburg Road and Kirby Road were probably private roads within the Adams property during the eighteenth century. The roads provided the Adams family with easy access to both the falls warehouse and the Falls (Upper) Church. When Adams decided to build the mill, public use of the roads probably increased. According to Winslow Hatch, Bryan Fairfax may have used Old Towlston Road to travel from his home (Towlston Grange) to his mill on Difficult Run (Hatch nd:13). The mill was completed around 1769 (Hatch nd:26). Earlier, this road was part of Sugarlands Rolling Road. Many of the road names in Fairfax County today reflect the historical importance of mills. Although no documentation exists for these roads, some of the roads may have been cleared in the late eighteenth century. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 70 Private Roads In addition to the public roads recorded in the county records, anyone could build a private road on their own property. Little documentation of these private roads exists because residents were not required to get a court order, and mapmakers generally only recorded the main roads. George Washington’s map of 1765, however, does show what were presumably private roads, which led from major public roads to the plantations along the Potomac River (see Figure 13). Washington’s maps of his property, one drawn in 1766 and one drawn in 1793, also show private roads (Figures 25 and 26). Figure 25. Washington’s Map of His Farm on Little Hunting Creek Drawn in 1766 (Stephenson and McKee 2000:67) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 71 Figure 26. Washington’s Map of the Farms Comprising Mount Vernon, Dated c. 1793 (Stephenson and McKee 2000:67) Conclusion As the map of eighteenth-century roads overlain on a modem map of in Fairfax County shows (see Figure 15), travel and commerce were concentrated in the eastern part of the county along the Potomac River. More roads appear in the interior, however, than were present in the earlier period. Although the known locations of roads is slightly skewed by the fact that certain parts of the county have been more intensely researched by local historians, censuses data recorded in the middle and late eighteenth century support the conclusion that population, wealth, commerce, and trade were still focused around the eastern part of the county. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER 4 INTENSIVE ROAD CONSTRUCTION PERIOD/TURNPIKE ERA (1783-1840) Following the Revolutionary War, expanding industries and businesses in Fairfax County led to a need for better transportation routes in order to increase the productivity of manufacture and processing of agricultural and other products and therefore the profit. Toll roads with graveled surfaces were built using a combination of private and state funds to meet the needs of merchants and farmers. Compared with the previous period, an extensive amount of new road building did not take place during this third period. However, the nature of road building and maintenance in Fairfax County was significantly different than during the earlier periods. Historic Context Soon after the end of the Revolutionary War, statesmen began to recognize the importance of a national system of transportation to hold the loosely-united states together. Whereas before transportation issues were dealt with at the state and local level, transportation now received national attention (Meinig 1993:347). Early plans focused on connecting the “hinterlands” to major ports, usually through a combination of canals and roads (Meinig 1993:316). 72 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 73 Albert Gallatin, Secretary of the Treasury under President Thomas Jefferson, was among the first to assess the need for a national transportation plan. Gallatin recognized that economic interdependence through a national market would tie the states to each other. A national system of adequate transportation routes was essential to “shorten distances, facilitate commercial and personal intercourse, and unite by a still more intimate community of interests, the most remote quarters of the United States” (Albert Gallatin report to Congress in 1801, as quoted in Meinig 1993:311). Gallatin presented his national transportation plan in 1808; the plan was soon overshadowed by the War of 1812, but revived again by other proponents of the plan in 1817 (Meinig 1993:313-315, 334). A national plan for transportation was only proposed, but never funded in the early nineteenth century. Numerous factors contributed to the defeat of the national plan. Political debates focused on enlarging Federal power and whether the constitution allowed for the central government to undertake significant works within the states. Opponents of Federal involvement worried about the implications of Federal regulation of property in regards to slavery. There was also concern over who had the right to decide which routes would be funded since all such decisions had political and economic repercussions (Meinig 1993:349). In addition, the advent of steam power shifted the focus of transportation to railroads and steamboats, but most national plans still only included proposals for canals and roads (Meinig 1993:342). States’ rights advocates in power in 1828 passed a resolution that declared the General Survey Act unconstitutional. In 1830, President Andrew Jackson vetoed the Maysville Road Bill, a bill to finance a Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 74 segment of road within Kentucky; this action removed any further chance for Federal involvement in transportation and returned power to states (Meinig 1993:334). In the mean time, Virginia had begun to implement a state-wide system of internal improvements, with the creation of the Board of Public Works in 1816 (discussed later in this chapter). In Fairfax County, citizens were focused on rebuilding the economic base of the county following the Revolutionary War. Previously wealthy landowning families experienced hardship due to soil depletion, collapse of the tobacco trade, and division of farms into smaller and smaller parcels, generally through inheritance (Netherton et al. 1992:161). Some experimentation in different agricultural techniques, including the use of fertilizers, a diversified crop base, and implementation of a crop rotation system, did result in higher crop yields. The earlier trend away from tobacco cultivation toward wheat and com cultivation continued, intensified by the break with England. New mills were built to process the increasing amounts of grain harvested in the region. This led to an eventual shift from family or neighborhood mills to merchant milling, where millers bought grain and sold flour products for profit (Netherton et al. 1992:178). Grist mills were often located near or combined with other types of mills, including cotton, wool, and saw mills. Merchant milling required good transportation routes in order to attract grain growers and transport products to market. Whereas earlier mills tended to be located on the interior so that they were accessible to inland farmers, mills now were built at crossroads and in towns. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 75 In 1797 a segment of eastern Loudoun County was returned to Fairfax County, a change that had originally been proposed in 1789. The Fairfax County courthouse was then moved from Alexandria to the center of the newly expanded county. The courthouse was built on Richard Radcliffs property on Ox Road and opened in 1800 (Netherton et al. 1992:45). The courthouse complex included the courthouse, jail, clerk’s office, brick tavem, kitchen, stable, and storehouse (Netherton et al. 1992:220; FX County Deed book B-2, 503-504); a poorhouse and gallows were added by 1803 (Netherton et al. 1992:222). The town of Providence grew around the courthouse complex and the intersection of Ox Road and the new Little River Turnpike (begun in 1802) (Figure 27). The town was incorporated as Providence in 1805 (the name _. T. . ~ r c Figure 27. Little River Turnpike through Fairfax at the end of the 19th Century was changed to Fairfax in 1875). (http://www.ci.fairfax.va.us/CityHistory/). Other towns grew in the early nineteenth century, usually at the intersection of roads or at the location of a mill or ferry crossing. Towns included: Matildaville, located at Conn’s first ferry to Maryland and at the building site of Potowmack Company canal; Centreville, located along Braddock Road and later the Fauquier and Alexandria Turnpike; Annandale, at the intersection of Ravensworth Rolling Road, Little River Turnpike, and Columbia Pike; and Pleasant Valley, situated along Cub Run and the Little River Turnpike on the border of Fairfax and Loudoun Counties. Stage and mail routes went through the towns, and toll gates were often located at taverns in town (Netherton et Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 76 al. 1992:174). Small commercial centers were situated in the new towns; earlier villages, like Colchester, Pimmit, and Falls Church, also retained businesses. In addition, inns, taverns, and blacksmiths set up establishments along roadways throughout the county, especially at major intersections (Netherton et al. 1992:187). Skilled craftsmen, such as tailors, silversmiths, weavers, cabinetmakers, and watchmakers, could be found in Alexandria (Netherton et al. 1992:188). An inventory completed in 1784 by the Fairfax County court documented 594 dwellings and 1,652 other buildings (Netherton et al. 1992:135). The other buildings were presumably farm outbuildings, signifying the continued agricultural nature of the county. The population of Fairfax County dropped between 1800 and 1830, partially due to the loss of Alexandria and the area of Arlington in 1801, but also due to emigration. Since the soil in Fairfax County was not as productive as in the past, people were attracted to the new land in the expanding west. Cities, despite outbreaks of cholera and yellow fever, also attracted people. With a reduction in tobacco farming, many people either freed their slaves (who were forbidden by an act of the Virginia legislature to remain in county for more than one year) or sold them to the southern states, which were switching to growing cotton. Therefore the black population of Fairfax County also decreased (Netherton et al. 1992:159). Population rose slightly between 1830 and 1840. According to census data, in 1810 the total population of Fairfax County was 13,654 (6,626 white and 7,028 black enslaved and free blacks). By 1830, the population of Fairfax County had dropped to 9,206 (4,893 white and 4,313 black) (Netherton et al. 1992:153-154, based on county census data on file at the National Archives). The Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 77 population of Alexandria, on the other hand, rose during this period. The biggest jump was from 1790 to 1810; in 1790 the total population of the city was 2,748 (2,153 white and 595 black and Indian), and as of 1810 the population had risen to 7,227 (4,903 white, 1,488 enslaved black, and 838 other, which included free black, Indian, and foreigners). By 1830, the population had risen again slightly to 8,263 (5,681 white, 1,381 black enslaved, and 1,201 other) (Netherton et al. 1992:155). In 1791, Alexandria and the part of Fairfax Parish that is now Arlington County became part of the new nation’s capitol, the District of Columbia. Despite becoming part of the Federal district, Alexandria continued to have an influence on commerce and road development in Fairfax County. Alexandria was the chief market for produce, grain, and flour grown throughout Fairfax County and in the counties to the west. Products were then exported to other parts of the country, the West Indies, and to Europe (Netherton et al. 1992:184). Although Alexandria attempted to compete with Georgetown for business with Washington, the fact that Alexandria was separated from Washington by the Potomac hampered its efforts. Alexandria, therefore, catered more to ships coming into port and to trade with farmers in Fairfax County and the western counties. By the end of the eighteenth century, Alexandria had become a major seaport town. By the 1790s, Alexandria was one of the ten busiest ports in the United States. The success of Alexandria depended on the ability to transport materials and products to and from the western counties. Flour was a particularly important export for Alexandria (Cromwell et al. 1989:9). By 1803, 9/10 of all grain transported to Alexandria for milling and export came from the region west of the Little River (Alexandria Gazette Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 78 11/23/1803). The importance of good roads between Alexandria and the western settlements increased as Alexandria tried to compete with developing industrial and commercial centers in Baltimore, Philadelphia, and Georgetown (Netherton et al. 1992:407). In order to improve the condition of roads to and from Alexandria, the Virginia legislature passed an act in 1785 appointing a commission to “cause to be set up and erected, one or more gates or turnpikes across the roads ... leading into the town of Alexandria, from Snigger’s and Vestal’s gaps, within five miles of said town...” (Hening vol. XII 1823:76). Money collected from the toll gates was to be used to repair the roads from Snicker’s and Vestal’s Gaps and from Georgetown to Alexandria. According to the law, the labor of tithables living along the route was insufficient to keep up with damage done by increased wagon traffic, presumably related to increased transport of produce and grain from the west to Alexandria. The law states the reason for the act as such: Whereas the public roads leading from the north-western parts of this state, to the towns of Alexandria and Colchester, in the county of Fairfax, by means of the great number of waggons which use the same, are rendered impassible, and the ordinary method of keeping them in repair as at present by law established is not only insufficient, but exceedingly burthensome to those who are employed therein... (10 October 1785, Hening vol. XU 1823:75). Although Colchester is mentioned in the act, in actuality little traffic probably headed towards Colchester. The act specified the tolls that were to be collected based on the type of vehicle. Residents who paid the toll upon entering the city were not required to pay a toll leaving the city. Interestingly, the law also included prices for yearly passes, Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 79 which could be purchased for each type of vehicle (October 10, 1785, Hening vol. XII 1823:76). In addition to authorizing tolls, the law allowed Fairfax, Loudoun, Berkeley, and Frederick Counties to levy a tax to pay for roads. It also stated that the presence of toll gates did not exempt local residents from working on the road as prescribed in earlier laws (10 October 1785, Hening vol. XII 1823:77-78). Fairfax County residents resented having to pay tolls, pay a levy, and provide free labor to work on the roads that they lived along in order for Alexandria residents to make a profit. The labor requirements were temporarily suspended on January 23, 1798, but reinstated by an act passed on January 19, 1801 (Shepherd 1970 vol. 2:110 and 300, respectively). The 1801 act exempted residents who traveled “on the stage road” from Colchester, or who traveled less than one-half mile before reaching a toll gate, from paying the toll (Shepherd 1970 vol. 2:298- 300). The acts may have improved the condition of roads in the eastern part of the county, but more comprehensive actions were needed to ensure construction of adequate roads to the west. The nature of road building changed in Virginia in response to increased settlement west of the Blue Ridge Mountains. The need for new and better roads to support trade with the western counties and increased wagon travel tested the traditional process of road maintenance in Virginia (Pawlett 1977:14). Up until this point, county courts approved roads and appointed surveyors, but did not contribute money for the projects. People whose property the roads ran through were required to provide labor to clear and maintain roads. As court orders reflect, this was often not effective; court Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 80 records include numerous fine orders for failure to maintain or clear roads. In addition, roads that ran through multiple counties were regulated and maintained differently by the different county courts, resulting in varied conditions along cross-county roads. Because settlement was scarce along the routes leading into the mountains, there was often not enough tithable labor, resources, skilled labor, or money to build roads. Crossing streams in the western part of the state also required skilled laborers to build bridges. Following the Revolutionary War, many counties had exhausted resources of men and money. This was combined with a decline in the profitability of tobacco farming and trade with England. Selling subscriptions to road companies and charging a toll along the roads provided a means for financing more complex projects when the area or county alone could not afford a project (VDOT 1992:5). Tolls had first been charged for ferry passage as early as the seventeenth century, and the concept was applied to roads at the end of the eighteenth century. Development of turnpikes was in response to the need for more complicated and expensive roads that would support heavy wagon traffic, cross the mountains, and serve the expanding populations in the upland areas (Pawlett 1977:5). The turnpike got its name from the turnstile consisting of two crossed bars that turned on a vertical pole. The bars were called “pikes”, which travelers had to turn to pass through. The first turnpike company chartered in Virginia was the Fairfax and Loudoun Turnpike Road Company, chartered on October 12, 1795. The company was formed to construct a road between Alexandria and the Little River at Aldie, but it was not successful (Shepherd 1970 vol. 1:378-388). In 1802 the Little River Turnpike Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 81 Company was formed to complete the same task. By 1806, the company had built a 20- foot wide turnpike extending west from Alexandria for 34 miles (along the route of what are now US 236 and US 50). The company operated the toll road for nearly 100 years. In 1816, the Virginia Legislature formed the Committee on Roads and Internal Navigation (based on an earlier committee formed in 1812 and soon forgotten during the war) to evaluate the condition of the state’s modes of transportation. Their report focused on the need for improved engineering and the importance of connecting the eastern and western parts of the state together. The committee recommended that a fund for internal improvements be created (Pawlett 1977:21). On February 5, 1816, the Virginia Assembly created the Fund for Internal Improvements for the purpose of “rendering navigable, and uniting, by canals, principal rivers, and of more intimately connecting, by public highways, the different parts of this Commonwealth” (Ritchie vol. 2 1819:201- 205). The fund was to be made up of dividends from stock that the state owned in existing banks and canal, river, and turnpike companies. These funds amounted to $1,462,140.61, the interest from which (approximately $100,000) was to be used to help finance internal improvements. Earlier internal improvement companies were owned and operated by joint stock companies. In most cases, however, private funding was not sufficient to fund construction, and the state would purchase a percentage of the company stock. The act establishing the fund for internal improvements set up procedures for state investment in private companies (Ritchie vol. 2 1819:203). The same act that created the Fund for Internal Improvements created the Board of Public Works to supervise the use of the funds. The Board of Public Works consisted Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 82 of thirteen men, headed by the governor. Board members included: the governor, treasurer, attorney-general, three citizens from west of the Allegheny mountains, two from between the Allegheny and Blue Ridge Mountains, three from between the Blue Ridge and “the great post road” which ran along the fall line (probably the Potomac Path, now Route 1), and two citizens from east of the fall line (Ritchie vol. 2 1819:202). The Board could invest money in companies involved in transportation activities once private individuals had bought at least 3/5 of the stock, and paid for 1/5 of the stock (Ritchie vol. 2 1819:203). The Board was not a central planning agency with authority to direct the course of internal improvements in the state. Rather, the Board was designed to advise the Virginia legislature on the relative merits of different projects and to provide technical assistance (Hunter 1957:23-24). Turnpike companies in Virginia had a difficult time collecting private subscriptions and even more trouble collecting actual money, due in part to the agricultural nature of the state and the common practice of using tobacco as money or bartering for the exchange of goods, rather than using real money (Hunter 1957:34). Companies that did manage to raise enough private capital to apply for state assistance were not guaranteed funding from the state, a fact that surprised some companies (Hunter 1957:42). Sale of 3/5 of the stock simply allowed them to submit an application for funding, which was then review by the Board of Public Works. Companies that did receive funding still retained much of the benefits of a private enterprise, a situation that was not always true in other states (Hunter 1957:15). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 83 In addition to regulating the Fund for Internal Improvements, the Board of Public Works appointed the Principal Engineer for the state, who was made available to private companies planning internal improvements (Ritchie vol. 2 1819:201-205). Laommi Baldwin Jr. was the first Principal Engineer, he held the office from 1816 to 1818. Thomas Moore, who held the office until his death in 1822, succeeded Baldwin. Claudius Crozet succeeded Thomas Moore. Crozet held two terms, 1823-1831 and 1838- 1843, and had a profound effect on transportation in Virginia (VDOT 1992:5; Pawlett 1977:23). Soon after the formation of the Board of Public Works, on February 7, 1817, the Virginia Assembly passed “An act prescribing certain general regulations for the incorporation of turnpike companies” (Ritchie vol. 2 1819:211-225). Although turnpike companies had been chartered before this act, the law set up specifications for the incorporation of all future turnpikes. The act included guidelines for how shares of stock should be sold, how roads should be constructed, what tolls should be charged, and other guidelines. Individual turnpike companies, however, continued to be chartered through separate Acts of the General Assembly. The Act authorized turnpike companies to take land and materials required for the construction and maintenance of the road, provided that previous notice had been given to the landowner, the landowner was compensated, and no fences, fruit trees, shade trees, or buildings were taken for use in the road construction (Ritchie vol. 2 1819:214-216). The law also prescribed regulations for constructing roads: Be it further enacted, That the president and directors shall construct bridges over all water courses crossing the said road, where the same shall Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 84 be found necessary, and shall make the said road in every part thereof, sixty feet wide at least, eighteen feet of which shall be well covered with gravel or stone, where necessary, and at all times kept firm and smooth, free from all mud holes, ruts and other obstructions, and in all respects fit for the use of heavy laden waggons, and of other carriages; and, on each side of the parts so to be made and preserved, they shall clear out a summer road eighteen feet wide, and keep the same always in good repair, free from all stumps, roots, rocks, stones, mud-holes, ruts and other obstructions, fit for the use of waggons and other carriages in dry weather, between the first day of May, and thirty-first day of October...” (Ritchie vol. 2 1819:216). Actual construction quality and road design varied among the different turnpike companies. Although the importance of trained engineers was recognized, most roads continued to be built by amateurs (Hunter 1957:66). Principal Engineer Claudius Crozet repeatedly criticized turnpike companies in Virginia for poor design and/or construction. He believed that a well thought-out route and adequate drainage were the most important components to a good road. Crozet or another engineer would carefully survey the route that a road should take. But builders often did not follow the surveyed line (Hunter 1957:75). Turnpike companies would redirect roads to follow a more direct path, resulting in excessively steep grades. Engineers generally recognized that a three degree slope was acceptable, but some roads in Virginia had more than a five degree slope in places (Hunter 1957:92; 95). Alternatively, a company may redirect a road to avoid a stream crossing, to follow the most level path, or to locate the road closer to construction materials. These choices generally resulted in a substantial increase in the distance traveled, which exceeded the benefits gained in the redirection (Hunter 1957:68). Most of these engineering problems were more applicable to roads built in the mountains rather than to roads in Fairfax County, where many turnpikes followed the existing road routes. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 85 Although the general turnpike act specified that a road should be sixty feet wide with an eighteen-foot paved section, the actual roads varied. Crozet advocated construction of more narrow roads, especially in sparsely-populated areas, which could later be expanded when needed (Hunter 1957:85-86). He did advocate a sixty-foot right- of-way for each road, but this area just referred to the property for which landowners would be compensated. The right-of-way included not only the road bed, but also space for ditches, and areas from which construction materials would be taken (Hunter 1957:88). The summer roads referred to in the act evolved out of the common practice of using the shoulders of roads that had become too rutted during the winter months. Turnpike companies contested the inclusion of a requirement for maintaining summer roads in the turnpike act as an unnecessary expense and outdated practice. By 1835, the requirement was usually waived (Hunter 1957:90). Road construction was done by hand with picks, shovels, and occasionally horse- drawn scrapers; it was important, therefore, that a route was chosen that followed deep soils. Rock would have to be blasted with black powder and was more difficult to remove by hand, resulting in increased construction costs. Engineers encouraged the use of soil borings and available geologic surveys (Hunter 1957:97). The Principal Engineers, especially Crozet, considered adequate drainage essential to maintaining a road. Builders, however, varied in their incorporation of drainage structures, such as gutters, drains, ditches, and culverts (Hunter 1957:101). Roads were built slightly rounded, or crowned, to guide water to the ditches alongside the road. However, crowned roads were ineffective on slopes, where water would simply run Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 86 downhill. Gutters (hollow depressions across the road surface) guided water to the ditches, even on slopes and curves. Covered drains were sometimes used on slopes; drains would be arranged in a “V” pattern with the V pointing uphill. Ditches were generally dug to a depth of three feet below the road grade; in areas where banks might erode and fill the ditch, covered drains built of masonry or wood were used. Masonry culverts carried water under the road from a ditch along a hill to the low side of the road, where the water could run off without damaging the road surface (Hunter 1957:99-101). Because surfacing turnpikes was the final step in their construction, there were often not enough funds left for an elaborate surface; many turnpikes in Virginia were left as dirt (Hunter 1957:104). Engineers Gillespie and Mahan attempted to educate Virginians on modem techniques for protecting roads and preventing erosion, including the use of paving methods designed by Englishmen John Loudoun McAdam and Thomas Telford. McAdam believed a road should be well drained and strong enough to support the weight of any vehicle. His road design called for crushed rock packed tightly into layers with a top surface of sand or finely crushed stone, ideally from 7 to 10 inches thick (Ransom 1984:101-102). Telford, on the other hand, favored the use of large stones carefully placed to form a close-knit pattern, much in the way that paving stones are used in walkways today (Ransom 1984:96). Virginians debated the benefits of McAdam’s crushed stone method versus Telford’s “broken stone” method. The discussions, however, rarely affected actual road construction in Virginia. Typical surfaces on good roads featured a mix of sand and clay or a layer of gravel; roads along the coast were sometimes covered with broken oyster Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 87 shells (Hunter 1957:105). Roads that had more wagon travel and roads that were located close to sources of rock were more likely to get a stone or gravel surface. Plank road construction, where a road was covered with wooden planks laid crosswise, did not appear in Virginia until the late 1840s and 1850s; only ten plank road companies chartered in Virginia actually built roads (Hunter 1957:113). In order to preserve the surface of roads, the general turnpike act specified the wheel widths and weight limits for vehicles traveling on the road, particularly during wet weather. Loaded wagons weighing more than two-and-a-half tons during the winter and three tons all other times were required to have wheels wider than four inches in order to reduce the amount that the wheels cut into the road bed. Additional weights versus wheel width regulations were specified for heavier vehicles; violations of the weight limits would result in a fine (Ritchie vol. 2 1819:216-217). Despite these guidelines, records of the turnpike companies contain many complaints that travelers carried very heavy loads on wagons with narrow wheels, which dug into the road (Hunter 1957:126). In order to deal with this problem, Phineas Janney, president of the Little River Turnpike Company, wanted to lower tolls for lighter vehicles in order to attract travelers that used the county roads and increase revenue enough to repair the damage done by the heavier vehicles (Hunter 1957:126; ARBPW vol. XXV 1840:364-366); Janney apparently felt that regulating the wheel width was a lost cause. Turnpike companies hired contractors to build and often to maintain the roads. The records of only two turnpike companies in Virginia (both outside of Fairfax County) mentioned the use of slave labor (Hunter 1957:134). Use of slaves was risky because Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 88 slaves were the property of someone else, who would seek compensation if the slaves were injured. One of the two turnpike companies actually owned slaves, but found that road repair was seasonal and it was too costly to board and feed slaves in the off season (Hunter 1957:136). Most road workers were poor white men from the local area. When too distant from the town for workers to commute, turnpike companies set up worker camps, providing food and a small wage (Hunter 1957:82). When a five-mile section of the road had been completed and deemed satisfactory, the company was authorized to erect toll gates. Once the entire road was complete, if the final segment was less than the full five miles, then a gate could be erected that charged a prorated fare, in proportion to the actual length of the segment (Ritchie vol. 2 1819:218). In practice, however, the distance between toll gates varied, although ten miles was typical (Hunter 1957:153). Toll gates were placed at strategic locations that were hard for people to avoid, such as river crossings, entrances to mountain passes, store locations, and approaches to towns. Travelers only had to pay half the toll amount on their return trip. Tolls allowed for in the turnpike act are summarized in Table 1. Table 1. Tolls Outlined in the General Turnpike Act of 1817 Vehicle or Passenger Toll Score of sheep or hogs 614 cents Score of cattle 1214 cents Horse, mare, mule, gelding 3 cents Two wheeled riding carriage 10 cents Four wheeled riding carriage 20 cents Cart or wagon (wheels less than 4”) 614 cents per draft animal Cart or wagon (wheels more than 4”) 3 cents per draft animal Cart or wagon (wheels more than 7”) 1 cent per draft animal (from Ritchie vol. 2 1819:218) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 89 United States troops and public property carriers were exempted from paying the tolls (Ritchie vol. 2 1819:218). Mail carriers were also exempt from paying tolls. Turnpike company commissioners often registered complaints that stage companies and wagon transportation companies, both of which were heavy and damaged the roads more than other vehicles, would volunteer to carry the mail in order to avoid paying the tolls (Hunter 1957:151-152). Some travelers would claim to be carrying the mail, but not be, in order to avoid paying tolls (Hunter 1957:157). Passengers who evaded tolls had to pay a fine (Ritchie vol. 2 1819:221). The records of the Board of Public Works include hundreds of complaints registered by citizens who felt that the tolls were “a check to their ideal liberty” (ARBPW vol. XXIV 1839:123). Travelers often made circuitous paths around the toll gates, creating “shunpikes”. In Fairfax County, the large number of good county roads that intersected with the turnpikes provided travelers with easy routes around toll gates, especially in dry weather. Some travelers simply forced open the gates because they objected to paying (Hunter 1957:157). A combination of weather and heavy vehicle traffic eroded road surfaces and created muddy, rutted roads. If the turnpike company failed to keep the road in repair, then they had to open the toll gates and suspend toll collection. If the road remained in disrepair for more than 18 months, then the company forfeited all claims in the turnpike, and the road became public (Ritchie vol. 2 1819:219-221). Turnpike companies often voluntarily opened their toll gates when a road needed repair, probably to avoid court action so that the company could decide on its own when tolls could once again be Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 90 collected (Hunter 1957:158). Maintenance of turnpikes was sometimes so costly that a turnpike company would relinquish toll collection to a contractor who agreed to make repairs and maintain the road (Hunter 1957:118). The general turnpike act established that carts or wagons passing each other were to keep to the right hand side of the road, and faster vehicles were to pass on the left (Ritchie vol. 2 1819:221-222). This guideline is interesting because the turnpike movement in America began roughly twenty years after the turnpike era in England, where, based on today’s practice, the convention would have been the opposite. Turnpike development contributed to prosperity and economic growth, particularly along the transportation corridors (Cromwell et al. 1989:10). Increased transportation from western areas led to development of business both to process and sell products from the west and to cater to travelers (Cromwell et al. 1989:11). Industrial and commercial centers developed along the newly improved turnpikes. Similar to today, commercial centers spread out from towns and cities along the major transportation routes into the town center. For example, this process contributed to the development of the industrial and commercial Village of West End along Little River Turnpike (Duke Street) outside of Alexandria. Throughout its history, the Board of Public Works focused most of its resources in the Richmond area with the James River and Kanawha canal and roads, and on the Alexandria to Winchester corridor along the Potomac River (Pawlett 1977:25). As the nineteenth century proceeded, the canal route along the James River became the focus of the Board. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 91 By 1815, about 55 turnpike companies had been chartered in Virginia, but only seven of the 55 actually became operating companies (Hunter 1957:6). Forty-five turnpike companies were chartered between 1816 (when the Board of Public Works was formed) and 1819, but only three actually built roads (Hunter 1957:6). Ten new turnpike companies were chartered in 1820, twice as many as any other year (Pawlett 1977:22). Prices for agricultural products began to fall in the 1820s, leading to a recession in Alexandria, and throughout Virginia, that would last until the 1840s. The fall in prices was caused in part by a shift of goods and services to other centers and ports, particularly Baltimore, which had more industrial development and easier access to the Ohio Valley. The economic depression resulted in slowed investments for the decade following 1820 (Pawlett 1977:25). In 1827, the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad Company was formed to build a rail line from Baltimore to the western markets in order for Baltimore to compete with northern trade routes along the Erie Canal. In 1829 the first steam locomotive was imported into the United States from England (Newlan et al. 1985:13). Steam power ushered in a new era of transportation throughout the country. In 1831, the Baltimore & Ohio put its first steam engine into service. Eastern Virginia, including Fairfax County, became increasingly interested in railroad development, especially after the success of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad became evident. The Winchester and Potomac Railroad Company was chartered in northeastern Virginia in 1836, creating competition with existing turnpike companies. After the 1840s, Alexandria and other areas of eastern Virginia saw increased prosperity as a result of the railroads. Although turnpike Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 92 construction in Virginia continued from 1827 to 1850, this activity took place in the trans-Allegheny region. By the mid-nineteenth century, railroads provided most long distance travel in America. Little money or effort was spent to maintain the turnpikes or other roads, and the roads generally were reduced to uneven dirt that turned to mud when it rained (VDOT 1992:7). No new turnpike companies that were chartered in Virginia after 1854 became actual operating companies (Hunter 1957:6). The importance of canals, and later railroads, may have contributed to the demise of the turnpike companies, but the companies were generally unprofitable and in financial trouble before the focus shifted to canals and railroads. The majority of the turnpike companies chartered by the Board of Public Works failed (Pawlett 1977:24). However, a few companies, such as the Little River Turnpike Company in Fairfax County, managed to survive throughout the nineteenth century despite competition with canals and railroads. The rise of railroads contributed indirectly to the demise of the Board of Public Works as an important entity in Virginia transportation. Crozet recommended that a railroad line be built instead of the remainder of the James River and Kanawha Canal (Newlan et al. 1985:13). This sparked a debate between proponents of canals and proponents of railroads. In addition, a comprehensive plan for Virginia’s transportation proposed by Crozet in 1827 became entangled in political controversies (Pawlett 1977:31-32). Partly as a result of the controversy over railroads, the Board of Public works was reorganized in 1831, reducing the importance of the office of Principal Engineer. The new board was made up of only the governor, lieutenant governor, and Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 93 state treasurer (Acts of Assembly, 1830-1831, ch. 112, p. 163). The office of Principal Engineer was eliminated completely by another act passed in 1843 (Newlan et al. 1985:13). These actions resulted in the end of a coherent, future looking policy and the start of a policy that served needs of whoever was in power in the General Assembly in Richmond (Pawlett 1977:36). The board of public works remained in existence until 1902 (VDOT 1992:5). Late Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Century Roads Historians have focused more attention on the turnpike era of road building than perhaps any other period of road history. Therefore, more information is readily available for this period than for earlier periods. In addition, the records of several of the turnpike companies in Virginia are filed in the Records of the Board of Public Works at the Library of Virginia in Richmond. The Virginia Legislature passed state statutes creating or modifying turnpike companies. Although issues related to county roads continued to be dealt with in the Fairfax County Court, court orders were not as important a resource for this period as for the earlier period because court orders did not discuss establishment of turnpikes. Several maps of the state and county were completed in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries that illustrate the location of primary roads. However, smaller public roads and private roads are not shown on the maps. The General Turnpike act required companies to produce a map of the road once it was completed, and some of those maps still survive. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 94 Figures 28 through 32 illustrate the approximate locations of roads in existence before 1840 overlain on a modem map of Fairfax County. The locations of roads were determined from state statutes, court orders, secondary descriptions, and historic maps. The historic roads’ relationship to modem roads was based on an analysis of topography, and a comparison with nineteenth-century maps and USGS topographic maps from the 1940s and 1950s. In general, roads are referred to by their early nineteenth century name. Where the historic name was not known, the modem name of the road is indicated. Turnpikes The dates of the turnpike era in Fairfax County are earlier than the dates of the movement in Virginia as a whole. The large amount of wealthy citizens with investment capital in eastern Virginia, including Alexandria, led to formation of purely private turnpike companies at the end of the eighteenth century, whereas western parts of Virginia relied more on state funding made available after 1816. After 1840, the focus of transportation development in eastern Virginia shifted to railroads, while western Virginia continued to construct turnpikes. The turnpike movement in Virginia resulted in several roads being constructed or improved in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries in Fairfax County. Most turnpike construction in Fairfax County was aimed at improving transportation between the Piedmont and Allegheny Mountain regions in the west and Alexandria in order to facilitate the movement of produce to markets. Later, transportation routes to Georgetown in the District of Columbia were also improved. The importance of good roads between Alexandria and Georgetown and the western settlements increased as they Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 95 (Figure 31) flver Bena Area (Figure 30) dy landing Road ! WASHINGTON OUU£S WASHINGTON. O C. Alexandria °1 (Figure 32) «•" (Figure 29) t = Historic Church A = Courthouse • = Mill = = Historic Turnpike A Historic Road Base map printed from Fairfax County Web Site 2001 Figure 28. Overview of the Roads in Existence before 1840 Overlain on a Modem Map of Fairfax County Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 96 & 5S§ K -S — s ^ 5 a . - AL COM? F Sw.'Sfts/ r \ Prvrtf P’i’/Q '\7»rtMforv< ■PARK i-c^v ^ HALL M^*--' :'v^ ’ m K \ ? W -v /’# £ ? ' „ . „ ,r78«»Mc'"'- , l ficfnoftivy J^T --^s» v . /:'- ?^>v?-EfFMtfhmrrww £?XsSlwm ;i4000n'P, 3n700£?rnc, SlCOSOmg. 3 1 3 0 0 0 m C 31#>0Ci0pn£, ia>e map printed trom IUPU! CIVW WildUowcr Production* 4 m iles 1 2 3 4 5 6 7km T = Church = Historic Turnpike 0 = Mill = County Boundary ------Historic Road Map tocMton w Figure 29. Turnpike Era Roads Overlain on a Modem Map o f the Southeast Quadrant o f Fairfax County Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 97 JOGOi.1?* I'iujGODfc'Tfcf •\i « * iwujsr ' r i *. j 0 0 O c C‘ ? L agjgE^.« isasfc&ss g^sslfw i w g m m ss&s H p f ^ «: i£i%S8 S m s ST5SSS Qa^jP^sn^A « map pnm eicu uora i(JK>! lyyv V» lidtlowcr Productions ■" = County Boundary = Historic Road 4 miles ! 6= Court t= Church ® = Mill: = Historic Turnpike 7 km Figure 30. Turnpike Era Roads Overlain on a Modem Map of the NE Quadrant of Fairfax County Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 98 ^ o n ? l b : >lK>JOCa&GKUQ :.• w /WILD PARK C K ft NAGEM POTOMAC m r m rthcroVi muuttv m s ■NATior WEATHER-SERVICE V: ©S s-" B ax map primed from TOPO! 01999 Wildflowcr Productions 4 miles = County Boundary = Historic Road © = Mill : = Historic Turnpike 7 km Figure 31. Turnpike Era Roads Overlain on a Modem Map o f the Northwest Quadrant o f Fairfax County Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 99 * m ■^^-:-:>r~- i'M kX GK-lps.. '^-—- ° Is CCsi UTM ’NwnaoZQc N Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 100 tried to compete, both with each other and with developing industrial and commercial centers in Baltimore and Philadelphia (Netherton et al. 1992:407). The first step taken to improve transportation to Alexandria was an act passed by the General Assembly in 1785 authorizing toll gates or turnpikes to be placed along roads leading to Alexandria from Snicker’s Gap, Vestal’s Gap, and Georgetown (Hening vol. XII 1823:76). Although this action did not incorporate the roads as turnpike companies, it was a first step in changing the way for which road maintenance was paid. The three roads that received toll gates were probably Braddock Road, Eastern Ridge Road, and the Alexandria and Georgetown Road. Braddock Road ran from Snicker’s Gap (previously William’s Gap) to Alexandria; the Eastern Ridge Road ran from Vestal’s Gap (now Keys Gap) to Alexandria. In 1786 an act was passed to straighten the roads from Snicker’s Gap and Vestal’s Gap to Alexandria (Hening vol. XII 1823:375). The first turnpike company chartered in Virginia was the Fairfax and Loudoun Turnpike Company, chartered on December 26, 1795 (Shepherd 1970 vol. 1:378-388). Richard Bland Lee of Sully Plantation was one of the company commissioners (Netherton et al. 1992:191). The company intended to build a road from Alexandria west to the Little River. The need for the road was summarized thus: Whereas the great quantity of heavy articles of the growth and produce of the country, and of foreign foods which are daily transported between the town of Alexandria and the western counties of the state, requires an amendment on the highway, which can only be effected by artificial beds of stone and gravel, disposed in such manner as to prevent the wheels of carriages from cutting into the soil... (Shepherd 1970 vol. 1:378) Due to the high cost of shares, subscription sales were low. The company could not raise enough capital by the deadline outlined in the charter to begin construction, and Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 101 the company was dissolved (Cromwell et al. 1989:23). Although the Fairfax and Loudoun Turnpike Company was unsuccessful, by the end of the 1840s, seven turnpike companies had succeeded in building toll roads in Fairfax County. Little River Turnpike Company The Little River Turnpike Company was chartered on January 28, 1802 to build the road first proposed by the Fairfax and Loudoun Turnpike Company (Shepherd 1970 vol. 2:383-386). William Hartshome and John Thomas Ricketts were the company commissioners from Fairfax County. The Little River Turnpike Company sold shares at half the price of the earlier failed company, and by August 18, 1802, enough shares were sold to begin construction (Cromwell et al. 1989:23; Alexandria Gazette 8/18/1802). The Little River Turnpike was to lead “from the intersection of Duke street in the town of Alexandria... to the ford of Little river where the turnpike road now crosses it” (Shepherd 1970 vol. 2:383). The turnpike road referred to in the act was presumably Braddock Road, which crossed the Little River at Aldie on its way to Snicker’s Gap; toll gates had been established on the road by the act of 1785, making Braddock Road a turnpike road rather than a free road. In Aldie, the Ashby Gap Turnpike and the Snicker’s Gap Turnpike, which both followed the route of earlier roads, would eventually connect to the Little River Turnpike. Although the 1802 act established the beginning and ending points of the Little River Turnpike, the course between the end points was contested. The debate is documented in letters to the Alexandria Gazette from the period and summarized by Ted Cromwell and Timothy Hills (1989). The dispute was over whether the road should pass Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 102 Centreville as originally proposed or should pass the Fairfax Courthouse and Gum Springs before leading to the Little River at Aldie (Cromwell et al. 1989:25). Proponents for the southern route argued that Centreville was built on the location that it was because of the proposed turnpike and that the town would suffer if the road were not built. Supporters also argued that the turnpike would allow Alexandria to compete with Richmond and Fredericksburg for trade from the counties south of Fairfax (Cromwell et al. 1989:26). Proponents of the northern route argued that the intention of the turnpike was to allow Alexandria to compete with the northern towns of Georgetown, Baltimore, and Philadelphia. The northern route was also shorter than the southern route, possessed more of the required building materials, required fewer bridges, and provided access to the courthouse (Cromwell et al. 1989:27). In addition, few people in Centreville owned shares in the turnpike company, and the residents in the west wanted the northern route. These western residents were so adamant that they promised to boycott tolls on the turnpike if the road followed the southern route (Alexandria Gazette 12/1/1803). Therefore the route of the turnpike took the northern route past the Fairfax County Courthouse. Beginning in Alexandria, the turnpike was an extension of Duke Street. The turnpike followed what is now Little River Turnpike and Main Street from Alexandria through Fairfax (Route 236). From Fairfax west to Aldie, the turnpike followed what is now Lee Jackson Memorial Highway (Route 50). The 1802 act specified that the road would be thirty feet wide, with a twenty-foot wide section covered with gravel or stone, where required. The road was to include Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 103 adequate drainage ditches on either side, and bridges were to be built over stream crossings (Shepherd 1970 vol. 2:383-386). An amendment passed in 1803 expanded the width of the road to fifty feet, with a twenty-foot wide paved section (Shepherd 1970 vol. 2:452-455). The unpaved portions of the road were to remain dirt for use as summer roads. Road builders were authorized to take land and materials for the road construction, provided the property owners were notified and compensated (Shepherd 1970 vol. 2:383-386). According to a report by Principal Engineer Claudius Crozet submitted in 1826, a fifteen-mile section of the road from Alexandria to the intersection with the Fauquier and Alexandria Turnpike in Providence (Fairfax) had been Macadamized (paved with gravel) (Netherton et al. 1992:194; VA State Board of Public Works Annual Report 1826, p. 30). The Little River Turnpike Company spent more money per mile on maintaining the road than any other turnpike company in northern Virginia; the company spent an average of $180 per mile for maintenance and repair (Hunter 1957:Appendicies). If at any time the road fell into disrepair, the company had to suspend toll collection (Shepherd 1970 vol. 2:386). Interestingly, court records indicate that three toll collectors on the turnpike, Henry Padgett, John Powell, and William Crump, were fined in 1810 for collecting illegal tolls (Court Record Book June 18, 1810). Winter weather and traffic damaged the road, but the addition of a gravel surface helped protect the road to some extent. In January of 1830, Superintendent Thomas Ayre reported “that that portion of the road which was M’Adamized, stood firm last winter” (ARBPW XIV, 43-44 as quoted in Hunter 1957:123). However, in 1833, Phineas Janney, president of the company, Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 104 reported that the winter frost had caused costly damages to the road (ARBPW XVII 34- 36; Hunter 1957:123). Janney registered many complaints that travelers did not follow the wheel width guidelines outlined in the charter act and meant to protect the road surface. In 1848, Janney reported: ...the road has required an unusual quantity of stone for repairs...owing to having been cut up much during the mild and wet weather of the winter of 1846 and 1847, which was in great part done by heavy waggons with six- horse teams, the tire of the wheels being only two inches wide, and the load carried being far beyond what the charter limits” (ARBPW XXXIII 364-366 as quoted in Hunter 1957:126). According to the 1802 act, toll gates could be erected once the first ten miles of the road were completed, and every ten miles after that (Shepherd 1970 vol. 2:385). It is interesting to note that turnpike companies in Virginia continued to follow the practice of erecting toll gates every ten miles throughout the turnpike era, even though the general turnpike act of 1817 specified that gates could be erected every five miles (Hunter 1957:153). Travelers on the Little River Turnpike had to pay tolls when entering the city, but not on the return trip unless the vehicle weighed more than 500 pounds. The toll rates collected on the Little River Turnpike are summarized in Table 2. Many of the rates are nearly double those established later by the general turnpike act of 1817 (see Table 1). Table 2. Tolls Specified in the Act Establishing the Little River Turnpike Vehicle or Passenger Toll . .. - Score of sheep or hogs 12 cents Score of cattle 25 cents Horse 6 cents Two wheeled riding carriage YlVz cents Four wheeled riding carriage 25 cents Cart or wagon (wheels less than 4”) 6 cents per draft animal Cart or wagon (wheels 4” to 7”) 3 cents per draft animal Cart or wagon (wheels more than 7”) 2 cents per draft animal (Shepherd 1970 vol. 2:385) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 105 Until the road was completed and tolls began to be collected, the turnpike company was allowed to use the free labor of tithables living within three miles of the road as if it were a public road. The turnpike had to be built within seven years, and at the end of the seven years, the levying of tolls was subject to control of the State legislature in order to limit company profits to 15 percent (Shepherd 1970 vol. 2:386). The Little River Turnpike Company began collecting tolls on completed sections in 1806. In 1810, the company completed construction of the thirty-four mile long turnpike. The total cost of construction was $213,929, with an average cost of $6,292 per mile (Hunter 1957:Appendicies). The success of turnpikes and the success of trade and industry based on agriculture were inextricably linked. Good roads increased farmers’ and merchants’ profits and good crops increased turnpike profits. According to the records of the Little River Turnpike, when the entire road had been paved in 1833, it was estimated that the cost to a farmer of transporting one barrel of flour from Aldie to Alexandria dropped from 75 cents to 60 cents, thereby offsetting the costs of the tolls (ARBPW XVDI p. 177, January 13 1834; Hunter 1957:239). The Litde River Turnpike Company often blamed low toll returns on poor crop yields (Hunter 1957:238). Records of the company indicate that revenues from the tolls were better during the early years of operation. From 1806 to 1817, a total of $101,791.2614 was collected (Netherton et al. 1992:192-193; ARBPW II 1818, p. 13). Five percent of the revenues were given to stockholders (Netherton et al. 1992:194). In 1805, the state purchased 100 shares of stock in the Little River Turnpike Company, and in 1815, the state purchased Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 106 and additional 12516 shares (Shepherd 1970 vol. 3:198; Netherton et al. 1992:193). This stock would later form part of the Fund for Internal Improvements, established in 1816. High toll returns and heavy traffic slowed after the 1820s, probably due to a decline in the agricultural market, competition with other high-quality turnpikes, and competition with other modes of transportation in the county. In 1824, toll returns equaled $15,970.10; in 1825, $14,498.29 was collected (ARBPW 1826 pp. 204, 30; Netherton et al. 1992:193). Annual toll returns after 1826 ranged from $10,000 to $18,000 (Netherton et al. 1992:193). The turnpike company remained in operation for nearly one hundred years, until the state assumed control of the road in 1917 (Netherton etal. 1992:396). Construction of the Little River Turnpike contributed to the success and development of Alexandria, whose merchants depended on the sale of grain, flour, and other agricultural products transported to the town from western Virginia. The transportation of grain and livestock on the turnpike led to the development of mills, bakeries, distilleries, brewing companies, butchers, and slaughter houses along the road leading into Alexandria (Netherton et al. 1992:128). Other businesses, such as taverns and carriage manufacturers, catered to travelers. The residential, commercial, and industrial area that developed along the extended Duke Street at the beginning of the Little River Turnpike became known as the Village of West End. The greatest period of growth for this historic industrial and commercial center was between c. 1795 and 1810 (Cromwell et al. 1989:ii). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 107 In addition to the development of the Village of West End, the Little River Turnpike contributed to the expansion of the town of Providence, which was the county seat, and the town of Pleasant Valley, which was on the border between Loudoun and Fairfax Counties. A group of houses, a tavem, a wagon yard, and possibly a slaughter house were also built at the first toll gate on the Turnpike, which was located just west of Hooff Run approximately where Diagonal Road now intersects Duke Street (Cromwell et a l 1989:31). Because the Little River Turnpike was generally well maintained and included a graveled surface, it drew traffic away from other roads in the county, especially during the winter. Roads such as Braddock Road and the Eastern Ridge Road, which also led from the west to Alexandria, fell into disrepair and relative obscurity (Gage 1969:28). Business that had previously been established along these routes suffered. Fauquier and Alexandria Turnpike Company The Fauquier and Alexandria Turnpike Company was formed in part to serve the residents of Centreville. The town of Centreville had originally been founded as a mid eighteenth century community called Newgate. It developed near the intersection of what are now Braddock and Lawyers Roads (originally cleared c. 1740). The town was officially incorporated as Centreville in 1792 in anticipation of a proposed turnpike that was to follow the approximate route of Braddock Road from Alexandria, past Centreville, to the Little River. However, the Fairfax and Loudoun Turnpike Company, chartered in 1795, failed to build a road. And, it was decided that the Little River Turnpike, chartered in 1802, would follow a more northern route past the new courthouse in Providence, Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 108 bypassing Centreville. In order to serve the transportation needs of farmers and merchants traveling from the southern counties and from Centreville, The Fauquier and Alexandria Turnpike was incorporated in 1808 (Shepherd 1970 vol. 3:379-385). Prior to the incorporation of the turnpike, the General Assembly passed an act on January 20, 1801 appointing commissioners to “examine and mark out the most convenient and direct way for a road from Thornton’s gap in Culpeper county to Fauquier courthouse, and from thence to the turnpike road leading to Alexandria” (Shepherd 1970 vol. 2:282). This road appears to have been the predecessor of the Fauquier and Alexandria Turnpike, which was incorporated in 1808 to follow the same route to the Little River Turnpike. The road was to provide a “more convenient and direct road than the one now established...by which a considerable distance will be saved to a great number of citizens necessarily compelled to travel to Alexandria to market” (Shepherd 1970 vol. 2:282). The requirements for the Fauquier and Alexandria Turnpike outlined in the 1808 act of incorporation were similar to those of the Little River Turnpike, as well as later turnpikes (Shepherd 1970 vol. 3:379-385). The road builders were authorized to enter any land and take any materials necessary to construct the road provided that the property owner was notified and compensated. The roadbed was to be fifty feet wide, with a twenty-foot graveled section and dirt summer roads on either side. Bridges were to be constructed over water crossings. The law also included guidelines for weight versus wheel width ratios (Shepherd 1970 vol. 3:381-382). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 109 Once five miles of the turnpike had been constructed, the company was authorized to put up toll gates. The Fauquier and Alexandria Turnpike began collecting tolls in 1819. Table 3 shows the tolls authorized on the Fauquier and Alexandria Turnpike. Tolls collected on the turnpike were similar to what would become the standard tolls after the general turnpike act was passed in 1817 (see Table 1). Returning vehicles did not have to pay a toll if they weighed less than 500 pounds. If the road was in disrepair, the company had to suspend toll collection (Shepherd 1970 vol. 3:383-384). Table 3. Tolls Specified in Faquier and Alexandria Turnpike Act Vehicle or Passenger Toll Score of sheep or hogs 6 cents Score of cattle 12V2 cents Horse 3 cents Two wheeled riding carriage 614 cents Four wheeled riding carriage 1214 cents Cart or wagon (wheels less than 4”) 114 cents plus 114 cents per draft animal Cart or wagon (wheels 4” to 7”) 3 cents per draft animal Cart or wagon (wheels more than 7”) 2 cents per draft animal (from Shepherd 1970 vol. 3:383) By 1815, the company had completed the road from the Little River Turnpike in Providence southwest to Buckland in Prince William County. This section of road included construction of the stone bridge over Bull Run that would be the site of major battles during the Civil War. By 1824, the Fauquier and Alexandria Turnpike had been extended to Warrenton. At that time the company applied a macadam surface to the newly built sections of the road; the turnpike was one of the first macadamized roads in Virginia (Newlan et al. 1985:70). In 1827, the company also paved five miles of the older segment of road between Buckland and Providence (Hunter 1957:108). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 110 The entire 281/2-mile road was completed in 1827. The total cost of construction was $213,929, with an average cost per mile of $4,208. The company spent an average of $59 a mile in maintenance. Over its history, the turnpike collected $57,570 in tolls; yearly toll averages ranged from $1,100 to $3,100, which was far below the more successful Little River Turnpike (Hunter 1957:Appendicies). In the nineteenth century, the turnpike was alternately called the Fauquier and Alexandria, the Fauquier, or the Warrenton Turnpike (Netherton et al. 1992:198). Present-day Lee Highway (Route 29) follows the course of the turnpike from Fairfax southwest past Centreville to Warrenton. Columbia Turnpike Company Once Georgetown began to grow after being incorporated into the District of Columbia, transportation routes to Georgetown from Fairfax County were expanded. Because Georgetown was separated from Alexandria and Fairfax County, transportation across the Potomac River was important. Potomac River crossings during the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries were necessarily at locations where the river channel was narrow and relatively calm. Ferry service operated at these sites before bridges were built at the end of the eighteenth century and during the early nineteenth century. The primary river crossings from Fairfax County to Georgetown and later the city of Washington were at the Little Falls of the Potomac, where a natural ford existed in the river, across Analostan Island (now Theodore Roosevelt Island) via a bridge and ferry, and across Alexander’s Island, (now Columbia Island). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Ill In 1808, the Washington Bridge Company began construction of the Long Bridge across the Potomac River from an area near the Pentagon to Georgetown, via Alexander’s Island (Netherton et al. 1992:172). Figure 33 shows the Columbia Turnpike and the Washington and Alexandria Turnpike where they meet to cross Alexander’s Island and the Long Bridge. The map also shows the Alexandria and Georgetown Road (now Arlington Ridge Road) and Georgetown Road (now Wilson Boulevard) crossing the bridge to what is marked as Mason’s Island (Theodore Roosevelt Island). Shortly after completion of the Long Bridge, the Columbia Turnpike Company was formed to construct a road from the intersection of Ravensworth Rolling Road with the Little River Turnpike to the Long Bridge over the Potomac River. Construction of Columbia Turnpike began in 1808 (Capone 1985:1). According to a map of the proposed Middle Turnpike (Route 7) that was drawn in 1827, Columbia Turnpike had been macadamized by that date; the map refers to the road as the “graveled road” (Figure 35). Construction of Columbia Turnpike contributed to the expansion of the town of Annandale. Businesses were initially built at this location because a toll gate was placed along Little River Turnpike where it intersected Ravensworth Road. After completion of Columbia Turnpike, Annandale included a blacksmith, livery stable, stores, and a post office (Capone 1985:1). Present day Columbia Pike not only retains the same name as the historic turnpike, it roughly follows the original route of the turnpike from Route 7 east to the Navy Annex and Arlington Cemetery. Modem construction around the Navy Annex and 1395 obscure the route of the historic turnpike to the Long Bridge. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 112 Figure 33. Detail of a Map of the Potomac River, Showing the Columbia Turnpike and the Long Bridge (Kearney et al. 1838) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 113 Washington and Alexandria Turnpike Company The Washington and Alexandria Turnpike Company was formed to build a road to connect Alexandria to the city of Washington. The turnpike company was chartered on April 21, 1808 in anticipation of the completion of the new Long Bridge over the Potomac River. The act incorporating the turnpike specified that the road was to be no less than 30 and no more than 100 feet wide and was to include construction of a bridge over Four Mile Run. The act also outlined regulations for collecting tolls (Netherton et al. 1992:194). The Washington and Alexandria Turnpike roughly followed what is now Jefferson Davis Highway (Route 1) north of Arlington to the intersection with Columbia Pike somewhere near the Pentagon. Hopkins’ 1877 Alexandria atlas shows the turnpike leading at a diagonal from Washington Street, much as Route 1 does today. On this map and on Hopkins’ 1879 atlas of the area around Alexandria, the Washington and Alexandria Turnpike shared the right-of-way with the railroad; Route 1 ran adjacent to the railroad tracks until a few years ago when most of the Potomac Yard was converted to shopping centers. Fairfax Turnpike Company William Robinson, Charles Lee, Charles Alexander, Thomas Swann, Robert Conway, and Philip R. Fendall chartered the Fairfax Turnpike Company on July 13, 1813. The company intended to construct a turnpike from the comer of Washington and Pendleton Streets in Alexandria west to Leesburg (Newlan et al. 1985:6). In actuality, however, the Fairfax Turnpike was only three miles long; it extended from Pendleton Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 114 Street west to the intersection with the Eastern Ridge Road (later Middle Turnpike) at the boundary of the District of Columbia (now Arlington County). Travelers could then continue to Leesburg on the Eastern Ridge Road. Although the company was chartered in 1813, it is unclear when the road was actually constructed. The road must have been completed by 1827, however, because it is shown on a map of the proposed Middle Turnpike drawn in that year (see Figure 35). Records of the company indicate that the total cost of construction was $12,131 (Hunter 1957:Appendicies). According to the act of incorporation, the tolls charged on the turnpike were as follows: each head of sheep five cents, each head of hogs five cents, every horse or mule and driver 3 cents, and every stage or wagon and two horses 10 cents (Newlan et al. 1985:6). The company did not submit records of the tolls collected (Hunter 1957:Appendicies). Falls Bridge Turnpike Company/Georgetown and Leesburg Turnpike The Georgetown and Leesburg Turnpike Company was chartered in the District of Columbia in 1813 to build a paved road across the Falls Bridge (now Chain Bridge) from DC into Virginia (13th congress, session 1, ch.12, US Statute 1, July 13, 1813). In 1820, the Falls Bridge Turnpike Company extended the road west to the intersection with Eastern Ridge Road, in present-day Dranesville. The turnpike was intended to connect merchants of Georgetown (originally in Maryland and then part of the newly-formed District of Columbia) to Virginia markets and suppliers, especially in western Virginia. Georgetown merchants, who hoped to attract commerce away from Alexandria, financed the turnpike. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 115 One of the most important features of the turnpike was the Falls Bridge over the Potomac River. The first Falls Bridge was wooden and built in 1797 by the Georgetown Bridge Company (incorporated 1791); the bridge replaced the earlier ferry service at this location. The second bridge constructed was a Burr’s Truss bridge, built in 1803; a flood destroyed this bridge six months later. In 1805, a suspension bridge consisting of a system of iron chains supported on solid abutments and strung over masonry towers was constructed; the suspension bridge was called Chain Bridge, a name that is still used today. In 1840, a flood destroyed the suspension bridge, and it was replaced by an iron and steel bridge (Cooke 1977:25). The open spandrel, concrete arch bridge that currently crosses the Potomac River at this location was built following a flood in 1936. The Georgetown and Leesburg Turnpike Company began construction of the turnpike to replace part of the older Sugarlands Rolling Road in 1813. The road was to lead from the Falls Bridge (Chain Bridge) to Langley Fork, where it would intersect with the Little Falls Road (now Chain Bridge Road). Like other acts incorporating turnpike companies, the act for the Georgetown and Leesburg Turnpike Company included regulations for the weight of vehicles traveling on the road, requirements for electing board members, regulations for erecting toll gates and charging tolls, and guidelines for the turnpike construction (Cooke 1977:26). The road was to include a 25-foot wide section paved with gravel or stone. Table 4 summarizes the tolls specified in the charter act. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 116 Table 4. Tolls Specified for the Georgetown and Leesburg Turnpike Vehicle or Passenger Toll Score of sheep or hogs 5 cents Score of cattle 10 cents Horse 3 cents Two wheeled riding carriage with one horse 5 cents Four wheeled riding carriage with two horses 9 cents Two or Four wheeled riding carriage with four horses 11 cents Stage or wagon with two horses 6 cents Stage or wagon with four horses 10 cents (Cooke 1977:26) In 1820, the Falls Bridge Turnpike Company was formed to extend the turnpike west for thirteen miles from Langley Fork to Dranesville along the Eastern Ridge Road, which was the Middle Turnpike by 1820 (Cooke 1977:26; Beauchamp 1992). The name of the turnpike seems to have officially been Falls Bridge Turnpike, although the name Georgetown and Leesburg Turnpike was also used. Hopkins’ 1879 atlas records the road as the Leesburg and Georgetown Turnpike. The first toll house was erected on the turnpike at Langley Fork by 1821 (Cooke 1977:26). A later toll house is still extant at this location across from the Langley ordinary at Langley Fork (Cooke 1977:34). In December of 1820, the Falls Bridge Turnpike Company reported that the eight miles leading from the line of the District of Columbia (now Arlington County) west to Difficult Run were complete (Cooke 1977:26). John Mason, Jr., president of the turnpike company, described the road as such: ...The road is in no instance to exceed 4 degrees ascent; its whole width is 35 feet: the summer road is 15 feet, and that which is paved 20 feet. This paving is done with large stones closely fitted together, 12 inches deep in the center, falling off to 6 inches on the sides, and covered with broken stones 6 inches deep from side to side: making 18 inches in the center, and Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 117 twelve inches on the sides, the whole covered with sand, gravel, or clay, as was found most convenient (John Mason 1820 as quoted in Cooke 1977:26). The Falls Bridge Turnpike Company built a new bridge across the Difficult Run further downstream than the crossing along the earlier Sugarlands Rolling Road (Hatch nd). Old Georgetown Pike currently crosses the Difficult Run at this location, although a flood during hurricane Agnes destroyed the nineteenth-century bridge in 1973 (Cooke 1977:26). From Difficult Run west to the intersection with the Eastern Ridge Road, the turnpike took a more northern route than the earlier Sugarlands Rolling Road, which had followed the easier, but less direct path alongside the Eastern Ridge Road. Increased settlement in the river bend area of Virginia probably influenced the decision to follow the more northern route. The Falls Bridge Turnpike Company spent a total of $74,269 to construct the road, with an average cost of $5,713 a mile. The company spent an average of $57 per mile to maintain the road, which was nearly the same amount invested as the Fauquier and Alexandria Turnpike Company in that road. Toll returns from the Falls Bridge Turnpike were similar to the returns from the Middle Turnpike; both turnpikes reported the lowest earnings of all of the northern Virginia turnpikes. The total of the tolls collected along the Falls Bridge Turnpike was $6,580; average yearly tolls ranged from $594 to $1,282 (Hunter 1957:Appendicies). The low toll returns on both the Falls Bridge and Middle Turnpikes were probably a result of their late date of completion. By the time the roads were in operation, they had to compete with other well-established turnpikes, as well as the C&O Canal and emerging railroads. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 118 The current route of Old Georgetown Pike follows the route of the turnpike as built beginning in 1820. In 1973 the road was designated as the first Virginia Scenic and Historic Byway (Beauchamp 1992). The right-of-way for Georgetown Pike is now listed in the National Register of Historic Places and the Virginia Landmarks Registry (Beauchamp 1992). Middle Turnpike Company/Leesburg and Alexandria Turnpike Alexandria merchants chartered the Middle Turnpike in 1818 in an effort to compete with Georgetown for agricultural products grown in northwestern Virginia. These products were transported to Georgetown via the Potowmack Canal and the Falls Bridge Turnpike. In 1838, the Middle Turnpike was completed along the route of the eighteenth century Eastern Ridge Road (now Route 7, Leesburg Pike) (Netherton et al. 1992:198). The Eastern Ridge Road was one of the roads to Alexandria on which toll gates were established in 1785 for the purpose of improving the condition of roads to the town (Hening vol. XII 1823:76). Construction of the Little River Turnpike in 1802, however, diverted much of the traffic away from the Eastern Ridge Road, and the road fell into disrepair. Businesses that were previously established along the road, such as Wiley’s Tavern near Colvin Run, suffered (Hatch nd:53). According to a report of the Principal Engineer in 1829, the road was “so bad that waggons are often prevented from traveling it” (1829 ABPW). Although the Eastern Ridge Road was one of the most important roads in the early eighteenth century, it is shown as a minor road on maps drawn in the Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 119 early nineteenth century, such as David Burr’s 1839 Map of Virginia and surrounding regions (Figure 34). The Middle Turnpike Company was chartered in 1818, but it faced financial difficulties. In 1828, the Virginia Board of Public Works contributed funding for the project (Netherton et al. 1992:195). The first segment of the road was not completed until 1832 (Hunter 1957:Appendicies). It was called the Middle Turnpike because it lay between the Little River Turnpike on the south and the Falls Bridge (Georgetown) Turnpike on the north (Cooke 1977:11). The Middle Turnpike ran from King Street in Alexandria northwest to the intersection with the Falls Bridge Turnpike. The town of Dranesville grew around this historic intersection, and a Tavern was built there in 1823. The Leesburg Turnpike led from Dranesville to Leesburg, along the remaining section of the original Eastern Ridge Road, thereby creating a direct route from Leesburg to Alexandria. The total cost of construction of the lbVi-mile Middle Turnpike was $75,000 (Hunter 1957:Appendicies). The plan included a sixty-foot wide road with an eighteen-foot center graveled section. A new wooden bridge was built over Difficult Run, which included three thirty-foot spans supported on two stone piers and two stone abutments (Hatch nd:56). The road was completed in 1838 after the state authorized a lottery to help fund completion of the project (Netherton et al. 1992:198). As part of the general turnpike act passed in 1817, turnpike companies were required to prepare a map of the proposed road, which was often completed by one of the state engineers. Although many of these maps are no longer extant, the map of the Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 120 Figure 34. Detail of David Burr’s 1839 Map of Virginia and Surrounding Regions Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 121 Middle Turnpike is on file at the Library of Congress (Figure 35). This map, drawn in 1827, shows the major roads that intersected with the turnpike along its route from Alexandria to Drains (Dranes) Tavern. From east to west, roads indicated on the map include Fairfax Turnpike, Columbia Turnpike, Georgetown Road (formerly Awbury’s Ferry Road), Ravensworth Road, Falls Road (now Chain Bridge Road), and Falls/Lewinsville Road. This map indicates that the Columbia Turnpike and the Georgetown Road were graveled. The map shows the Middle Turnpike intersecting with the Little River Turnpike before entering Alexandria rather than intersecting King Street. It is possible that this segment of the road was constructed slightly different than proposed in order to follow the natural ridge all the way to King Street. Or, the connection to King Street may be a later change. It was thought that the Middle Turnpike would ensure that produce grown in the northwestern counties would be transported to Alexandria rather than to Georgetown because the good overland route would be favored over the Falls Bridge Turnpike or the difficult canal along the Potomac River. However, toll returns from the Middle Turnpike were low due to competition with transportation routes. A report of George H. Smoot, president of the turnpike, in 1844 stated, “The road is but little hauled; the canal and railroad having drawn nearly all the trade in that direction” (ARBPW 1844). The total reported tolls were $11,397, with an average annual yield of between $432 and $1,213. For comparison, the average annual yield of the Little River Turnpike was between $10,251 and $30,719 (Hunter 1957:Appendicies). The Middle Turnpike Company survived until the state assumed control in 1871 (Netherton et al. 1992:396). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 122 Figure 35. Map of the Middle Turnpike as Proposed in 1827 (Sommers 1824) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 123 Alexandria City Streets The town of Alexandria was incorporated in 1779. Among the duties of the mayor outlined in the act of incorporation was appointing a surveyor of streets (Miller et al. 1999). New streets lain out in Alexandria during the 1760s and 1770s were named for heroes of the French and Indian War (like Wolfe and Montgomery). By 1781, Alexandria had a customs house for international trade, and by 1783 trade with Europe and the West Indies had been reestablished. New wharves were built that provided direct access to the deep waters of the Potomac River. The town witnessed growth and development following the Revolutionary War as merchants shifted away from a reliance on tobacco to the more lucrative grain trade. Towns that remained dependent on tobacco, such as Colchester, essentially disappeared (Miller et al. 1999). Many businesses in Aexandria catered to travelers and to the expanding local market. By 1800, there were at least twelve taverns operating in Aexandria, as well as a theater. New businesses centered on the grain trade and other agricultural products transported to the town. For example, one of the former tobacco warehouses at Point Lumley was rented to Andrew Wales for use as a brewery. Daniel Roberdeau built a distillery at the foot of Wolf Street in 1774 (Miller et al. 1999). Bakeries, mills, and butchers were also established. Partly as a result of the increased number of good roads leading to the city and subsequent expansion of commercial and industrial centers, large landholdings within and around Aexandria were subdivided in the late eighteenth century (Cromwell et al. 1989:30). With the subdivision of large farms came the expansion of the city street Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 124 system. In 1774, John Alexander laid out and sold eighteen new lots and gave the town land for Wilkes and St. Asaph Streets (Miller et al. 1999). Between 1785 and 1786, Alexandria’s boundaries were further extended through the sale of adjoining tracks owned by the Alexander family. New streets were named for heroes of the Revolutionary War, including Greene, LaFayette, Franklin, Jefferson, Patrick Henry, Washington, and Wythe. Most of these streets were located within the community called Spring Garden Farm, situated south of Duke Street and west of Henry Street (Cromwell et al. 1989:32). Alexandria residents also filled in the mud flats on the Potomac to extend Water Street (now Lee Street). Figure 36 shows the layout of Alexandria as of 1845. All additions to Alexandria had to adhere to a city law passed in October 1785, which created a district in which all new subdivisions adjacent to Alexandria had to be laid out to uniformly extend streets from town (Cromwell et al. 1989:34). In other words, the grid plan of the city had to be retained within the specified district. All roads leading away from the town had to be 66 feet wide. In order to continue the two-acre block plan begun by John Alexander in 1749, all east-west streets were to be 353’ 2” apart and north-south streets were to be 246’ 10” apart (Cromwell et al. 1989:34). As a condition of lease, tenants had to develop lots, including erecting houses and building alleys, which, according to at least one agreement, were to be paved once a quarter lot square had six houses (Alexandria Deed Book G:164; 1:392). Alleys were commonly ten feet wide and connected by a wider center alley. In the late eighteenth century, Alexandria’s streets were capped with clay, which became slippery when it rained. In 1794 the City Council passed an act to pave the principal streets with cobbles (Miller et al. 1999). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 125 ■V o r T H E . ALEXANDRIA, D .t. EHE-ESVIROXS iaC nul »brShippin^timim«^vb«rfe01anaa}K3tc. V* ■^Y«-\L V X>cva* i a @ a n i m m ' i r Z - : - . " ••-'*• ■ ' V * \ Figure 36. Plan of Alexandria in 1845 (Ewing 1845) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 126 Additional expansion occurred along the major roads leading into the city, along the Little River Turnpike in particular. The village of West End developed along Duke Street extended (Little River Turnpike) west of the Spring Garden Farm community, on John West’s subdivided property. The subdivision included creation of John Street (Holland Lane), George Street, Elizabeth Street, Catherine Street, and Sarah Street, all named after West’s family members. These east-west streets intersected with Wilkes and Wolfe Streets, which ran north-south. Sarah and Wolfe streets were used occasionally during nineteenth century as narrow lanes. Most of the other streets never became public. Wolfe Street extended was condemned and taken over by the Orange and Alexandria Railroad in 1850 (Cromwell etal. 1989:36) Whereas the early residents of the Spring Garden Farm community were upper class Alexandrians, this area became more industrial during the early nineteenth century as the Little River Turnpike brought more commerce to the area. Early residents of the adjacent village of West End were middle class tradesmen and merchants from Fairfax County (Cromwell et al. 1989:37). Businesses and industries developed to process grain and livestock and to serve the needs of travelers (Cromwell et al. 1989:11). The West End community included a butcher, slaughter house, tanner, carriage manufacturer, candle and soap maker, taverns, millers, general stores, a bakery, and a hotel (Cromwell et al. 1989:275). The presence of good transportation routes had a direct effect on commercial development in and around Alexandria. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 127 Public Roads Statewide efforts to improve transportation were focused on turnpike and canal construction; normal county road construction and maintenance remained in the hands of the county courts. Tithables were not required to work on the turnpikes after the general turnpike act was passed, but they were still required to work on the county roads. Masters of two or more slaves or servants generally sent the servants in their place. Exemptions were made in the early nineteenth century for anyone under the age of 16 or over the age of 60, town dwellers, officers of jails, asylums, and other public institutions, turnpike, canal, and railroad employees, officers of literary institutions, and ministers (Hunter 1957:131). Residents of villages not yet incorporated as towns were still required to work on the roads, so residents were anxious for villages to be officially incorporated; thus numerous new towns were incorporated in the early nineteenth century (Hunter 1957:131). Although some segments of early roads may have been abandoned or redirected during the early nineteenth century, it can be assumed that most roads cleared earlier remained in use, especially where modem equivalents of the roads are still evident in the county. Public roads continued to provide access to the courthouse, to churches, between towns and to residents’ homes. Some early roads, including the Eastern Ridge Road and Sugarlands Rolling Road, were improved and incorporated into the turnpike system discussed earlier. The names of roads changed in some cases, usually to reflect their new primary function. For example, the earlier Awbury’s Ferry Road became known as Georgetown Road in the early nineteenth century because it provided access to that town Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 128 (it is now called Wilson Boulevard). As during the earlier periods, in general roads were referred to by a variety of names in different contexts. Some county roads took on new importance as stage routes and post roads on which the mail was transported. In 1773, the former Potomac Path and/or Colchester Road/Back Road (Route 1) became an official postal route (Cromwell et al. 1989:19). The act of incorporation of the Little River Turnpike Company passed in 1802 mentions that passengers traveling on “the stage road” from Colchester to Alexandria, which intersected with the turnpike west of Alexandria, were exempted from paying tolls (Shepherd 1970 vol. 2:385). Abraham Bradley’s map, drawn in 1787, shows the post roads in Virginia at that time (Figure 37). On this map, the former Potomac Path and the road to Georgetown are indicated as being both post and stage routes; the Eastern Ridge Road is shown as a post road. Many early public roads fell into disrepair during early nineteenth century. Public roads received less attention and maintenance than the turnpikes, which had graveled surfaces. Local newspapers from the period include numerous complaints from travelers about the condition of the county roads. For example, in 1836, after traveling on what is now Route 1, Joseph Martin stated, “the road in its neighbourhood between Fredericksburg and Alexandria is in worse condition than perhaps any in the middle states, so utterly impassable at times that the mail cannot travel, this road being the principal source of the irregularity of the mail to the south” (Gazetteer of Virginia 1836, p. 274; as quoted in Harrison 453). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 129 •uroy *»***% •////* //,•/• t*hitii*l ra f. V '.ir js rS£>fjX f T 5 ►Utfo'wc lMi’J/v’ \ I I '7>V? {* >S£M"i [rovn^rillc t |■S'* «, /t>nrx ■ ■ s t f.n»i^.v;trr 'n * \V y \ Smith ..... fU*U!J ■ < Figure 37. Detail of a Map of the U.S. Exhibiting Post Roads, Drawn by Abraham Bradley in 1787 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 130 Figure 38 shows the poor condition of Route 1 when cars first began to appear on roads. It can probably be assumed that the condition of the road during the early nineteenth century was equally bad. Figure 38. Route 1 through Dumfries in 1919 (VDOT 1970:15) Much expansion of the public road system in Fairfax County was in response to the rise of the grain industry and establishment of merchant mills. Earlier mills were built to serve the needs of a local neighborhood; farmers would bring grain to the mills, pay for the milling, and take the flour away. Merchant mills, on the other hand, bought grain from farmers from a wide area and then sold products produced at the mill. Therefore, merchant mills required a more extensive road system capable of supporting transport of a large amount of grain, flour, and other products from farms often located at Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 131 a great distance to the mill and to markets in Alexandria and Georgetown. Mills were often built on creeks near road intersections. Grist mills were located near or combined with other types of mills, including cotton, wool, and saw mills. Other businesses were built at the mill sites, leading to the development of small commercial areas. The approximate locations of numerous late eighteenth and early nineteenth century mills in Fairfax County are known. According to court records, four men were authorized to build mills in the late eighteenth century. Amos Fox built a mill along Difficult Run in 1786. Thomas Pollard was authorized in 1787 to build a mill along Grants Castle Branch (Netherton et al. 1992:136). In 1788, Thomas Herbert built a mill along Holmes Run south of Columbia Pike and the present dam of Lake Barcroft; this mill was called Barcroft Mill in the 1820s and purchased by Robert Taylor in 1824 (Netherton et al. 1992:180). Hepbum and Dundas built a mill along Backlick in 1788 (Netherton et al. 1992:136). The four mills documented in the court records represent an incomplete list of mills built in the county in the 1780s. In 1789, Philip Richard Fendall (an Alexandria banker) and Lewis Hipkins (a McLean resident) acquired property at the mouth of Pimmit Run. By 1803, the property was described as having “a good merchant mill, brewery, distillery, and sundry other improvements” (Hatch nd:46). Edgar Patterson built several merchant grist, paper, and wool mills near the mouth of Pimmit Run near in the 1810s; he advertised products and his desire to buy raw materials in the local newspapers (Hatch nd:47). In 1821, the mills at the Little Falls of the Potomac near the mouth of Pimmit Run were called Canal Mills in anticipation of completion of the canal (Netherton et al. 1992:179). In 1811, Philip Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 132 Carper built Carper’s Mill (now Colvin Run Mill) as a merchant mill on Eastern Ridge Road. Hope Park Mill was built on Edward Payne’s property on the west bank of Pine Branch around 1820; the mill became known as Robey’s Mill at the end of the nineteenth century and it is still standing. In 1836, G. W. P. Custis built Arlington Mill along Columbia Turnpike where it crossed Four Mile Run (Netherton et al. 1992:179-181). In addition to new mills, many older mills continued in operation during the early nineteenth century. Nelson’s Mill on Kirby Road is one example. However, construction of the Little River Turnpike and other good roads often diverted traffic away from older mills. New mills were built on good roads throughout the county. Transportation affected the success of mills, and the location of mills sometimes influenced construction of roads. Examples of roads built during this period to serve mills include Samuel Love’s Mill Road, Robey’s Mill Road, and Hunter Mill Road; Parts of Fox Mill and Waples Mill Roads may also have been present before the Civil War. Roads in the northwestern part of Fairfax County are particularly well documented as a result of the work of local historian Winslow Hatch. Unlike most of Fairfax County, which was closely tied to Alexandria, northwest Fairfax was often more closely tied to Maryland and Georgetown. Construction of the Potowmack Canal spurred road development in this area during the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. In 1784, the Virginia Assembly passed an act incorporating the Potowmack Company to build a canal around Great Falls. The purpose of the canal was to facilitate trade between the eastern cities and the west, including the Ohio River Valley. The town of Matildaville was founded at Great Falls Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 133 (on Bryan Fairfax’s property) around 1790 to support construction of the canal. The town included the superintendent’s house, labor barracks for workers on the canal, shops, a forge, grist and saw mills, and warehouses (Cooke 1977:54). Conn’s (or Coon’s) Ferry was established near Matildaville (at the present Riverbend Park) to carry materials for the canal construction, and to provide transportation between Virginia and Maryland. Figure 39 shows the location of a road leading from what would become the Georgetown Leesburg and Falls Bridge Turnpike to Matildaville, as well as other major roads in the county in 1807. Figure 39. Detail of Bishop James Madison’s 1807 Map of Virginia Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 134 In 1828, the Potowmack Company dissolved and the project was reorganized under the Chesapeake and Ohio Company, which built a canal on the Maryland side of the Potomac River (Rice 1948:257). When the canal on the Virginia side of the river was abandoned, Matildaville faded into relative obscurity. The town now exists as ruins and archaeological remains within Great Falls National Park, Virginia. Roads that had been cleared to the ferry at Sandy Landing were later used by residents of Matildaville and workers on the Potowmack Canal (Cooke 1977:28). Three new roads appear to have been cleared for residents in northwestern Fairfax, in particular people living in the relatively isolated “river bend area”. Beach Mill Road led from west of Sugarlands Run to a point along the Potomac upstream from Great Falls where Conn operated his ferry. The original name of Beach Mill Road is unknown (Beach Mill is current); the road was called River Road in the 1870s according to Hopkins’ Atlas. The River Bend Road closely followed the shore of the Potomac River, connecting Beach Mill Road to the Sandy Landing Road. These roads allowed residents to transport products to and from Maryland’s River Road when it was not convenient to go all the way to Alexandria (Hatch nd:29). It is likely that during the early nineteenth century Beach Mill Road was connected to the Georgetown and Leesburg Turnpike via what is now Walker Road. A road appears at this location on David Burr’s map dated 1839 (see Figure 34). Herman B Boye’s map of Virginia drawn in 1826 includes one of the best illustrations of roads throughout the county from this time period. This map shows both turnpikes and county roads in Fairfax County (Figure 40). Besides the roads discussed Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 135 frvfcv. itfUaHm* tedtaH'A Figure 40. Detail of a Herman Boye’s Map of Virginia Dated 1826 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 136 earlier, Boye shows several additional roads around Butts Comer and around Centreville. One road is shown leading from Butts or Elgin Comer, where the two branches of Ox Road and Pohick Road intersect, and northeast to Braddock Road. Until recently, Guinea Road followed this route, running along a ridge for part of the way and following the bank of Pohick Creek for the rest of the route; the route of Guinea Road was interrupted as a result of modem development. Modem Yates Ford Road may retain its historic name; it follows the route of a road shown on Boye’s map from Ox Road near Butts Comer southwest to Yates Ford on the Occoquan River. Wolf Run Shoals Road also appears to have been in existence before 1826; this road runs along a series of narrow ridges from Butts Comer south to the Occoquan River. In addition to Bradley Road and the Fauquier and Alexandria Turnpike, Frying Pan Road (also called Centreville Road) and another road intersected in Centreville. By 1805, Frying Pan Road ran from the Little River Turnpike north to Frying Pan (now Floris); another road ran south from the Little River Turnpike through Centreville. The entrance road to Sully Plantation was built off of Frying Pan Road (Gamble 1973:148). Although the roads were straightened slightly in the twentieth century, Old Centreville Road, Walney Road and Centreville Road (Route 657) basically follow the original route of Frying Pan Road. Another road led from Centreville southwest to the Occoquan River; based on topography, the road probably went around the property that is now a sewage disposal area, crossed Cub Run at the ford, and continued to the Occoquan River. Evidence for this road no longer exists on modem maps, but the road trace may still be evident within Bull Run Regional Park. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 137 Besides those discussed here, several other public and private roads were cleared to run short distances between specific points. For example, Hatch conducted a field study of old roads within and around Great Falls Park, Virginia, and described numerous very short and often narrow roads used by local residents (Hatch nd). The scale of my thesis does not allow for each of these little roads to be included. Conclusion: Turnpike Era Although Alexandria remained important during the turnpike era, other centers of commercial activity developed, including Georgetown in the District of Columbia and Centreville. The map of roads in existence before 1840 shows several focuses in the county. Trends that began during the middle of the eighteenth century continued toward the end of the eighteenth and the beginning of the nineteenth century. The Revolutionary War for all practical purposes placed the wealthy people in charge of the new nation. In general, road development was tied to their interest in the rise of capitalism and early industrialization. Companies were formed to construct paved roads using a combination of private and public funds. Roads reflect the Georgian interest in ordering nature, including construction of bridges and straighter roads designed to reduce travel time despite constraints of the environment. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION The nature of road construction in Fairfax County changed to fit the changing needs of residents through time. During the first period under consideration (1608-1740), early settlers had little use for roads because they relied on navigable rivers. The roads that did exist were little more than bridle and foot trails through the fields and woods. Road development increased in importance during the early eighteenth century as people moved farther from the rivers. Early roads led to wharves and warehouses on navigable rivers and to churches and courts. Road construction and maintenance in Fairfax County expanded in the middle to late eighteenth century as established communities and commerce developed (1740- 1780). Formation of Fairfax County with its own courthouse, and the establishment of Alexandria as an important center of commerce, population, and wealth affected settlement and road development from 1740 through the Revolutionary War. Roads were cleared to support increased carriage and wagon traffic as well as travel on horseback. Following the Revolutionary War, expanding industries and businesses in Fairfax County led to a need for better transportation routes in order to increase the productivity of manufacture and processing of agricultural and other products. Private companies built toll roads with graveled surfaces to meet the needs of merchants and farmers. 138 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 139 Like most aspects of material culture during the eighteenth century, roads reflect a change from the post medieval to the Georgian mindset. This pattern has been observed in everything from dishes and toothbrushes to houses. Early roads followed natural courses of least resistance. At first, no attempt was made to clear roads, and paths went around trees or other obstacles. Early road construction consisted of little more than cutting down a few trees to widen the path; stumps were not removed. When a path became impassable, travelers simply began to follow a new route. In the middle of the eighteenth century as towns began to develop, wealthy land owners, particularly in Alexandria, constructed houses in the symmetrical Georgian style. City roads within Alexandria and Colchester were also built on an ordered, symmetrical grid plan. The grid plan was unnatural as it would have been difficult for horses pulling carriages to turn a right angle. County roads at this time were built to support the wealthy merchants in Alexandria by providing better access for agricultural products transported to the city. Although roads on the interior of the county continued to follow natural courses, an increase in surveys and maps showing these roads reflects the Georgian order. Main roads in the late eighteenth century were built to support commerce and early industry. Turnpike companies exerted control over nature by grading and filling to construct straighter roads with level surfaces; the surfaces were often covered with gravel or stones to protect them from erosion. Larger bridges were built, allowing for more direct routes. Reducing travel time on roads increased both the profits of the farmers bringing products to mills or markets and the turnpike companies, which benefited when travelers chose to use their road. Despite the attempt to create better, straighter roads in Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 140 the early nineteenth century, builders could never fully ignore topography and streams. Although turnpike companies sometimes tried to build roads on as straight a line as possible to save on construction costs, steep grades caused roads to be avoided by travelers, and the turnpike companies lost money. As this thesis has shown, roads are an intricate part of all aspects of history, including settlement, industry, commerce, labor, politics, agriculture, economics, etc. Knowledge of the road development of an area provides a background context for understanding other issues of the era. For example, knowledge of the location of historic crossroads can shed light on why towns or businesses developed where they did. This thesis provides an overview or context for studies related to roads. There are several other avenues for future research suggested by this study. Although time consuming, a complete search of deed records for the county would be likely to reveal plat maps showing private and public roads. Road locations could be verified through field investigation; historic road traces often remain where roads were redirected or passed out of use. Hundreds of cultural resource management studies have been conducted in Fairfax County, which might have encountered and reported road traces. It would also be interesting to relate historic road locations to recorded historic archaeological sites and structures to determine if knowledge of historic roads can help predict where certain types of historic sites may be found. Also, more intensive studies could be done on particular topics related to roads. For example, road development could be compared with population statistics, skilled Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 141 workers and laborers involved with road construction could be studied, and the impact of roads on industry could be more intensively researched. As a final observation, it is interesting to note that with the significant exceptions of 1495,166, the Dulles toll road, and the Fairfax County Parkway, most of the existing infrastructure in Fairfax County was in place before the Civil War. Roads were designed for horses and carriages and minimal traffic compared to today’s standards. This fact explains in part why the infrastructure has not been able to meet the recent demands in the county, resulting in gridlock, especially along the routes to Alexandria such as Route 7, Route 50/236, and Route 1. Although the existing roads have been straightened, paved, and widened, few new thoroughfares have been added since the early nineteenth century. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. BIBLIOGRAPHY Bushong, W. 1990 Rock Creek Park, District of Columbia: Historic Resource Study. United States Department of the Interior/ National Park Service, Washington, D.C. 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Tanner, entered according to Act of Congress, the 14th day of April 1826, by John Tyler, Governor of the State of Virginia, Richmond. Map on file in the Library of Congress, Washington, DC, G3880 1826.B6 vault. Bradley, Abraham 1787 A Map of the United States Exhibiting Post Roads and Distances. Map on file in the Library of Congress, Washington, DC. Burr, David H. 1839 Map o f Virginia, Maryland and Delaware Exhibiting the Post Offices, Post Roads, Canals, Rail Roads, etc. by David H. Burr (Late Topographer to the Post Office) Geographer to the House of Representatives of the U.S. Map on file in the Library of Congress, Washington, DC, G1200 .B9 1839. Court Record Books of Fairfax County on File at the Fairfax County Courthouse, Fairfax, Virginia. Evans, Lewis c. 1756 A General Map of the Middle British Colonies in America. Engraved by Ja. Turner, London. Map on file in the Library of Congress. Ewing, Maskell C. 1845 Plan o f the town o f Alexandria, D.C. with the Environs Exhibiting the outlet o f the Alexandria Canal, the Shipping channel, wharves, Hunting Creek, etc. Map on file in the Library of Congress, Washington, DC, G3884 .A3 1845.E9, and Reproduced in Stephenson 1981. Floumey, H.W., editor 1892 Virginia Calendar of Virginia State Papers and Other Manuscripts. Printed under direction of H. W. Floumey, secretary of the Commonwealth and State Librarian, Richmond. Volume 1, 1652-1781. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 147 Fry, Joshua and Peter Jefferson 1755 A Map o f the most Inhabited part o f Virginia containing the whole province o f Maryland with Part of Pensilvania, New Jersey and North Carolina. Map on file in the Library of Congress, Washington, DC, G3880 1755.F72 vault. Hening, William Waller, ed. 1823 The Statutes at Large; Being a Collection o f all the Laws o f Virginia, from the First session o f the Legislature, in the year 1619. Volumes I through XIII, R. & W. & G. Bartow, New York. Herrman, Augustine 1673 Virginia and Maryland As it is Planted and Inhabited this present Year 1670. Surveyed and Exactly Drawne by the Only Labour and Endeavour of Augustin Herrman, Hohemiensis, W. Faithome sculpt. [London] Map on file in the Library of Congress, Washington, DC, G3880 1670.H4 vault. Hopkins, Griffith M. 1877 City Atlas of Alexandria, Va. From official Records, Private plans and Actual Surveys, Based upon Plans deposited in the Department of Surveys. [Philadelphia] Map on file in the Library of Congress, Washington, DC, G1294 .A3H6 1877. 1879 Atlas o f Fifteen Miles around Washington including the Counties of Fairfax and Alexandria, Virginia. [Philadelphia] Map on file in the Library of Congress, Washington, DC, G1275.H57. Jenings, Daniel (probable author) c. 1745 A Plan of the County of Fairfax on Potomack River the Middle of which is in 39°, 12’ N° Latitude. Map on file in the Library of Congress, Washington, DC, G3883.F2 1748.J4 vault. Kearney, Lt. Col., Major Turnbull U.S.T.E., W.M.C. Fairfax, and M.C. Ewing 1838 Potomac River Shewing the Route o f the Alexandria Canal, Made in Pursuance o f a Resolution o f the Alexandria Canal Company, October 1838, Compiled from the surveys o f Lt. Col. Kearney, Major Turnbull U.S.T.E., W.M.C. Fairfax, and M.C. Ewing Civil Engineer. W.J. Stone Sc., Washington D.C. Map on file in the Library of Congress, Washington, DC Madison, Bishop James 1807 A Map of Virginia Formed from Actual Surveys, and the Latest as well as most accurate observations, by James Madison, D.D., President o f William and Mary College, Drawn by William Davis, Engraved by Frederick Bossier, Richmond, James Madison, William Prentis, and William Davis. Map on file in the Library of Congress, Washington, DC, G3880 1807.M3a copy 3 vault, and reproduced in Stephenson 1981. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 148 Ritchie, T., ed. 1819 Revised Code o f the Law of Virginia. Volume 2. Richmond, Virginia. An Act to Create a Fund for Internal Improvements, passed 5 February 1816. In Revised Code o f the Law o f Virginia. Volume 2, 1819. Thomas Ritchie, editor, Pages 201-205, Richmond, Virginia. An Act Prescribing Certain General Regulations for the Incorporation of Turnpike Companies, passed February 7, 1817. In Revised Code o f the Law o f Virginia, Volume 2,1819. Thomas Ritchie, editor, Pages 211-225, Richmond, Virginia. Rochambeau, Mr. le Comte de 1782 Camp a Alexandrie le 17 Juillet 19 Milles de Clochester, in Amerique Campagne 1782: Plans des Differents Camps Occupes par L’Armee aux Ordres de Mr. Le Comte de Rochambeau. Map on file in the Rochambeau map collection in the Library of Congress in Washington, DC., and reproduced in Stephenson 1981. Shepherd, Samuel, ed. 1970 The Statutes at Large of Virginia, from October Session 1792, to December session 1806, inclusive. Volume I through IE. [1835-36] AMS Press, Inc., New York. Smith, John 1624 Virginia: Discovered and Described by Captayn John Smith 1606 [1608]. Hole, London. Map on file at the Library of Congress, Washington DC. Sommers, LA. 1827 Plat of the contemplated Turnpike road from Alexandria to Difficult run by Wileys. Map on file in the National Archives, Washington, DC and reproduced in Stephenson 1981. United States Geological Survey (USGS), Department of the Interior 1944 Fairfax, VA 7.5 Minute Topographic Quadrangle 1945 Falls Church, VA 7.5 Minute Topographic Quadrangle 1950 Seneca, VA-MD 7.5 Minute Topographic Quadrangle 1951 Annandale, VA 7.5 Minute Topographic Quadrangle 1951 Herndon, VA 7.5 Minute Topographic Quadrangle Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 149 1951 Manassas, VA 7.5 Minute Topographic Quadrangle 1951 Mt. Vernon, VA 7.5 Minute Topographic Quadrangle. 1951 Vienna, VA 7.5 Minute Topographic Quadrangle 1955 Fairfax, VA 7.5 Minute Topographic Quadrangle 1956 Alexandria, VA 7.5 Minute Topographic Quadrangle 1956 Occoquan, VA 7.5 Minute Topographic Quadrangle Washington, George c. 1749 A Plan of Alexandria now Belhaven. Map on file at the Library of Congress Map Division, Washington, DC. c. 1765 Sketch of the roads and country between Little Huntg Ck and Colchester. L.C. G3883 JF2 177-.W3 1967. Reproduced in Stephenson 1981. 1766 A Plan of My Farm on Little Hunting Creek and Potomac River. Map reproduced in Stephenson and McKee 2000. 1793 Map o f the Five Farms Comprising Mount Vernon Estate. Map reproduced in Stephenson and McKee 2000. Survey o f 7269 Acres in Stafford County fo r Robert Carter, Jr. on Great Rocky Run, Horsepen Run, Flatlick, etc. dated November 14, 1729. Plat Map on file in the Map Room of the Library of Congress, Washington, DC. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.