Journal of Sport Tourism 9(1), 2004, 5–101 Historical perspectives of sports tourism

John Zauhar Sport Tourism International Council ......

PREAMBLE

‘In 1992, there were 1.3 million people arriving in a country outside that of their residence and spending an average of $764 million on accommodations, meals, entertainment and shopping’ (Segal, 1987). Total international tourist arrivals for 1989 have been established by the World Tourism Organization (WTO) at 405.3 million. And travel and tourism contribution to the world economy amounted to $US2 trillion in sales. In effect, the European Council on Development has deter- mined that, by the year 2000, the tourism industry will be the largest in the world (World Tourism Organization, 1994). Whereas in previous decades tourism has been largely shaped by transport technol- ogy advances, the future decade will be determined by a number of factors, already evidenced: socio-demographic changes; electronic information and communication systems; more knowledgeable and demanding consumers; de-regulatory market place (Fridgen, 1991: 3–26). Some influences on, and determinants of, tourism activity in the 1990-2000 period will be: the scale and variety of tourism development in all types of tourism destinations; the growing interest in peoples and cultures of developing countries; increases in the number of consumers with free time, financial ability and interest to travel; the growing importance of ethnic ties between different nations. Prime examples of market niche targeting related to sports, according to the WTO forecast, are: sailing, yachting, scuba diving, golfing, resort holidays and island hopping. Themed holidays are also becoming popular, accounting for a significant proportion of total tourist demands – approaching the stage of mainstream holiday rather than the traditional ‘beach’ sequence (McCourt, 1989: 13).

Historical Link

Travel is an ancient behaviour. History reveals harsh realities of travel in earlier times and civilizations – restrictions and constraints on modes of travel, accommodation and services. Furthermore, leisure time required for pleasure travel in primitive societies was quite scarce. As quality of life became indicatively higher and better, people began to move more readily from one place to another. Shorter working weeks, holidays and holy days contributed to mass travel, relaxation and ...... Journal of Sport Tourism ISSN 1477-5085 print/ISSN 1029-5399 online/04/010005-96  2004 Sports Tourism International Council http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals DOI: 10.1080/1477508042000179348 6 Zauhar self-development. Gradually, travel and tourism were transformed. In addition, technological, political and social events made tourism a world-wide leisure experi- ence (Bhatia, 1983: 6). Tourism has usually been studied in terms of travel patterns, typology, financial implications, general activity movements, as well as the demand–supply equation and service developments. Travel motivational studies often refer to pleasure, religion, culture, business and the like. Many authors and specialists refer to tourism as a relatively modern phenomenon (Curran, 1978: xix–xx). Some consider the beginnings culminating in the popularity of the Grand Tour (Bannister, 1981: 1). Rarely, if ever, has the concept of tourism been analysed through sports pursuits and offerings. Tourist options have been focused chiefly on cultural tastes and attitudes. And, Romanticism’s interests lured people to beauty and to natural settings such as mountains, lakes and seashore areas. Sports, in the annals of history, seem to have played a minor or secondary role in touristic popularity and thrust. Since the term ‘tourism’ did not appear in the English language until the early nineteenth century, the word ‘tour’ was more closely associated with the idea of an individual being temporarily away from his/her home environment (Laverty, 1989: 13). Furthermore, people world-wide are participating more in sports and travelling to certain destinations for the pleasures and enjoyments of physical activities, amateur and/or professional. These travellers are more readily conscious of the inherent values emanating from sports and are prepared to financially support their inclina- tions. Moreover, sports travel is gradually increasing for all levels and ages of society. Indeed, many sports destinations are being organized and marketed according to knowledgeable approaches and human inherencies. The past has never been analysed, in terms of sports tourism, to understand better the present. Little background has been provided to indicate lessons and relationships that still exist today. There is a notable legacy that has never been explored. There exists a symbiosis between sports and tourism that needs to be examined. The purpose of this paper was to investigate the extent to which various sports have been intermingled and associated with tourism throughout history – leading to the identification of the status of sports tourism in light of historical development.

Definition of Terms

For the purposes of this paper, the following terms are defined to ensure correct interpretation:

1. historical perspectives – refers to the outlook or view drawn from chronological narrative events and scenes relative to pertinent dimensions, significance and meaningfulness to sports tourism; 2. sports tourism – refers to different sports that throughout history have been the source and/or the principal reason for travel – relative in distance according to the lifestyle epochs of history; 3. genealogical approach – refers to the principal lineage recordings of sports tourism activities as developed and evolved throughout history to which second- ary or other sports tributaries are grafted; 4. categories of sports tourism – refers to specifically defined divisions within a sports tourism classification, namely attractions, resorts, cruises, tours and events. Historical Perspectives of Sports Tourism 7

METHODOLOGY

Sources of Data

The following resources were investigated and analysed: textbooks; journals; confer- ence proceedings; organization reports; televised documentaries; internet websites; microfilms; and other printed materials.

Analysis

Data were analysed for purposes of determining relationships between sports and tourism throughout different eras of history. Diverse sequential historical periods were explored, chiefly from a genealogical approach. Emphasis was particularly placed on the developed nations in accordance with their chronological place in time. Categories of sports tourism were used as the framework for the research. Sports tourism circumstances, situations and environments were investigated from the following perspectives:

• the era’s relative travel distances; • the traveller sports participant; • the traveller sports spectator; • the haphazard sports participant/spectator; • the polarizing sports elements; • the developers of sports; • the marketeers of sports; • the explosion of certain sports; • the implosion of various sports; • the sport facility allurements; • the invitational sports dimensions; • the pertinence of sports tourism definitions; • the distinctive sports purposes.

These views were all considered within the necessitated displacements of people from their natural habitat.

Format

The first section discusses the relationship between sports and tourism. The following sections illustrate the different sequential historical periods pursued in a ‘genealogi- cal’ approach – that is, a mainstream trend to which various historical events and situations are grafted or entwined. Emphasis is placed on the more developed countries and nations through the ages of civilization. Sub-sections are organized in accordance with the nature of researched materials. A specific summation is included at the end of each main section to underline salient facts and highlights referring to sports tourism. 8 Zauhar

SPORT TOURISM–APHENOMENON

Introduction

The spirit of travel has lived on down the ages (Kinnaird & Hill, 1993: 2). Throughout, ‘man has traveled in search of new places, new lands, new cultures and new experiences’ (Heath & Wall, 1992: 3). As such, there is little doubt that travel ‘has been, and continues to be, a focus for development’ (Butler, 1950: 2–25). ‘Successive changes in transportation, technology, including the steamboat, railway, automobile and airplane, coupled with a myriad of socio-economic transformations, have enabled growing numbers of people to travel’ (Baker, 1988: 31). Human behaviour can be understood by determining the motives, drives or concerns which are being satisfied. A motive can be explained as ‘a person’s basic disposition to reach for or strive towards a particular goal or combination of goals (Eduardo, 1989: 47). A drive can be conceived as an inner factor predisposing one to react either positively or negatively towards some particular object or act (Baker, 1988: 31). A concern, on the other hand, deals with a person’s commanding role to become involved (Zeigler, 1984: 2). Throughout history, men and women have been impelled to travel because of sport – the motive, the drive or the concern. In effect, in the last decade or so, there has been an increasing participation in a wide variety of sporting activities. Visitors, be they participants or onlookers, travel to place, indulge and satiate in a sporting environment.

Sport

‘Sport derives its root definition from disport, meaning to divert oneself. It carried the original implication of people diverting their attention from the rigours and pressures of everyday life by participating in the mirth and whimsy of frolic – some physical activity.’ ‘Today, however, sport is often anything but diversion to its active and passive participants.’ Sport can be defined in many ways and from different viewpoints or distinctive perspectives. As definitions are mere tools, serving or assisting to specify some level of precision and characteristics, a number has been selected to demonstrate sport activity as a part of our social world.

• ‘Sport is viewed as a game occurrence’ (Feifer, 1985: 2). • ‘Sport is a diversion, amusement or recreation; a pleasant pastime which can be pursued in the open air as hunting, fishing, skiing or trekking’ (Coakley, 1982: 12). • ‘Informal sport is free in that participation is totally voluntary’ (Coakley, 1982: 12). • [Competitive] ‘sport is an institutionalized competitive activity that involves vigor- ous physical exertion or the use of relatively complex physical skills by individuals where participation is motivated by a combination of intrinsic and extrinsic factors’ (Chu, 1982: 9–10). • [Competitive sport consists of] ‘physical activities which involve the coordination of large muscle groups which have a set of universally recognized rules and which produce a winner and a loser’ (Edwards, 1973: 49). • [Recreational sport is characterized by] ‘playfulness involved in enjoyment of play that serves the primary reason for participation’ (Fraleigh, 1984: 40, 43, 46). Historical Perspectives of Sports Tourism 9

An imperative feature of competitive sport is that activities, classified as such, are formally structured to a degree and organized within a context of formal and explicit rules of behaviour and procedures. Salient features include some level of competition and physical exertion. In addition, competitive sport, being the formal, rational, goal-directed endeavour provides or allows little opportunity for fantasy or make believe either to or for the participant or spectator (Schwartz, 1973). A compelling aspect of recreational sport is that activities are informally structured with limited organization in a physically orientated setting and voluntary partici- pation context. In addition, recreational sport is usually a self-directed activity which can be challenging to the individual participant and not necessarily competitive in nature, with few, if any, spectators in attendance.

Purpose of Sport

Sport represents a universal need. To truly understand the purpose of a sporting activity, a clear description of such activity undertaking is of great importance.

A sport contest is a voluntary, agreed upon, human event in which one or more human participants oppose at least one other human to seek the mutual appraisal of the relative abilities of all participants to move mass in space and time by utilizing bodily moves which exhibit developed motor skills, physical prowess, physiological and psychological endurance, and socially approved tactics and strategy (Vinoker, 1988: 16–17).

For the athlete participant, the mastery of the body, in particular skill development, is implicitly essential. To the spectator, the degree of skill culmination and discipline demonstrated by the athlete becomes a symbol of perfection, admiration and success. Evidently, these universal needs will be felt differently and in various measures due to a multitude of reasons – be they intellectual, emotional, psychological, social or other (Vinoker, 1988: 16–17). Sport purpose has also been interpreted in terms of the deep satisfaction it provides humans in their realization of the desire to be self-complete through testing and extensions of the body. Recreational sport, on the other hand, has many unique opportunities for individual/group participation which may include such factors as stimulation, challenge, self-fulfilment and diversion. Competitive sports also have a special allure for spectators – for these people share a common identity with the active participants. In effect, ‘spectators are most important to sport today than they have ever been in the past’ (McPherson & Curtis, 1989: 16–19). The revolution in communications (electronic media, internet, etc.) makes greater numbers aware of sports competitions, sports activities and recreational sports opportunities. Governments have often used, and continue to use, sporting events to political advantage as sport can strengthen identity of the nation – with positive consequences (Stevenson & Nixon, 1972: 119–32). In the past decade or so, sport has become a social phenomenon of great importance and magnitude and, perhaps, complexity. ‘Sport permeates any number of levels of contemporary society and it touches upon and deeply influences such disparate elements as status, race relations, business life, automotive design, clothing styles, the concept of hero, languages and ethical values’ (Fox, 1982). Stevenson and Nixon (1972), through analysis of literature and conceptual perspec- tives, isolated five basic functions of sport: 10 Zauhar

1. the socio-emotional function, which operates at the level of the individual and touches upon the socio-psychological stability of the person; 2. the socialization function which also operates at the level of the individual involving the inculcation of cultural mores and beliefs, and is concerned with the development of personality characteristics; 3. the integrative function, operating at the level of collectivity, with the harmonious integration of disparate individuals into, and their identification with, the collec- tivity; 4. the political function, which is predominantly operative at the level of the Nation State, entailing the role of sport as a political instrument; 5. the social mobility function, which has concerns at the level of the individual, the collectivity and the Nation State, dealing specifically with the movement of individuals between socially defined categories.

James Mitchener (1976), in his book Sports in America, emphasized that sports should: enhance the beauty of both the individual participant and society in general; and fulfil the obligation to provide public entertainment. Henry Edwards, in examining the functions of sport, suggested that ‘the serious- ness with which so many people treat the subject indicates that something more than “entertainment” is at stake’ (Bannister, 1981: 1). Richard E. Lapechick upholds that sports build character, teach values, encourage healthy competition, provide outlets for aggression and promote international friend- ship and understanding (Kurtzman et al. 1993). The Modern Olympics, re-established by Baron Pierre de Coubertin, were founded in the belief that sport brought people together and, in doing so, contributed to a better understanding between peoples and nations (Butler, 1950: 253–8). This was in evidence during the Seoul Games of 1988, which acted as a ‘catalyst’ to accentuate progress towards positive country relation- ships (Anderson et al. 1989: 27). Generally speaking, the contribution of sports, to active and passive participants, is widely recognized and accepted. However, the nature and content of sporting activities do vary (Research Unit, Sports Tourism International Council, 1995). These fluctuations are dependent upon location, interests, facilities, traditions, climate, type of organization or entrepreneurial enthusiasm and the like. And, there are different possible codifications of sport ranging from individual activities to dual experiences ,toteam enticements (Stevenson & Nixon, 1972: 3; Schwartz, 1973: 26–43). Other differentiations are contingent on the quality levels of sport experiences – informal, formal, recreational and/or competitive. Another approach to the question of sport deals strictly with culture and cultural affectations. As such, bull or cock fighting could be considered definable and acceptable in certain cultures of the world, yet inappropriate and non-inclusive in other parts of the globe. The same may be said for ice fishing, dog racing, horseshoes, dance, etc.. Oftentimes, the types of sport enjoyed and appreciated by people reside in their religious rites, traditions, mores and inborn impulse and basic needs (Smith, 1989: 1–4).

Tourism

People’s desire for travel is related to their immediate socio-physical environments and the appeal of the beyond. And this travel drive is an economic, environmental Historical Perspectives of Sports Tourism 11 and sociological force of global proportions. However, there is ‘considerable debate surrounding the meaning of travel in terms of tourism. Much of this debate is concerned with the desirability of employing definitions based upon the activities that are engaged in or on the experiences that are derived from participation’ (Heath & Wall, 1992: 4). ‘Tourism usually denotes a form of activity that takes place beyond a specific distance from the home or in a geographic administrative jurisdiction different from one’s place of permanent residence’ (Weller & Hall, 1992: 6). It involves the motivation, preparatory experiences and expectations of people travelling – the tourist. It also enwraps the anticipations, adjustments and tolerances of the residents – so-called hosts. And, it engages numerous organizations, agencies and institutions in catering to guest needs, wants and desires (Weller & Hall, 1992: 6). ‘Etymologically, the word “tour” is derived from the Latin tornare and the Greek tornos meaning the movement around a central point. Hence, when the word “tour” and the suffixes “ist” and “ism” are combined, they suggest the action of movement around a circle’ (Laverty, 1989: 7). In effect, the first definition appeared in the Dictionnaire universel du XIXiFme siecle in 1876 – defining a tourist as a person who travels out of curiosity and idleness (McIntosh et al. 1995: 4). In addition, tourism has been ‘variously defined or refined by governments and academics to related fields such as economics, sociology, cultural anthropology and geography’ (McIntosh et al. 1995: ix). The following examples are but some additional interpretations describing the scope and meaning of tourism.

• [Tourism is] ‘the sum of the phenomena and the relationships arising from the interaction of tourists, business suppliers, host governments and host communities in the process of attracting and hosting these tourists and other visitors’ (Mill & Morrison, 1995: 37–46). • [Tourism can be construed] ‘as the science, art and business of attracting and transporting visitors, accommodating them and graciously catering to their needs and wants’ (Feifer, 1985: 2). • [Tourism is] ‘a means by which peoples may know and understand one another; human understanding being so essential in the world at this time’ (Theobald, 1984). • As an exponent of leisure and mobility…tourists variously seeking culture and pleasure according to the delights of their time (Gunn, 1988: 83).

It has also been suggested that tourism is a study of people away from their usual habitat, of an industry which responds to their needs and of the impacts that both (the people and the industry) have on the hosts’ socio-cultural, economic and physical environments (World Tourism Organization, 1993: 20). Statisticians and market analysts have sought better descriptors for more accurate accounting of tourism visitations (World Tourism Organization, 1993: 2). The WTO has developed a definition that states:

1. domestic tourists are visitors from within the country who stay a minimum of 24 hours and not more than one year for pleasure, recreation, sport, business, visiting friends and relatives, missions, conferences, health reasons, studies and religion; 2. international tourists are residents of one country visiting another for many or all of the same purposes as domestic tourists. 12 Zauhar

The governments of Canada and the USA have an agreement to include resident travellers, non-resident travellers and other travellers in their tourism statistics – incorporating both the business and pleasure visitors. As such, all travellers are statistically defined as tourists. The European Economic Union (EU) has also looked into the matter of uniformity in their tourism data-gathering processes (Kinnaird & Hill, 1993: 2). Other levels of government, community and regional agencies have utilized differ- ent approaches for calculating visitor statistics. The use of well-circumscribed geo- graphical boundaries in a tourist definition is critical (e.g. the Mega City of Toronto) when identifying the starting point for visitor measurement. A time dimension may also be considered (day-trippers, over-nighters) in determining visitor status.

Purposes of Tourism

The generally perceived importance of tourism for economic development reasons cannot be disputed. Statistical evidence depicts a remarkable increase in the number of international travellers from 25 million in 1950 to 425 million in 1990 – and over and above this figure in 1997 (McIntosh et al., 1995: 124). As such, tourism is a significant strategy for capital accumulations. Furthermore, developments in inter- national tourism markets – as well as domestic and national tourism – are increasing in many countries (Mill & Morrison, 1995: ch. 1). The reason for travel may be different from the purpose. For instance, ‘one may need a rest’ or ‘the advertising was persuasive’, or simply ‘to accompany a friend’. Mere explanations do not necessarily clarify the intention or resolve for travel. The ‘Purpose of Travel Classification’ shown in Table 1 is based on current practices and recommendations from the WTO and from United Nations (UN) documentation. An important part of tourism psychology is the fact that people usually travel for more than one reason. In effect, one motivator may be reinforced by another. Such motivators can be divided into four categories (Olivova, 1984: 107–8):

1. physical motivators related to physical rest, sport participation, health, etc.; 2. cultural motivators associated with music, art, heritage, etc.; 3. interpersonal motivators directed to making new friends, visiting relatives and the like; 4. status and prestige motivators concerning ego needs and personal development.

The key to understanding tourist motivation is to see vacation travel as a satisfier of needs and wants. Motivators mushroom and flare when an individual wants to satisfy a need. A study of travel literature indicates that travel motivations fit well into the Maslow ‘hierarchy of needs’ model. And, if inclinations are sufficiently strong to imply action or movement, consequent decisions are made to satisfy personal needs to a certain degree and within specific parameters (Info Sport International Ltd, 1989: 28–43).

Sports Tourism–aPartnership

Today, sport is regarded as the world’s largest social phenomenon (Schwartz, 1973: 36–43). And, tourism is predicted to become the world’s biggest industry early in the Historical Perspectives of Sports Tourism 13

Table 1 Classification of purpose of travel

PURPOSE EXAMPLES

Leisure seaside or lake countryside mountains culture (festival, theatre, opera as a spectator) carnival (as a spectator) sports events (as a spectator) spa holiday, convalescing rest and recuperation honeymoon, romance gambling shopping Touring/sightseeing based on one-centre destination one country based on more than one centre several countries Sports (active) winter sports boating (yacht, barge, etc.) diving (scuba, etc.) events (Olympics, World Cup) hunting, riflery, fishing safari golf other Visiting friends and relatives (VFR) visits to immediate family (dependants) visits to national resident abroad visits other home leave of national residents visits other VFR holiday to ‘ethnic homeland holidays primarily to VFR in other countries Special interest holiday pilgrimage, religion adventure (e.g. mountaineering, desert trek) hobby (e.g. bird watching, history, music) summer camp other Cruises single destination multiple destinations casino cruises sports cruises ocean voyages river trips next century. As such, the points of contact between sport and tourism have increased dramatically – the mutual benefits for both are quite perceptible and the relationships very compatible. In fact, the term ‘sports tourism’ has been coined to better understand the use of sport as a touristic endeavour. Moreover, in the last decade or so, there have been philosophical and entrepreneurial developments that contribute to such a marriage actuality.

1. The ‘sports tourism’ phenomenon has been exhibited, manifested and marketed through and by world-wide sporting events such as the Olympic Games, Super Championships and the like (Bhatia, 1991: 32). 2. The potential significance of the massive nature of ‘sports tourism’ produces an upsurge in ‘spectatoritis’ and prevalency in hero worshipping and stalwarts (Kurtzman et al. 1993). In North America, and other developed countries, the concept of health through physical activities at all age levels sparked renewed interest in a variety of sporting activity participation (Pigeassou, 1997). 14 Zauhar

3. There exist important affiliations between sport and tourism in promoting dom- estic, national and international friendship and understanding amongst individu- als, groups and communities (Research Unit, Sports Tourism International Council, 1995: 12–19). 4. Future projections, with respect to tourism trends, indicate a tendency pattern of breaking free time into a series of blocks, thereby, permitting a variety of experiential stays within a single year (Gunn, 1988: 107).

Different forms of tourism can be defined in terms of the kind of leisure mobility undertaken by the tourist and could well be identified as follows: adventure tourism (reality experiences); incentive tourism (productive motivational techniques); cultural tourism (vestige of lifestyles); heritage tourism (glories of the past); marine tourism (water-orientated activities); festival tourism (diverse celebrations); leisure tourism (away from work time); ecotourism (experiences of alien sceneries); educational tourism (site visitation learning); wilderness tourism (related to nature); sports tourism (physical activity focus). Oftentimes, sports tourism is categorized directly or indirectly through a value system related to economic impact. The primary qualifier for the determination of sports tourism is the destination focus directed to sporting activities, through marketing strategies and provision for a sports programming milieu. On the other hand, tourism destinations whose sport activities are ‘peripheral’ to their focus and marketing efforts are considered to offer sports programmes and activities solely for a ‘supportive’ role acting as a ‘retention’ factor for the respective destination. As such, it is also imperative to provide a foundation for defining ‘sports tourism’ through the nomenclature of actual sporting activities rather than by philosophical definitions. Thus, sport and tourism are distinct in that there are several differences in the types of activities, modes of transportation, location of experience and ‘polarization’ appeal to and allure for the tourist. On the other hand, these ap- proaches do have a degree of similarity in the fact that each category is sports-related with an enthusiastic touristic followership, be it participative or non-participative. These relationships can be categorized into five unique areas – attractions, resorts, cruises, tours and events (Research Unit, 1995).

(a) Sports tourism attractions

This category refers to those attractions providing ‘energizing power’ with sports-related physical activities as their principal focus. Such attractions are usually on-location, in places within regions, countryside or urban settings providing the tourist with things to see and do where personal and social expectations are realized to varying degrees (Coltman, 1989: 59–60). Attractions could be natural (parks, mountains, wildlife), or anthropogenic (museums, buildings) (Smith, 1989: 39). General characteristics represented in this core area of sports tourism product include visitations to:

1. state-of-the-art sport facilities and/or unique sport installations which generally house sports happenings, such as stadiums, arenas, bowls, domes; 2. museums dedicated to sport heritage, such as those at the Ancient Olympia in Greece; Historical Perspectives of Sports Tourism 15

3. sport heritage sites dedicated to founders, developers, special events such as the birthplace of the inventor of basketball; 4. Halls and Walls of Fame dedicated to and honouring particular sport heroes, leaders and organizers; 5. colossal and unique sport facilities, such as water slides, summer ski jumps, bungee jumping stations; 6. sport theme parks, such as Disney World of Sports; 7. sport shows and demonstrations such as Tall Ships visitations, aquatic perfor- mances, etc.; 8. in other situations, some of the visitor attractions lead to participation usage and interactive involvement. In addition, these attraction areas may offer multiple opportunities for photographic and artistic expression.

(b) Sports tourism resorts

This categorization represents well-planned and integrated resort complexes or villas with sports as their primary focus and marketing strategy. In many situations, these vacation centres have high standard facilities and services available to the sport tourist (Travel and Tourism Research Association, 1986: 240). Generally speaking, this resort category offers:

1. teachers, trainers, coaches with a great deal of expertise and personal visibility; 2. high-tech instructional appliances for practice and game play; 3. opportunities to compete and practice fundamentals, fine-tuning and comprehen- sive strategies; 4. areas, sites and facilities for general sports activities.

Some of these resort sites focus on specific, highly developed skills; some cater to recreational sporting activities. However, resort installations may vary from site to site extending from ‘high level’ international standards to campground services.

(c) Sports tourism cruises

Although ship construction suffered the slowest evolution in technology, cruise ships are becoming more and more to resemble hotels and resorts (Travel and Tourism Research Association, 1986: 240). This cruise category designates boat trips that have sports or sporting activities as their principal market strategy. Some ships may have unique sports installations as well as sports celebrities on board for allurement and entertainment purposes. The use of watercrafts for sporting activities (as examples, yachting, sailing, barging and the like) is also an important dimension of sports cruises. General characteristics enhanced by this cruise classification and product are as follows:

1. special transportation for tourists from one land location to another, providing opportunities for golf, tennis, snorkelling, etc. in unique and varied water environ- ments; 2. high-profile sports personalities on-board, sharing anecdotes, leading discussions and coaching opportunities for tourists; 16 Zauhar

3. provision of on-board facilities for physical activities, sports competitions, and/or modified games; 4. hosting of a Sports Conference with experts offering seminars and special sessions.

There also exist Cruise-and-Drive programmes, whereby tourist private vehicles are boarded to facilitate transportation to desired sports destinations or centres. On the other hand, Fly-and-Cruise programmes provide both air and sea transportation to distinct sports environments. Another sports cruise example consists of ‘classy and serene-oriented ambience’ of a cruise ship combined with the ‘intimacy and eliteness’ of a private yacht (Ritchie, 1984).

(d) Sports tourism tours

‘Every firm providing goods and services to tourists is constrained by the demand functions of its customers’ (Knuttgen et al. 1990: 95). Some of these companies cater to common interest groups and arrange tours and touring venues with sporting activities as their prime focus. In effect, such groupings range from incentive travel with sports interest schemes to sport team travel with chartered transportation and accommodations. These sports tourism tours may be self-guided or organized, depending upon access, location and nature of the activity. In general, sports tourism tours typically consist of:

1. specific visitations to one or more sport attractions over a precise number of days (sport museums, halls of fame, stadiums, theme parks); 2. combined visits to sports attractions and major sports events heritage sites, walls of fame, wavetech pools and sport games, contests, etc.); 3. attendance at a specific number of major sports events (professional hockey and basketball), in one or more locations; 4. participation in conferences, workshops, clinics, forums and attendance at major sports events (Scientific Congress prior to the Olympic Games); 5. tours related to the natural characteristics of a region pursued by tourists for aesthetic and/or physical reasons (trekking, cycling and canoeing).

In essence, this category may be indicative of ‘novelty seekers’ and ‘explorers’ in search of authentic and quality sports tourism experiences.

(e) Sports tourism events

Sports tourism events refer to those sports activities that attract tourists of which a large percentage are spectators. Furthermore, these particular events also have the potential to attract non-resident media, technical personnel, athletes, coaches and other sports officials. In some instances, sport tourism events may have a cultural association – for example, the Hong Kong Dragon Boat Festival which transformed from a semi-re- ligious ceremony into an international sports tourism event (Sofield & Atari, 1994). Tourism Hallmark Events and Mega Events have also been associated with this category, as well as the Olympic Games, World Cup and major regional, national and international contests/competitions (Getz, 1991: xi, 43–8). Historical Perspectives of Sports Tourism 17

Other distinctions that qualify a sport event to be touristic in nature are tourists travelling distances to see present and past star athletes or winner teams tourists attending or participating in sports activities, formally planned or informally orga- nized; furthermore, an event usually is open to the public; centred on celebration as its main purpose; focused around a main theme. In a good number of situations, sports tourism marketing is geared for the high level skill activities of a sports tourism event as well as for economic impacts derived by the host community and surrounding regions.

Research

The area of research in the fields of sport, travel and tourism, as well as in that of sports tourism, should not be overlooked. Although this special line of pursuit and investigation has not been identified as a specific category, it does, however, permeate throughout the foundations and fundamentals of all mentioned classifications. Re- search studies, past and present, often consider psychological, physiological, cultural, social, economic, climatic, entrepreneurial and political dimensions, in terms of visitors, destinations and active and passive participatory practices.

Impacts of Sports Tourism

Sports tourism activities have generated enormous economic impacts – not consider- ing the socio-cultural and intellectual benefits of tourism. A study of North American Convention Tourism Bureaux showed that sports accounted for 25 percent of the tourism receipts (WTTC, 1994: 5–23). In a 1994 study, analysis of 22 ‘Tourism Event Schedules’ from seven world geographical regions indicated that sports tourism activities represented 34 percent of the events (Research Unit, Sports Tourism International Council, 1995: 21–33). This same study also showed that 42 percent of the scheduled days were sports tourism related. Accordingly, the Sports Tourism Index (STIX) calculated that the direct contribution of sports tourism activities to overall tourism equated to 32 percent. And, based on growing domestic and international travel, the forecast for the year 2005 shows that the gross output of tourism world-wide will reach 7.9 trillion dollars (WTTC, 1994: 5–23).

Sports Tourism Settings

Sports tourism activities could take place in urban and non-urban settings, indoors or outdoors, in all types of climatic conditions and in all seasons. Furthermore, interest in sporting activities may encompass a multiplicity of motivators – for the partici- pant, the spectator, or both (Weller & Hall, 1996: 6). And, touristic typology accounts for the explorer, the e´lite, the off-beat, the unusual, the mass and the charter (Smith, 1989: 12). Statistical evidence depicts the remarkable and progressive increase in international travellers. This tendency demonstrates that the demand for international travel, linked to major indicators of lifestyle changes and opportunities, will continue to expand (Kinnaird & Hill, 1993: 2). In this sense, the world has shrunk, not only in size, but in accessibility – of time, distance, comfort, culture and modus vivendi. 18 Zauhar

Different settings within sports tourism can be classified according to the situa- tional milieu of the experience and may be identified according to: natural setting; cultural setting; anthropogenic setting; social setting; economic setting; concurrent setting.

Summation

‘During the last forty years, dynamic articulation, which has not stopped developing between sport and tourism, found itself on the constant movements of adaptation and transformation which bore into each one of its social spheres’ (Pigeassou, 1997: 1). The classification of this relationship and affiliation centres on ‘the significance of choices and conditions of sports exercise; or the comprehension of anthropological links which work the imagination’ (Pigeassou, 1997: 1). With the composition of ideas, customs, mores and lifestyles within the framework of intellectual and technical advances, the uniqueness of sports tourism could be claimed. It is the particular manner by which situations, milieux and activities are put together that sports tourism characteristically blossoms into paradigmatic and mor- phological features.

THE ANTECEDENTS – HISTORICAL STEPS

Introduction

In the earliest beginning, man and woman were an integral part of nature (Olivova, 1984: 11). During the primary stages of development, homo spent most of the time searching for food. To the human being, hands were of the utmost value and utility. With the acquisition and mastery of hand skills, food could be gathered more easily, game could be caught more readily. As the human being’s thinking processes developed, various kinds of footwear were designed, thus, making walking, jogging and running easier. With new patterns of movement, new habits of life evolved. And travel, in the form of shuttle from living centres to food circuits, was quite limited.

Roads

‘The first pathways to cross the countryside were created by animals pushing aside vegetation and pounding the earth with their feet’ (Lay, 1992: 5). By 10,000 BC, pathways were being used by human travellers in temperate zones (Lay, 1992: 7). Eventually, human travellers improved and co-ordinated these by-roads. Neverthe- less, in time, for transportation of oneself, of food and/or weapons, certain animals were specifically tamed and trained. The domestication of large animals probably occurred about 7,000 BC (Lay, 1992: 7). Some of the better known species useful for transport employment were cattle, donkeys, goats, horses, camels, elephants and reindeer (Lay, 1992: 19). Times changed; the invention and the manufacturing of the wheel eased consider- ably transport issues, human burdens and sufferings. Throughout the Middle East and Europe, wheeled vehicles were becoming common and popular (Lay, 1992: 28). As such, some stone-paved streets were constructed in Ur about 4,000 BC. And, approximately at the same time, corduroy roads appeared in England. India, on the Historical Perspectives of Sports Tourism 19 other hand, preceded all manufactured roads by brick paving in 3,000 BC (Lay, 1992: 45). Hence, on land surfaces, inventions ranging from drag cradles to wheeled carts, from horse-drawn chariots to covered wagons were gradually introduced (The Random House Encyclopedia, 1990: 1190–1).

Route Networking

The Romans, conscious of the advantages of a good road system, made remarkable achievements by constructing bridges, culverts, tunnels and passageways to their travel route network (Lay, 1992: 52–3). Roads contributed to people coming together collectively, thus, gaining freedom, strength, camaraderie and possibilities of mani- festing athletic abilities and skills. Roads also helped generate motivational explo- ration and permeation of values, ideals and philosophies (Lay, 1992: ch. 1) – not to mention conflicts and wars.

Watercraft

Rafts and raft-canoes were also built, leading to the construction of sea-going vessels – tall ships, paddle boats, river boats (Parry, 1974: 3–4). For water transportation, currents and prevailing winds were sought for easier and quicker navigation.

Self-propulsion

Winds, however, are fickle and, at times, difficult to harness. The development of steam power did have tremendous impact on travel (Wise et al. 1983: ch. 1). Constraints from animal power, oarsmanship and wind sails aided in the elaboration of travel schemes and fancies (Wise et al. 1983: ch. 1). Hence, the self-propelled engine potentials led to the horseless carriage (car), the steamboat and railway designs and appendages (Smith, 1980: 10–15). With further developments and inven- tions, motorcycles , cabs, buses and trains became common and quite inexpensive for the masses (The Random House Encyclopedia, 1990: 1691–2) – an asset for sports tourism.

Aircraft

Flying was attempted on many occasions – AD 852 in Spain, 1020 in Saxony, 1496 in Nuremburg, amongst others (Angelucci, 1995: 15). However, the method of propul- sion for ‘a flying machine’ was invented and perfected only in the nineteenth century (Angelucci, 1995: 16). Airfields, airports and amenities, both private and commercial, followed suit – facilitating visit travels to specific destinations, be they in urban milieux, rural fields, or in wilderness settings. Here, again, favouring the sports tourism phenomenon.

Personal Travel

‘Until the 19th century, most people rarely traveled more than a day’s walk from their home’ (Lay, 1992: 20). Nevertheless, royalty, dignitaries, knights, athletes, 20 Zauhar coaches, trainers and the like, managed to travel good distances on certain occasions, for entertaining purposes – be it for active participation in contests, or simply as spectators.

Human Emotions

Through various physical demonstrations, particularly dance and drama, human emotions were expressed often to the point of physical and mental exhaustion, bringing about tension relief, relaxation and bodily homeostasis. As such, groups of privileged individuals took active part in contests, enticing and competitive elements of sport. Often, specific groups favoured certain sporting activities, thus, directly fostering excitement and relief satisfaction to and for spectators. The more the demand for competition increased, the greater became the basis for arranging contests, tournaments and display of physical skills, strength and endurance. Competitive rituals extended to fights between animals, animals and men, and men versus men. Some of these manifestations were mock; some were phoney arrange- ments; others were true to form and realistic. On certain occasions, professionals were hired to fulfil the contest roles to please and help relax the onlookers.

Spectatorism

As time went on, not only did professionals become constants in and around festivals, but community members of all social ranks, particularly of the lower class, began to exhibit their own prowess and skills. As ceremonial rituals became more intricate and complex, spectatorship turned out to be more popular. The desire to become a privileged onlooker superseded the desire to be a participant. At the outset of ceremonial festivities, gods were considered to be the onlookers. Later, it was adjudicated that people could well play the observer role – as well as the participant function.

Festive Occurrences

As the status of society grew complex in nature and in form, clusters of cities began to appear. Festival occurrences were created to help funnel and drain aggressive behaviour of residents. Even those in the countryside flooded into unified city areas on festival days – be they religious, cultural, political or other. With regard to sites and contest facilities in the early stages of humanity, there exists a paucity of information and reference. However, certain coins, inscriptions and writings of ancient historians do help identify some athletic facilities (Kilby, 1974: 7). Furthermore, the rarity of references to spectators does not necessarily preclude an absence of onlookers (Guttmann, 1981: 6). In ancient civilizations, games by the nobility and upper classes were more likely to be recorded (Howell et al. 1975: 147). Above all, agreements on terminology often limited physical activity classification and comparative analysis (Howell et al. 1975: 147). Historical Perspectives of Sports Tourism 21

Facilities

Fragments of ancient murals and vase paintings depict open field sites where activities and ceremonial festivities took place (Olivova, 1984: 18). As the civilizing process evolved, rulers began to break free from their subordination to gods. Their powers increased. Labour became more specialized and urbanism gradually made men and women more dependent and interdependent (Elias, 1994: 1, 4, 463). As such, peoples’ ways of life changed, or better still, evolved. Huts, abodes and dwellings developed (Durant & Durant, 1954: 1); stables and covered halls were built; stadiums were constructed close to sacred sites and certain parks were stocked with game (Olivova, 1984: 17, 26, 32). In effect, recent excavations uncovered rectangular pools, amphithe- atres and hippodromes (Thompson, 1994: 21). Concomitant to the erection of facilities, the aspiration towards cleanliness became outstanding. Hence, washing practices in special bathing units and spas and the availability of clean beds were evidenced (Olivova, 1984: 25).

Practical Changes

Furthermore, different accomplishments manifested in and through the arts, various forms, fashions and designs in weaponry, equipment and attire appeared. As an example, kinetic elements were adapted from practical life (Olivova, 1984: 14). Changes from hunting garments to ceremonial dress and to coloured kilts were initiated (Olivova, 1984: 18). And, in the area of weapons, progression from throwing sticks and stones in slings to spears, lances and bows was also evidenced (Olivova, 1984: 24). Most importantly, however, through migration and nomadic lifestyles, the effect of each and all cultures remained imprinted and characterized, to some degree, in the annals of history (Woody, 1949: ch. 1).

Sports Beginnings

Sports, in the beginning, were to serve as religious cults and a means of preparing for life; thus forming an essential ingredient of humans’ existence. Early man (woman) needed to survive and gain victory over foreseen and unforeseen mysteries; hence, they played some forms of games and sports. Sports actually grew from the magical aspects of primitive faith and with the passing of time, the original purpose of playing games was forgotten and people engaged in sports for the sake of excitement, recreation, amusement and strength (Onifade, 1985: 33).

Publicity

Messages, in ancient times, were transmitted, not only by word-of-mouth, song and dance, but by fast runners (Lay, 1992: 32). These fleet-foot runners were subsequently replaced by travelling bards, horseback riders and pony express services. The construction of post-houses and lodging facilities assisted in communications – be it for battle victory, tournament/festival announcements or athletic achievements and hero worshipping. Furthermore, the invention and development of the printing press, the telegraph system and the telephone service helped mushroom the publicity aspects of life – and, 22 Zauhar in particular, sports activities and sports travel. The introduction of radio, television and satellite communication has revolutionized, to a great degree, the entertainment aspects of sports activities, skill appreciations and competitive awareness with a social meaning (Forst, 1972). As such, athletes, regardless of country origin, are better known, more respected and, increasingly, admired. Moreover, this mass media input has facilitated and accelerated information on athlete potentials, successes and failures – thus, providing a new basis for the meaning of sports and sport activity to and for the spectator (Forst, 1972: 35–9).

Participation Modes

James Mitchener, in his book, Sports in America (1976), contends that ‘much of the attractiveness of sport derives from the variety of experiences they offer’. According to this author, active sport participation could be categorized into several more or less distinctive groupings, such as: the vigorous participant; the moderate participant; the mild participant; and the therapeutic participant. Spectatorism, in all its dimensions and implications, could also be divided and distinguished along similar lines of basic sport participation interests, namely: the social participant; the business participant; the betting participant; the vigorous spectator; the moderate spectator; the mild spectator; and the therapeutic spectator. Evidently, precise definitions or circumvening factors are quite difficult to stan- dardize. Yet, each person or group, active or passive participants, could well justify their position, or the combination of positions, within the above-mentioned spectator categories.

Travel Distances

‘Tourism is a voluntary activity, with tourists seeking a variety of destinations and experiences’ (Murphy, 1983: 9). However, to be classified as a ‘tourist’, in today’s society, depends on the conceptual distinction and categorization of anyone’s govern- ment, agency or association (Murphy, 1983: 8). For instance, in some countries, a journey, excursion or trip of 8 km or more from one’s point of origin, is considered touristic. Some countries calculate the travel time – one hour, two hours, etc. Others, for statistical purposes, regard the number of day outings or weekends as their major differentiations. Still others emphasize the long distances strictly travelled from the home base (Mill & Morrison, 1985: xviii). Furthermore, all tourism involves travel; yet, not all travel is tourism.

Summation

For purposes of sports tourism, as it relates to historical perspectives, the perception process, technical advances and individual factors must always be envisaged and weighed. For instance, travel time has been and is based on the available modes of transportation. And attitudes to travel products are determined by benefits and attributes, as well as objects and services being offered (Mill & Morrison, 1985: 24, 25). Above all, ‘the perception of a particular distance is not a constant’ (Mill & Morrison, 1985: 20). Any specific travel distance is relative to various socio-economic Historical Perspectives of Sports Tourism 23 factors, personal propensities and abilities to travel, as well as the activity or activities to be undertaken (Mill & Morrison, 1985: 30). Thus, sports tourism, throughout the ancient and modern ages, should be viewed, analysed and judged in terms of all these facets and peculiarities.

CIVILIZATIONS – OLD AND LOST

Introduction

‘Throughout the Old Stone Age, humans were very much concerned with the everyday quest for food’ (The Reader’s Digest Association, 1974: 24). During this period, ice sheets retracted, forests renewed and humankind developed new methods of hunting the different animals sharing their environment – reindeer, mammoths, boars, etc. (Durant & Durant, 1954: 98). A variety of tools, weapons and clothing to protect the body against nature’s elements were created (Durant & Durant, 1954: 93). In essence, these handicrafts formed and remained a good part of human heritage. And, this was true for Europe, Africa, India, China and other countries until the Industrial Revolution (Durant & Durant, 1954: ch. VI).

Leisure Time

Stone Age man had more leisure time than any of his descendants (The Reader’s Digest Association, 1974: 24). He did not wander aimlessly; rather, he moved in an annual cycle developing a deep knowledge of his environment and territory. As hunting did not consume one’s entire existence, there was time for leisure and talk, for games and story-telling (The Reader’s Digest Association, 1974: 24). Groups moved and travelled in relation to other groups and food resources. And leadership recognized amongst such groupings would be ‘informal – based on a combination of age, strength, intelligence and success in hunting’ (The Reader’s Digest Association, 1974: 25).

Work life

The Neolithic culture during the New Stone Age period established another foun- dation of civilization (Durant & Durant, 1954: 99). They learned to herd animals and to grow crops. They made lasting vessels of baked clay. Thus, the transportation industry was created. People travelled over mountains; they journeyed over distant continents (Durant & Durant, 1954: 100–1). With the invention of ladders, pulleys and the wheel, building, as a commercial enterprise, crept into these peoples’ lifestyle. This gave way to larger communities supporting rulers and specialized craftsmen (The Reader’s Digest Association, 1974: 29). About 4,000 BC, metals began to be adapted by humans. The early metal workers developed techniques of fastening spearheads, arrowheads and dagger blades; and skilled craftsmen were on the move – to England, to Germany, to Czechoslovakia and other territories (The Reader’s Digest Association, 1974: 38). In this rough theatre of roaming people and conflicting cultures, and amongst all agricultural and commercial advances (Durant & Durant, 1954: 116), certain aspects 24 Zauhar favoured the development of sports tourism – the horse and wagon; the calendar; the clock; the ten pins; paper and ink; the alphabet and writing.

Sports Spectatorship

During the Sumerian period, wrestling became the first highly developed sport. ‘A cylinder seal of the middle of the third millennium BC depicts two pairs of naked wrestlers, while a relief carving of the same period shows a boxing match’ (Olivova 1984: 38). Furthermore, ‘in the context of military campaigns, swimming, using inflated animal skins, has been attested’ (Grun, 1991: 3). Also, in this time-period, lake-dwellings became popular in Middle Europe (Grun, 1991: 3). Reliable information as to the extent that spectators were present at Sumerian physical activities is quite meagre and scarce. People, in this period, for one reason or another, were chiefly interested in the performer–participant rather than in those who glorified physical skills or cheered them on (Guttmann, 1981: 1). However, women of the Minoan civilization (2000 to 1200 BC), living on the Island of Crete, held a position superior to men. A number of artefacts portray women occupying the best seats, while men are pictured crowded together (Howell & Howell, 1976: 9). On the other hand, Babylonians were traders as well as devoted travellers (The Reader’s Digest Association, 1974: 58). Their ships sailed the Euphrates to the Persian Gulf, principally to Arabia and India. Their caravan routes extended eastward and westward. Public and private celebrations provided adequate opportunities for hunt- ing and fishing. Skills in using the bow were perfected and men learned to ride horses – although chariots still remained quite fashionable (Olivova, 1984: 90).

Public Festivals

‘Unlike the leisure pastimes of kings and nobles, which were confined to a narrow circle, public festivals were open to all’ (Olivova, 1984: 35). Many celebrations were held at full moon and new moon occurrences. Some, such as the Spring Festival, extended from eight to twelve days and offered a lengthy programme (Olivova, 1984: 37). In effect, inscriptions dating back to 1,200 BC depict a mock fight between two teams (Olivova, 1984: 37). Duals and contests were organized to transmit certain fictional folklore and traditional stories and tales – attractions for spectators (Olivova, 1984: 38). Draught horses, expensive to buy and maintain, had mainly served for warfare. Nevertheless, some cavalry men, carriers, dispatchers and wealthy sportsmen used these animals for general riding (Casson, 1974: 52). Related to this sport, Kikkuli of Mitanni wrote the first treatise on horse breeding and training (Grun, 1991: 5).

Island Empires

Legends are quite current throughout history (Durant & Durant, 1954: 106) and many captions – be they relics or art forms – do relate to civilizations that have possibly and probably existed, such as Crete, Yucatan, Atlantis and Mu. Certain archaeological remains have been found depicting different aspects of the so-called ‘Island Empires’ (Durant & Durant, 1954: 108). Historical Perspectives of Sports Tourism 25

Island of Crete

Crete, for example, developed extensive trade, built the first palaces and reached an advanced cultural status by the year 2,000 BC (Olivova, 1984: 199). Women of Crete occupied a position of great importance and freedom. They not only made beautiful pottery but also drove chariots, engaged in bull-grapple’s art, went hunting and attended exhibitions and festivities (Olivova, 1984: 199). In the fresco ‘The Sacred Grove and Dance’, men are seen crowded together with indistinguishable features while women occupy the best seats and are clearly drawn. Of all sports, hunting appeared to be the most favourite and beloved (Olivova, 1984: 203). Hunters of the most dangerous animals were armoured like soldiers; and dogs, looking like greyhounds, were used in tracking birds, fowl and small animals. Nevertheless, various frescos on palace walls illustrate bull-baiting scenes: and apparently, there were many bull-grappling contests (Olivova, 1984: 105, 206). Some of these activities were scheduled in arenas; others were part of religious ceremonies. Often, performing acrobats participated in the programmes (Olivova, 1984: 208). Large crowds were thrilled by these spectacular exhibitions. In other fresco fragments, nude swimmers are pictured using the frog kick and breast stroke (Olivova, 1984: 213–4). Board games were also evidenced – most probably involving dice and stones and other moving pieces. Bull-leaping has also been depicted – teams of young men and women somersaulting over bull horns. This apparently was performed to display agility and demonstrate that the most dangerous beasts could be conquered (The Reader’s Digest Association, 1974: 90). Furthermore, sanitary arrangements held great prominence for Cretans. For col- ossal performances in riding and hunting, these people created hostels with footbaths, living quarters equipped with bathrooms, and sheds for chariots to accommodate participants and followers (The Reader’s Digest Association, 1974: 92).

Spectatorism

During the Cretan–Minoan period, onlookers played an important and vital role amongst all social classes. Performances were public, open to men and women and, without question, enjoyed great popularity (The Reader’s Digest Association, 1974: 69). Wrestling was fashionable but boxing was most revered (The Reader’s Digest Association, 1974: 73). Minoan art shows grandstands, terraces and windows for spectator purposes (The Reader’s Digest Association, 1974: 68). In effect, ‘a fragment of Knosses well portrays over three hundred and fifty people…, with considerable realism, gesticulating and talking animatedly as though commenting on the perform- ance (The Reader’s Digest Association, 1974: 69). Apparently, public festivals were a striking feature of this culture (The Reader’s Digest Association, 1974: 95).

Lands of Mu and Maya

On the Island of Mu, on cool evenings, pleasure ships were reportedly seen (The Reader’s Digest Association, 1974: 38). And, in different Mayan illustrations and photos of wall paintings, frescos and reliefs, six ball courts depicting ball players and three-level spectator galleries could be detected (Brunhouse, 1973: 38). Apparently, these splendid ball court illustrations of Toltec Chichen were the largest and finest of T-shape playing fields (Coe, 1968: 125, 147). It is assumed that games were played 26 Zauhar here with spectators of all social classes and from different areas (Andrews, 1973: 38, 39, 116). The deep cave, Nag Tunich, discovered in 1979, also has wall descriptions of ball players. Another fresco wall painting fragment (Tikal) distinctly outlines a Mayan dancing scene (Morley & Brainerd, 1983).

The Incas

The Incas had ritual games between community societies (Kendall, 1973: 151–2). Athletic contests were seemingly held each year. People would travel from one community to another for these festivals – which usually included foot races, mock battles and dancing as an integral part (Campi, Huag-yaya, Taqui) (Kendall, 1973: 51, 151–2). In addition, team games were organized for boys from different com- munity societies (Kendall, 1973: 151–2). Royal hunts, on the other hand, apparently included thousands of participants (Kendall, 1973: 151–2).

Atlantis

The legend of Atlantis appears first in one of Plato’s dialogues (Timeeus) (Bjorkman, 1927: 3). Critias also described this continent (Bjorkman, 1927: 30). And, Ammiamus Marcellinus (AD 330–395) considered Atlantis to be a historical fact (Zoltan, 1984: 33). In the last 150 years, about 5,000 books and pamphlets have been published in the world’s leading languages on Atlantis (Zoltan, 1984: 32). Historians agree that on one of the seven islands, there was a space reserved for a race course with a stadium for contests (Zoltan, 1984: 37, 38). Assumingly, athletes and spectators congregated from the different islands. Furthermore, the main city was noted for its supply of cold and hot springs – to say the least, copious with natural flavours (Zoltan, 1984: 37). Here, again, as Atlantis was considered to be the centre of a mighty empire (Bjorkman, 1927: 7), visitation trips from different areas and islands could be assumed.

Summation

Civilizations, regardless of origin, historical evolution, or presumed disappearance, within their structural governance tended to have some types of festivities and celebrations that included athletic competitions, with local and visiting participants and spectators. Some records also show specific facilities for these purposes, Sport entertainment and amusement were undoubtedly a part of everyday life – regardless of daily chores and regular social and political obligations.

EGYPT : KINGDOM OF THE PHARAOHS

Introduction

Historians usually classify the Egyptian civilization into four principal eras, ranging from the 27–23rd century BC to the 7–6th century (Olivova 1984: 41). During this time period, waves of migratory peoples from different countries and territories, particu- larly from Africa and Asia, settled along the Nile’s edge and valley. Some of the transients were nomads; others were invaders. After a certain time, the Egyptians Historical Perspectives of Sports Tourism 27 took full control. In fact, they succeeded in crystallizing a culture, thus, leaving an indelible spiritual and physical mark in the annals of history (Olivova, 1984: 31). ‘Throughout the evolution of ancient Egypt, man achieved the greatest measure of enjoyment’ (Olivova, 1984: 43). Bliss was to be found by the rich as well as the poor, in everything that brought pleasure and delight: beautiful objects, flowers, food and drink. Relaxation and ecstasy were the motto of the era (Olivova, 1984: 44); and particular attention was given to the naked body with exaggerated use of baths, perfumes and cosmetics (Olivova, 1984: 44).

Spectatorship

People enjoyed watching performances in which strength and dexterity were mani- fested. Ball games, hunting, fishing and fowling were popular attractions (Olivova, 1984: 44). The Egyptians likewise enjoyed wrestling contests, boxing matches and bullfights (Durant & Durant, 1954: 168). Illustrations of tug-of-war between two teams also exist. Watching other people at play was a popular form of entertainment (Olivova, 1984: 44). In fact, the king, for scheduled ‘moments of bliss’, would name and promote performers to be directors of events, managers of court activities and producers of royal festivities – an honour in and by itself. Ancient murals have been discovered depicting a good number of wrestlers, ranging from 59 couples to 209 pairs (Olivova, 1984: 48). Various stages and styles of wrestling are also sketched. Relics dating from 1190–1160 BC show spectators eagerly watching contests of wrestling and fencing with sticks (Carroll et al. 1988: 121–2); on one particular frieze, grandstands are shown with ten pairs of wrestlers in the ring (Olivova, 1984: 59). Some of the ‘most interesting scenes illustrate Egyptians fighting with foreigners’ (Carroll et al. 1988: 121). In addition, there is evidence that water sports were popular, particularly swim- ming. Boats were a common means of transportation. In effect, boat yards were to be found in various points; and, the existence of professional rowers armed with long poles trying to capsize vessels is implied (Olivova, 1984: 49–50). As such, this form of sport and a possibility of boat races cannot be excluded (Olivova, 1984: 49). In general, the Divine Pharaohs delighted themselves in many forms of sporting activity: horse riding, hunting and fishing, often under the eyes of spectators, especially female onlookers (Olivova, 1984: 50). They particularly enjoyed fishing in artificial ponds in the royal gardens and they derived great pleasure performing for an audience (Olivova, 1984: 50–1). Festival programmes in Egyptian times were connected to the different phases of the vegetation cycle and the start of summer floods (Olivova, 1984: 52). The general public took an active part in all festival processions and celebrations. Above all, the kings, most often, were the chief performers – demonstrating their physical prowess (Olivova, 1984: 55) A picture on a ‘tomb wall shows King Akenaton seated on his throne awaiting tribute from Nubia’, also depicting a celebration of activities including sports competitions (Carroll et al. 1988: 123). Usually, these contests took place in front of the Pharaoh, his court, nobles, soldiers and ambassadors from foreign countries (Carroll et al. 1988: 123). Although there is assertion that ‘women enjoyed equal rights with men throughout Egyptian history’, wall paintings and sketches mostly depict male athletes (Guttmann, 1981: 9). The female role was usually considered supportive. Neverthe- less, there are literary texts in which women are found fowling; and artefacts do 28 Zauhar testify that Egyptian women swam, participated in aquatic games and races and played ball (Guttmann, 1981: 10). Moreover, from about 1,500 BC onward, signs of tourism – travel for simple curiosity or pleasure – were quite discernible (Casson, 1974: 32).

Dancing

Dancing played an important role in the Egyptian civilization – with great promi- nence and significance (Woody, 1949: 69). However, dancing generally appeared to be improper for the upper classes; indulgence in dancing was quite universal amongst the common folks (Woody, 1949: 69). Egyptian ladies, nevertheless, took great delight in the performance of professional dancers. To participate in ceremonial dances was very acceptable for royalty and dignitaries (Woody, 1949: 70–1). Furthermore, provision of dancers in private homes as a means of entertainment was favoured and fashionable (Woody, 1949: 71). Dancing ‘made use of rapid, even violent movements, embodying feats of acrobatic prowess’ (Woody, 1949: 71). And, travelling professional dancers did sign contracts – some for up to six days of festivities (Woody, 1949: 71).

Highlights

The following enumerations further bear out the extent to which sports tourism aspects were ingrained in the Egyptian culture.

• In the Tombs of Beni Hassam, an array of athletic sports and games are clearly depicted, including 300 wrestling groups (Gardiner, 1970: 9). • Athletic Games are well described in the Iliad, with athletic rewards (Gardiner, 1970: 50). • Athletic poetry arose in the sixth century BC – hymns were written to celebrate victors (Gardiner, 1970: 106). • Royal Records of Archery identify Tothmosis III hunting 130 elephants and 120 bulls in an hour. Amenophis II, on the other hand, killed 102 lions in the first ten years of his reign – all in the presence of spectators (Decker, 1992: 58). • There are portrayals of wrestling events taking place before an audience – balcony of Rameses III (Decker, 1992: 205). • Carved scenes exist of fencing and wrestling made up of Egyptian and different foreign opponents – Negroes, Libyans, Syrians. Spectators pictured are foreign ambassadors, princes and aristocracy of Egypt (Decker, 1992: 79). • Sphinx Stela refers to spectators, whether to oarsmen or a public assembly on the river bank is unclear (Decker, 1992: 96). • Pictorial evidence – jousting relic of riverboat sport – very popular amongst spectators (Decker, 1992: 103). • Wrestlers and spectators depicted on an ostracon – pottery fragment (Egyptian Museum in Cairo) (Habashi, 1992: 78–9). • Relics of wrestling match with referee and onlookers (Egyptian Museum in Berlin) (Habashi, 1992: 89–91). • 2250–2035 BC – Tombs of Meir have sporting boats, yachts and canoes. Some travelling boats of 30–40 feet were used for recreational and pleasure trips (Habashi, 1992: 63–4). Historical Perspectives of Sports Tourism 29

• On the walls of Old Kingdoms, athletic events, dancers, acrobats and gymnasts are clearly portrayed (Habashi, 1992: 39). • Throughout Egyptian literature, boating for recreation and relaxation is mentioned and described (Habashi, 1992: 17, 39). • On Tombs of 5th Dynasty, small feloccas (sail boats), used for outings on rivers and entertainment purposes, are pictured (Metropolitan Museum of Art) (Habashi, 1992: 37–8). • Festival celebrations in Egypt include acrobats, dancers, tumblers and gymnasts (Habashi, 1992: 23). • The First Olympic Games 776 BC (possibly existing since 1350 BC) featured horse racing, wrestling, boxing, running and the Pentathlon. Onlookers were all men; women were not admitted as spectators (Grun, 1991: 7).

Summation

Sports tourism definitely did find home ground during this Egyptian era. In effect, certain authors and historians have suggested that the ‘sporting tradition’ can be attested to the Kingdom of the Pharaohs (Habashi 1992: 24). A variety of sporting activities took place involving spectatorism; and, royalty also seemed very interested in the promotion of and participation in such activities. Furthermore, sports travel did take place; and sporting diversion played an important role.

GREECE: THE FOUNDATIONS

Introduction

From 800–30 BC, ‘the Greek conception of the importance of the individual was unique’ (The Reader’s Digest Association, 1974: 95). ‘Although they subscribed to slavery, Ancient Greeks underlined dignity and rights of the human being’ (The Reader’s Digest Association, 1974: 95). They affirmed and emphasized ‘courage, honour, love and enjoyment of the beauty of the physical world’ (The Reader’s Digest Association, 1974: 95). Throughout the history of Greece, people lived in separate communities called city states. The majority of these states were found along the coasts. Although differenti- ated from one another, these city states were built in a uniform standardized fashion (The Reader’s Digest Association, 1974: 96). They never amalgamated nor united to constitute larger urban or rural entities. However, they were constantly engaged in bickering, struggles and wars. Yet, these contentious conflicts never stopped the Olympic or festive competitions (Casson, 1974: 77).

Sporting Events

At times, there were 140 cities in Greece holding athletic events. Amongst the most famous were: the Panathenaca ; the Heraclea (Marathon); the Kynosarges (Athens); the Elensinia; the Oschophoria; the Thesia; the Epitaestia; the Apaturia; the Promethea; the Ephaestia; the Dionysia; the Monychia; the Aiantea; the Olympia; the Bendidea; the Disorteria (Durant, 1939: 199–200; Howell & Howell, 1976: 5; Olivova, 1984: 12–53). 30 Zauhar

Tendencies

Various factors contributed to the indulgence of Greeks in sporting events and physical activity. Amongst the most prominent were geography, climate, social appreciation and political drive. In essence, the propensity to strive linked men to gods. Their obsession with victory, especially in athletic ventures, was a distinguish- able and discernible feature (Poliakoff, 1987: 2).

Significance

Greeks valued recognition. They idolized danger and pain. Much of their daily life was spent in physical revelry. Their motto, in sum, was ‘live to fight and fight to live’. They admired speed in running, skill in wrestling, bodily strength, physical beauty, eloquence and form (Durant & Durant, 1954: 231–3). The Greeks covered their victors with various gifts: oils, iron, silver, gold and money. The value of prizes varied with contests. The first prize usually represented five times the value of the second prize. Athens was the most rewarding of athletic prowess and fortitude (Durant & Durant, 1954: 239–45).

Spectatorship

Amongst the forty festivals listed, participatory citizens came from all parts of Greece, even beyond the borders of the country (Woody, 1949: 339). Most of these festivities included athletic contests in veneration of certain gods, such as Prometheus, Hermes and the maid Palaistra. In fact, beneficial consequences to sports tourism were noteworthy.

Activities

Athletic programmes did vary from contest to contest. For instance, the Ancient Olympics comprised the running of races, long jumps, discus and javelin, wrestling, boxing, bare-knuckle boxing, chariot racing and horse racing (Casson, 1974: 78). Some festivals featured stud races, gymnastics, double races, pancraton, hoplomachy and races in heavy armour. An ephebic relief depicts ships and oarsmen competing. In fact, different tribes, each representing a ship, are portrayed in a regatta setting (Olivova, 1984: 130, 352).

Participation

Torch races were held after dark on moonlit evenings. Teams of young men representing different districts competed in relay style. Equestrian events were usually associated with nobility and wealth. In Panathensian festivals, equestrian contests were very popular. Participants came from different city states as well as from abroad. Even foreign women entered the races (Guttmann, 1981: 347; Olivova, 1984: 129). Historical Perspectives of Sports Tourism 31

Duration

Games and festivals were ordinarily scheduled from three to seven days. Some were featured in the month of April; others, in November. Some were programmed every other year – alternating between summer and winter – such as the Nomian and the Isthmian Games. At times, contests and competitions were arranged by age cate- gories. Some Greek inscriptions record up to nine rounds of competition (Durant & Durant, 1954: 343; Poliakoff, 1987: 2).

Individuality

It must be noted that athletes usually competed for themselves – as individuals and not for their city state. The focus was on the individual within a wide and democratic distribution of contests. As there was a plethora of extravagant prizes, many athletic performers settled throughout Greece, participating in numerous competitions. As an example, some wrestlers participated in 31 major championships. And, on occasions, no contest victories were recorded (Forbes, 1978: 2–3) – another example of the sports tourism phenomenon.

The Odyssey

Homer, in the Odyssey, makes mention of crowds – thousands of people following running, wrestling and discus events. He describes, in dramatic fashion, incidences where emotions have swayed the spectators; particularly greedy entertainers anxious to win and eager to reap the highest rewards. There is also mention of onlookers gasping in amusement or responding boisterously and raising raucous (Olivova, 1984: 85–7; Miller, 1992: 14–15).

Athletic Facilities

In the hippodrome, horses paraded before crowds of spectators, delighting the fans. During the Panathensian festivals, special varied programmes were offered to foreign visitors particularly during the second century BC. Along other festivities, there were endless formal and informal entertaining activities such as gambling, tavern hopping and dancing girls. The aim was to give onlookers something to do during their stay. The Marathonian Games drew vast numbers of spectators from abroad. The big event programme included gymnastics, chariot racing, horse races and wrestling – establishing a precedent leading to a long-term tradition (Casson, 1974: 91; Guttmann, 1981: 346–7).

Athletic Careers

At the outset of the Greek civilization, sports prepared citizens for soldiering. Athletes were associated with military events; and it was considered that painful trials and contests raised men to higher virtue. In time, amateur athletes diminished in number and professional performers took over. In essence, professionalism led to event specialization for the sake of winning. Athletics became a career (Woody, 1949: 339, 352–5). 32 Zauhar

As such, physical fitness amongst the citizenry was no longer a viable goal. Consequently, hero worshipping was re-directed. Attention shifted to the pro- fessional rather than to the useful social end. Athletes began to hire trainers and coaches; and the rise of idle passive onlookers was gradually evidenced. More time and interest were devoted to observing contests. Celebrations became forms of rest, recreation and a manifestation of patriotism. Women were, to a large degree, excluded from certain games, not only as participants, but also as mere spectators (Durant & Durant, 1954: 340; Guttmann, 1981: 18).

Archaeological Finds

As Greek sports were not standardized, their stadia differed in length and/or in width. For races, even starting blocks varied. A dig, conducted by archaeologists at Nemea, uncovered bedrock seating at one end. Furthermore, foot markers, posi- tioned at different distances, indicate good sight angles for spectator vision. During Olympic Games, spectators could walk the grounds before and after events. Mention is also made of spectators spending entire days crammed into benches (Forbes, 1978: 5; Kyle, 1990: 292). The hippodrome apparently had one side longer than the other. The longer side was a bank of earth; the shorter end was a low hill. Occasionally, the Olympic stadium was reserved for women, mostly for foot races. However, to accommodate the maidens of the area, course runs were shortened (Olivova, 1984: 23; Miller, 1992: 56–7).

Tourist Specialized Services

To attract tourists, particularly from other parts of the Greek territory and beyond, certain services were required. At the outset, travel by land was strenuous. Roads offered little in terms of amenities. People were obliged to travel in groups with plenty of slaves – for both safety and baggage conveyance. Groups of city states came together for many festivals, particularly the Olympic, Pythian, Isthmian and the Nimian Games. These games polarized tourists. At any one time, there was a large block of travellers. They hung around to attend the religious festivals. They wanted to be part of the great events. Some came days prior to the scheduled activities; others lingered on after the closing ceremonies. As such, inciden- tal attractions were organized to entertain and distract these people. Many visitors had ample time to arrive early and enjoy the atmosphere of excitement before returning home. In historical recordings, there is mention of tens of thousands of visitors; and this does not account for ‘active’ participants. Hence, vendors of essential and non-essential services: food, drink, souvenirs, guided tours, transporta- tion and the like, became omnipresent (Casson, 1974: 21, 66, 67, 73, 76–8). For visitor lodging, two-storey inns were constructed, with twenty rooms, each being 15 feet square. Special Oracles catered to government officials, statesmen, generals, notables, etc. Those seeking friendship and sociability sought private hospitality; others only searched for night shelter. In time, an abundance of inns offering rest and life necessities were established along different roadways for the comfort of travellers. Some had sufficient amenities; others simply offered sleeping quarters. Nevertheless, this hospitality trend diminished the risks and perils of travel Historical Perspectives of Sports Tourism 33 to some degree (Casson, 1974: 78–82). Such improvements assisted in the promotion and promulgation of sports tourism.

Admission Charges

Generally speaking, there is evidence that admission fees were charged for a good number of Greek contests and competitions. For the Athenian citizens, who could not afford to pay these fees, the government, through a special state fund, paid the necessary amounts. Theophoradus, on the other hand, gives examples of men who bought benches full of seats for out-of-town friends–agesture of spectatoritis and luxuriation in sporting activities (Casson, 1974: 82).

Dancing

Although, in Athens, dancing was considered as a part of schoolwork for selected groups, particularly boys, dancing became important if they were to be chosen by agents of the ten tribes for public festivals (Woody, 1949: 309). During the Greek transition era, professional dancers came from abroad; and, likewise, Greeks went far and wide (Woody, 1949: 309) – in the sense of mutual influence and touristic endeavours. Furthermore, professional dance companies provided attraction and entertainment at many Athenian festivals – particularly in the performance of war dances (Olivova 1984: 130). A relief on a sarcophagus, Chiusi, portrays women dancing (sixth century BC) (Olivova, 1984: 156). In addition, walls of tombs, relief carvings and vases depict dancing as an element of Greek society (Olivova, 1984: 156). Will Durant, in his book The Life of Greece, stipulates that dance in this era was an artistic exercise; it varied in form; it differed in style. There were religious dances, marital dances, folk dances and athletic dances (Durant, 1939: 229). In effect, there were dances for every major event of life and every season or festival. Above all, ‘there were dance contests usually involving choral song’ (Durant, 1939: 229). A painting from Knossos depicts a group of aristocratic ladies surrounded by their gallants watching a dance (Durant, 1939: 231).

Treasures

Museums world-wide have archaeological materials and artefacts that relate to Greek sport. To name but a few: National Museum (Copenhagen); Archeological Museum (Ferrara); Capitoline Museum (Rome); Rijlssmuseum Van Oudheden (Leyden); An- tikensamm Lungen Museum (Munich); Metropolitan Museum (New York); British Museum (London); Le Louvre (Paris); Acropolis Museum (Athens); Delphi Museum (Delphi); The Olympia Museum (Athens) (Harris, 1972: 44–203). Amongst the art and objects of Antiquity, evidence has been found relating to athletic events, horse racing, game of hockey in progress, weight lifters, boxers, wrestlers, pancraton bout, pole vaulting on horse, field events and torch parades (Harris, 1972: 44–203). Monuments were also set up to victors in their home towns. Some inscriptions are visible at the site of Cedreae in south-western Turkey. Other existing artefacts are: a bronze statue by the sculptor Lysippus (around 310 BC); a bronze statue of a young 34 Zauhar wrestler (300 BC); a bronze statue of a professional boxer resting, by Athenian sculptor Apollonius from the first century BC (Harris, 1972: 44–203). There are also the on-site ruins: the stadium where 7,000 spectators watched games ; the gymnasium thought to be the oldest hotel in the world to house spectators (DeLand, 1989: 160–1). For certain sports tourism enthusiasts, ancient and modern, these treasures reflect a vast spectrum of human history – influencing thoughts, concepts of sports and man’s and woman’s manifestation of leisure interests (Olivova, 1984: 8–19).

Summation

Greeks devoted much time to the preparation of their Games. They dispatched messengers or runners well in advance to announce the exact dates of the festivities. These messengers would invite various city states to participate, actively or passively, even to the point of assuring peace and security in their projected travels. Games were also of great economic significance – housing, special services, souvenirs and gifts bought by delegates and visitors. There was also development of facilities: swimming baths, steam baths, halls for massages, semi-circular auditoria, gymnasia, promenade colonnades, etc. Particular esteem was accorded to the victors of game events. All basked in glory, popularity and hero worship. Professional athletes as well as spectators from differ- ent areas and countries moved from city to city and festival to festival–asport touristic phenomenon.

GREECE: THE CHARACTERISTIC PURSUITS

Introduction

The historical perspectives of Greece can be divided into four distinct phases –the Arcade Period (800–500 BC), the Classical Period (500–323 BC), the Hellenistic Period (323–146 BC), the Roman Period (146 BC–AD 400) (Dunning et al. 1993: 24).

The Arcade Era

During the Arcade Period, sport competitors had to train for ten months prior to any scheduled contest or festive physical activity (Hays, 1983: 12). The last month of training was to be spent near Olympia. Athletic contests gradually became organized; programmes became standardized and games became more plentiful (Hays, 1983: 12). The roles of the athlete and the spectator were defined little by little. Contests and competitions mirrored these changes. Festivals became entertainment shows giving great pleasure to local and travelling spectators (Olivova, 1984: 84). Table 2 provides a chronology of certain events and activities to illustrate the advances in sport tourism.

The Classical Era

The second phase, the Classical Period, saw Athens develop into a tourist attraction centre as new buildings and facilities were constructed around the Acropolis (Casson, 1974: 88). Travellers called for more inns along the major roads – in most ports, Historical Perspectives of Sports Tourism 35

Table 2 Chronology of events illustrating the advances in sport tourism in the Arcade era

Date (BC) Event Source

800 Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey describes racing Howell (1975: 1) competitions with onlookers waiting for chariots to appear 776 First recorded Games with one event – the Stade. Howell (1975: 1) An apple was given to the victor 700 Pentathlon and wrestling were introduced to the Howell (1975: 1) Olympic programme. Spectators were present 700 Heracon Games were held in Olympia. Nausican and her friends played informal ball games. Spectators were prevalent 688Boxing was introduced. Non-nobles became very Howell (1975: 1) interested in the sport. Certain families specialized in this particular activity. Pugilism was added to the Olympic competitions – again, to the delight of many onlookers 680 Chariot racing was introduced pleasing the Howell (1975: 1) spectator audience 648 Penkratenian and horse racing were featured, Howell (1975: 1) attracting a good number of spectators 600 Long distance races were initiated – 130 miles in Woody (1949: 348) two days. Later, in 400BC,arace distance of 136 miles was run in one day. People along the routes gazed at the gruelling runners 600 Panathenian Games were instituted. 338 gymnastic Durant & Durant contests took place in the stadium. Competitors (1954: 344) came from different parts of the country 566 The Athenian Olympics were established by Howell (1975: 1) Pisistratias, drawing throngs of people 468 An 18-event programme was introduced and Howell (1975: 1) standardized, offering athletes and spectators more uniform presentations 408 Greece standardized all festival activities where Casson (1974: 85) public attendance was always a normal component of everyday life

towns and cities. The bulk of travellers consisted of men on business, the curious and visitors to different festivals (Dunning et al. 1993: 20). Every city took steps to promote itself by building a stadium (Dunning et al. 1993: 26). All of them inaugurated athletic meetings, contests and competitions, drawing a good number of skilled participants and interested spectators. Even Alexander the Great built a court for ball play, called the Sphairisterian (Dunning et al. 1993: 20–6). In essence, private sport facilities became a status symbol, a sign of social e´litism (Miller, 1992: 53, 72, 79). In 430 BC, Herodotus declared that any Greek could compete in Games regardless of social status and place of residency. Nevertheless, Olympic Games were always preceded by a declaration of truce. Excluded from the Games was any athlete to whom the city state in question could not afford safe conduct. Between 400 and 350 BC, Athenians mostly competed as private citizens. Some, however, preferred to identify themselves as members of a tribe’s team. At the 103rd Olympiad, in 368 BC, the Eleans had twelve tribes and one Heilanodike was chosen from each for athletic 36 Zauhar competitive purposes. Festivals were beloved and admired particularly by the men- folk. The motto always was that one who excels in everything is fit for the Pentathlon. And, Olympic victory was to be gained by fleetness of foot and strength of body. Thus, Greeks felt superior to other peoples because of their unique interest in athletics and mastery of athletic skills. Furthermore, all competitors, relatives and trainers, regardless of their city state residency, had to swear an oath to observe all rules and regulations. Vases and paintings depict the flourishing of festivals during this Classical Period. The activities portrayed in these art objects are running, tumbling, juggling and chariot racing – some with women victors. Hero worshipping by spectators and followers was quite remarkable and memora- ble. For instance, at Acragas in Sicily, 412 BC,areturning victor from the Games was accompanied to his native city by 300 chariots drawn by white horses–asports tourism manifestation. And, at Oreste’s chariot accident, a wail of pity rose from the crowd in attendance. Around the fourth century BC,acertain philanthropist paid for the erection of a hostelry near the site of the Olympic Games, measuring 242 feet by 262 feet. This two-storey high building had rooms and spacious patios for festival tourists. The well-to-do ordinarily arrived with tents and the necessary gear. For those tourists with little household equipment or clothing, local authorities provided temporary shelters. Still others slept under available covers, porches, gallerias, front-side arcades and on open ground (Miller, 1992: 39–40).

The Hellenistic Era

During the Hellenistic Period, certain Greek cities could no longer rule themselves. Some, to maintain control, sought prestige through force; others favoured a more crafty approach. Power struggles emerged and upheavals resulted. Rome was gradu- ally taking over in governance. Consequently, certain freedoms were increased; particular restrictions were diminished or eliminated. For instance, girls could now attend schools; women could become physicians, writers, artists and so on. More- over, child bearing was no longer prominent nor important (Woody, 1949: 355; Dunning et al. 1993: 26). Furthermore, literature suggests, to some degree, an increase in sport-like activity by women – particularly amongst the noble class. ‘During the 2nd century BC, several women are listed as winners of chariot races’ (Spier, 1973). Still others appear to have owned colts and won races at Olympia. Lykourgos, in the same token (175 BC), initiated contests for women in foot racing and strength (Dunning et al. 1993: 26). During this period, gymnasia became a complex of buildings within cities. ‘Cov- ered running tracks were built as long as 200 meters where various kinds of races were practiced’ (Miller, 1992: 55). Special areas were also constructed for swimming purposes – hip-baths, massages and relaxation. Spectator rest rooms were also constructed, where onlookers could watch festival events, observe active gymnastics, hold lectures and pursue discussions. In essence, sport activity and trainership were being taken over by all strata of the Hellenistic society. Physical education became a new social function – the philosophical approach aimed specifically at the young. Athletics were no longer the prerogative or occupation of the professional or activity specialist (Casson, 1974: 90–1). Historical Perspectives of Sports Tourism 37

Nevertheless, as through the years professional athletes were worshipped and adorned, they now formed their own organization ‘to protect and further their interests’ (Woody, 1949: 280) – not wishing to lose spectator allurement. Further- more, e´lite victors at the Panthellenic Games established their own association in the late first century BC – with similar objectives. Different games were initiated during this Hellenistic era – comparable to the Olympic Games – in particular, the Isolympia. Often, victors of these games were highly rewarded. Some received money, some were named to high office. For others, monuments were built in their hometowns – becoming sightseeing attractions. These Isolympia Games lured many spectators – Greeks as well as non- Greeks. Spectatoritis was still the traditional form of entertainment, even though physical training was being emphasized throughout the Hellenistic world (Spier, 1993). In 216 BC, ‘when Aristonikos arrived in Greece, and was set up at the Olympic Games against Kleitomachos, the crowd came to be on Aristonikos side and cheered him, happy that someone had dared, even for a little, to stand up against Kleitonikos’ (Miller, 1992: 191). There was applause; there were shouts of encouragement. However, there are examples of spectator crowds supporting the losers – the underdog, particularly in gymnastics, whenever unbearable opponents were in ques- tion (Olivova, 1984: 149). Although, during these times, travel still had its risks, there existed an abundance of inns offering rest and necessities of life to tourists. People – participants as well as spectators – continued to journey in groups and with slaves. Also, at the end of this Hellenistic era, the Jews of Palestine were reported travelling to watch Greek sports and competitions (Olivova, 1984: 149).

The Roman Era

In 146 BC, the Romans destroyed Corinth and Greece became part of the Roman Empire. The Romans attempted to bring the Olympic Games to an end by transfer- ring the entire organizational set-up to Rome. These Games, nevertheless, were gradually losing their importance and significance. The Greeks no longer saw or felt the value and merit of athletic events. These Games were simply becoming local run-offs – a decline in sports tourism. This loss of interest was also felt in all other Panhellenic festivities and games. Yet, other countries, such as Egypt, tried to carry on the traditions of Greek athleticism and training (Olivova, 1984: 153). Accounts by Plutarch confirmed races for girls and women during this period. Specific details also describe travellers in Greece – towns, places of interest and athletic festivals. In addition, Pausanias portrays in reasonable detail women’s races, different heats and victors of chariot races (Olivova, 1984: 150) – at which spectators were present. In the second century AD, there is evidence that the Hippodrome seated between 70,000 and 100,000 spectators. Rectangular in shape, this facility housed a five-step tier accommodating 2,000 onlookers (Olivova, 1984: 303) – an interesting feature for the comfort of sport tourists. Homer and other writers account festivities differenti- ating little between participants and spectators (Miller, 1992: 90). Some indications are that emphasis, during this Roman occupation, was being placed on the spectator, as well as on politicians for games sponsorship. In effect, the Roman stadium had a 38 Zauhar special section on an earth incline reserved for sponsors of contests and competitions (Miller, 1992: 89–90).

Sparta

People in Sparta spoke Greek. By the eighth century BC, the city state of Sparta began pursuing combatively into surrounding territories (Simri, 1974: 8). Its population, at this point, was composed of 250, 000 people, of which, approximately 9, 000 were Spartans (Olivova, 1984: 155). Its power, pride and prestige were, above all, in its army. ‘Sparta occupied one of the richest and most fickle sites in Greece’ (Kyle, 1990: 7). It had better climate , better food and more luxury than any other city state. The Spartan state consisted of four suburbs (Kilby, 1974: 71). Sparta had a brilliant culture, freedom, democracy and a cult of the individual. In essence, Sparta was the antithesis of Athens (Hays, 1983: 12). The principal aim of Spartan education was to create obedient, courageous and conscientious soldiers – and citizens. This focused training began at a very early age, primarily amongst healthy and strong youth (Miller, 1992: 100). The Olympic Games provided an excellent occasion and opportunity for Spartans to exhibit their learned skills, particularly in gymnastic events. In effect, from 720 BC – the first recorded Spartan victory – to 576 BC, the Spartan athletes dominated the Games. Spartans also enjoyed other types of festivals displaying their abilities and prowess in activities such as the Platainistas, wrestling and swimming. The latter two were quite popular amongst women (Van Dalen & Bennett, 1973: 47; Chronicle of the World, 1989: 83). One of the most conspicuous aspect of Spartan life was their ‘love of play’. This penchant was manifested in their participation in athletic festivals throughout Greece. In fact, within their own territory, there existed more or less 13 local festivals – some of religious orientation, some mirroring athletic abilities (Fitzhardinge, 1980: 10). These festivals were a remarkable institution. They brought together athletes and spectators from all corners of Greece. Moreover, visitors from all over the world flocked to see the different athletic competitions – lasting from one to seven days (Fitzhardinge, 1980: 10–14). Such gatherings were favourable and advantageous to the sports tourism movement. There were the Hyacinthia Games, the PanHellenic Games, the Gymnopedia Festivals, the Carmen Festivals and the National Festivals. Some events were organized for young boys; some targeted young males; some focused on older men. Still others included both male and female athletes (Fitzhardinge, 1980: 9). As mentioned , Sparta dominated many contests : chariot races, horse races, foot races and grape races. For instance, ‘from 776 to 680 BC., the Spartans were responsible for thirty-three victories out of sixty-six’ (Van Dalen & Bennett, 1973: 47). Other literary records show ‘Spartans winning forty-two of seventy-four events between 720 and 480 BC’ (Dunning et al. 1993: 24). Furthermore, at the end of the sixth century BC to 392 BC, nine victories in horse and horse-drawn chariot races were registered (Thompson, 1972: 27–39). A list of winners of the foot races at the Olympic Games, from its early beginnings, was drawn up in the fifth century BC by Hippes of Elis (Thompson, 1972: 59). Records also show that in 368 BC, Kyniska owned horses and won two horse chariot competitions (Chronicle of the World, 1989: 86). Historical Perspectives of Sports Tourism 39

The best preserved attestation to Spartan athletic superiority is the ‘inscription which one Damonon dedicated to Athena Keeper of the City of Commorate the series of victories won by him and his sons at festivals – up and down Laconia, nearby Augolin and Messenic’ (Thompson, 1972: 60). All these athletic successes and triumphs demonstrate necessary travel and sport tourism activity. Nevertheless, some Spartans did question the athletic dominance and festival sport ritual expectancy. In the poem Tyrtaenus, rejection of the aristocratic ideals of physical excellence such as represented by the Olympic Games is clearly expressed (Fitzhardinge, 1980: 59–126). Dancing also played a major role in festive celebrations. Military and war-like springing and attacking mostly composed dance manoeuvres. There also existed the anapale – the wrestling dance displaying marching and singing movements (Fitzhardinge, 1980: 59). Aristophanes, in the pastiche sung by the Spartan delegate at the final chorus of the Lysistrata, shows maiden dances – performed at the end of the third century BC (Fitzhardinge, 1980: 153). Without question, these artistic performances were held before an audience. Spartan artists seemingly modified their works in each generation mainly due to contacts with products of outside artists – gained by imports, by travel or by attending festivals such as the Olympic Games (Fitzhardinge, 1980: 156). Another positive attribute to the sports tourism history. However, this athletic prominence and prestige gradually diminished as Sparta lost its domestic powers. ‘After the tragic and disastrous war with Athens, from BC 431 to 404, the city state of Sparta went into political degeneration’ (Fitzhardinge, 1980: 153). The city state only retained local ceremonial and religious functions. Tourism travel diminished; involvement in sports declined; and spectatorism plummeted at all levels. Spartans gradually concentrated their efforts on horse breeding rather than on athletic skill and achievements (Fitzhardinge, 1980: 121).

Summation

Although Greece was subjected to disturbance, corruption and moral decay throughout its history, the governing authorities still succeeded in filling the calendar with numerous festivals – the universal gatherings. Its peoples, from far and wide, associated themselves joyfully in sport activity, which represented a grateful relief from daily toil. Travellers crowded the roads; inns were occupied by visitors. And, numerous sports facilities catered to the needs and expectations of both the athletes and the spectators. The excite- ment at games was intense. Victors were rewarded greatly and idolized. Poets wrote odes about their stalwarts; sculptors perpetuated their feats in bronze and stone. The grand Greek public were satiated with the pleasures of sports environments; and athletes savoured their successes. So much so, that many enthusiastic onlookers and eager contestants formed ‘periodes’ or cycles travelling to diverse sport destinations as their interests were so great in competitive ventures. Evidently, this Greek experience contributed to the historical annals of sports tourism. 40 Zauhar

THE PERSIAN EMPIRE – THE SOIL AND THE SOUL

Introduction

In the fifth century BC, the Persian Empire incorporated the territory between Europe and Asia. In fact, the Persian dominance included 20 satrapies or provinces (Fitzhardinge, 1980: 126). Many different languages were spoken. Religion, customs and laws of conquered peoples were left untouched. Nevertheless, allegiance to the king was maintained through payment of ‘tribute: money, horses and men’ (Thomp- son, 1972: 60). ‘The organization and government of the Empire was probably the greatest achievement of the Persian genius’ (Fitzhardinge, 1980: 135). The Empire, through the years, was composed of a mosaic of peoples and a number of dynasties (Fitzhardinge, 1980: 165). Most inhabitants, at the outset, earned their livelihood by hunting and tilling the land. Gradually, they developed expertise in handicrafts (Dunning et al. 1993: 25). Persians, in general, had the ability to accept, remould and assimilate the arts and ideas of others. This, in essence, was the hallmark of their culture. Men and women were set at the centre of the favoured world to serve as perfecters and redeemers – i.e. good works, good thoughts and good deeds. And, Zoroaster preached to people who worshipped animals, ancestors, the Earth, the Sun and the whole galaxy (Fitzhardinge, 1980: 139). In fact, twelve-day celebrations called the No Ruz were dedicated to the honour of these elements (Durant & Durant, 1954: 355).

Sports Activities

In popularity, hunting was the most favourite sport. This activity was practised in open territory as well as in closed hunting parks stocked with lions, tigers, pheasants, ostriches and the like, and surrounded by walk trails called the paradises. This pastime had notable followers of royal blend (Woody, 1949: 177–8). In the Archae- ology Museum in Tehran, a brick-red stone shows a Persian hunting scene (Boyle, 1978: 27–32). A similar scene also decorates the Silver Goblet touched upon with electrum (Boyle, 1978: 17, 63). And, a silver-gold disc pictures a Persian hero overpowering two lions (MacKey, 1996: 16). The Philadelphia Museum of Arts has a stucco showing a horseman spearing a lion – on a panel of a boar hunt (MacKey, 1996: 16). The game of polo, played with a light ball of willow root, did compete in popularity with hunting. Ladies of the court are said to have played the game with great skill. Usually, two teams with four or six players competed. Furthermore, literature of the era reveals feats of horsemanship, archery competitions, javelin throwing and conquests of wild boars. Athletic clubs were subsidized by the government. Champions travelled to different urban sites and challenged local talents (Bausani, 1971: 27)–asports tourism experience. Moreover, Persian King Cyrus instituted horse races, competitions divided accord- ing to nationalities. In effect, each nationality group held contests amongst their very best, proclaiming victors sent to compete in the Persian King’s horse races. Emu- lation, not imitation, amongst active participants, was the essential banner. Sports were ‘deeply embedded in the sociocultural and sociopolitical context of the society’ Historical Perspectives of Sports Tourism 41

(Woody, 1949: 188). Hence, sports tourism ventures were popular and quite frequent throughout the Persian Empire. Interestingly, when Darius governed the conquered territories, through satrapies, he introduced stamped coinage and organized a postal service (Huot 1965: 16). Apparently, through a communication system, unmatched at the time, postal stations were precisely spaced at intervals equalling one’s ride, dotted the royal road stretch- ing two thousand miles from Pasargadee to Sardis linked together by way of fast, muscular horses, ridden by strong skilled men carrying messages as far as 1600 miles a week. Requirements of skill, endurance and strength, as well as competitive spirit, could have been of essence. Certainly, the maintenance of roadways for postal purposes assisted athletes and spectators in their travel efforts to discover the ‘terra incognita’ (Huot, 1965: 16).

Dancing

Dancing was quite prevalent amongst the low social class. It was ‘exhibitional in character and was associated with professional entertainers’ (Huot, 1965: 16). At sounds of ‘drum and guitar’, dancers exercised with large clubs – jumping, stooping, springing and simulating swimming motions – all to the tempo of the music. At times, between 80 and 100 athletic men exhibited these calisthenics. They also integrated these physical movements with wrestling and acrobatics – all for the sake of inspiring combative encouragement for themselves as well as for onlookers (Woody, 1949: 188).

Summation

The Persians made a gradual transition from nomadism to settlement. They suc- ceeded in bridging migrating peoples and different tribes. When winter gave way to the better weather of spring, thousands came to Persepolis to celebrate No Ruz. Foreign delegates bearing gifts also made the journey. Throughout the historical periods, the Persian culture fostered mostly domestic sport tourism activities, pro- moting athlete displacements and spectator followership. However, this sport tourism affectation did not necessarily impact on surrounding and foreign countries.

THE ETRUSCANS – CAUSAL INFLUENCE

Introduction

In the course of the first millennium BC, Etruscan culture developed in and around the central and northern regions of the Greek Peninsula. Throughout these years, according to historians and archaeologists, Etruscans maintained close and active contact with Greek towns, particularly in the south (Dunning et al. 1993: 13). As such, it is believed that the Etruscan culture was immensely influenced by the Hellenic world, as well as the surrounding countries of Asia (Hitti, 1966: 32). 42 Zauhar

Table 3 Depiction of sporting activities in Etruscan tombs

Tomb Sports activity Source

Tomb of Bighe Equestrian events with an assembly of MacKey (1996: 26); spectators – patrons seated on platforms Casson (1974: 59–90) with interior seats lined with red coverings and surrounded by a canopy against the sun; activities include boxing, jumping and discus throwing. Tomb of Olympic Male and female spectators attentively Woody (1949: 192, Games (del watch races, jumps and discus throwing. 193) Olimpiedi) Tomb of the Wrestling with an umpire present. Olivova (1984: 155) Monkey Tomb of the Woman wrestler amongst men. Woody (1949: 480) Augurs Tomb del CoileCharioteers in competition. Guttmann (1981: Casuccini 13–18)

Sports Activities

Sport activities, participants and spectators during the Etruscan era are mostly depicted in tombs (Table 3). In Seimian Tombs, races of horseback riders are represented, some even riding side saddle. Many vessels are also decorated with men and women athletes. Some relief carvings depict athletes in blood and with wounds (Woody, 1949: 486–7; Guttmann, 1981: 13–18). Killings were, apparently, an ac- cepted form of Etruscan entertainment – for participants as well as spectators. At times, prisoners of war were used to perform at Games and, without question, were considered an important element at all festivals (Olivova, 1984: 156–7).

Festivals

Games did revolved around crowds, a major component and focus at all Etruscan festivals (Olivova, 1984: 156). Spectators of both sexes were present. The rich and noble were well attired; the lower classes were clad in baggy clothing, sprawling and sitting on the ground. Generally speaking, heterogeneous elements were found not only in participatory events but amongst onlookers throughout the Etruscan history (Woody, 1949: 487). The preserved superb wall paintings in the chamber of the ‘Tomb of Tarquinia and Chiusi convey all the excitement of great sports events with their athletes, princes and thrilled spectators’ (Guttmann, 1981: 158–9). These festi- vals undoubtedly stimulated the ‘comings and goings’ of different athletes and spectator masses. To recapitulate, the Etruscan Games’ programme usually consisted of the follow- ing activities–aboost to sports tourism: gymnastic exhibitions; boxing matches; wrestling bouts; hurling events; discus throwing contests; and chariot racing (four horses). Historical Perspectives of Sports Tourism 43

Dancing

Dancing was a favourite form of entertainment for the Etruscan society. Mostly boys and men engaged in dances; at times, dressed in full armour. Banquets were ubiquitous; food was sumptuous and copious. And women enjoyed such extravagan- zas – including the dance and music interludes (Woody, 1949: 480–8).

Summation

Etruscans raised a breed of first-class horses to be ridden and harnessed to wheeled bigas, very popular in their racing contests (Olivova, 1984: 158–9). This, in itself, helped the sport tourism movement throughout the country and elsewhere. Further- more, athletes and spectators attended the world-renowned Circus Maximus, the most famous entertainment and attraction of the time, with varied programmes ranging from processions to horse and chariot racings, from track events to wrestling and boxing (Guttmann, 1981: 158–9). On the whole, the Etruscan society helped to further the historical perspectives of sports tourism.

ROME – THE ARISTOCRATIC EXPRESSION

Introduction

The City of Rome was built by the Etruscans in the eighth century BC. They made Rome a regional centre. The expansion of the Roman Empire truly began after the Etruscans were driven out of the city. Its dominance was felt in all geographical directions and, by the second and first centuries BC, the Romans became masters until their collapse at the end of the fifth century AD.Infact, the Roman Empire could be dated from 753 BC to AD 476 (Olivova, 1984: 159–61). In the middle of the fourth century BC, the Roman Empire occupied 2,400 square miles. In 280 BC, its territory covered 31,700 square miles; later extending to 48,000 square miles. At its very peak, the Empire embraced 100 to 120 million people (Woody, 1949: 189–90; Keller, 1974: 128).

Tourists

Non-citizens flocked to Rome. Its population consisted of people of foreign origin. Amongst the transients were Germans, Britons, Greeks, Syrians, Egyptians, Jews, Italians and natives of Asia Minor, as well as far away countries such as Africa. As migrations and visitations increased crowding in cities, many people, be they Roman or not, sought refuge in the countryside. These throngs, however, did not lose their city habits and interests (Keller, 1974: 127–9, 156; Boren, 1977: 7).

Entertainment

To keep inhabitants and travellers quiescent, entertainment was organized and offered to the masses. Often, entertainment programmes were sponsored by individ- uals seeking high office. On other occasions, the State took appropriate measures to 44 Zauhar

finance special games, festivals and/or athletic contests (The Reader’s Digest Associ- ation, 1974: 110). Truly, sports spectators of Rome, Alexandria, Antioch and Constantinople were frequently and repeatedly involved because of politics (Woody, 1949: 495–535). ‘To be part of a crowd, to watch an exhibition of the skill and power of living beings’ was to identify oneself with the contestants (Boren, 1977: 128). Romans had a natural love of excitement; they lived, as some writers expressed, for senseless amusement. Throughout Roman history, there were numerous holidays; all were satiated with action programmes – lasting from twenty-four hours to seventeen days (Olivova, 1984: 173). On occasion, one-day events were divided into morning games consisting of fights with wild beasts; midday festivities concentrated on the execution of criminals or enemies of the state; and afternoon amusements conformed to gladiator combats. The latter, apparently, were amongst the biggest crowd attractions and pleasers. Spectators frequently yelled with great emotion: ‘hit! strike! kill!’. Gladiator violence was not only considered legitimate, but also sacred (Woody, 1949: 660–2; Dunning et al. 1993: 129).

Sports

Chariot races were quite popular amidst this Romanesque society. At some competi- tions, Samnites contended with large shields; Britons vied in war chariots. Other spectator participatory sport activities included wrestling, boxing, brutal pankraton, boating, horseback riding, ball games, hunting and bowling (Boren, 1977: 129; Guttmann, 1981: 30–1). In fact, wherever Rome went, there was sport entertainment. In Roman urban centres, spectacles were appreciated and applauded; and games were instituted. Crowds were delighted; and, as fortunes grew throughout the Roman land, luxury, idleness and spectatoritis were equated to happiness. As onlooker passions for sports activities grew, travel from different parts of the world became a regular feature (Woody, 1949: 794; Olivova, 1984: 168–82).

Women Observers

Athletic hero worship did exist; women spectators, in particular, idolized gladiators, regardless of their provenance. Ovid urged women to look at sports events where the sands or grounds were sprinkled with crimson – blood. For it must be said, that economic impact of games, contests and festivities was more important than moral considerations or values. Cruelty, for public entertainment and tourist attraction, was carried out to the ultimate during this Roman period (Olivova, 1984: 168, 177–80).

Games

There existed a variety of sports events, competitions and contests. Some of these sports festivities were concentrated in the spring season; others were planned and organized strictly for the winter months. Amongst the most prevalent Games, enticing participants and alluring spectators and tourists, the following were the most Historical Perspectives of Sports Tourism 45 popular: Ludi Romani, Ludi Magni, Ludi Plebei, Ludi Apolinares, Ludi Megalenses, Ludi Ceriales, Florialia (Guttmann, 1981: 27). These Games, as well as other sports amusements, attracted not only athletes territory wide, but also large crowds of spectator tourists, of which a good number were Europeans (Olivova, 1984: 286, 513, 663–96). It is said that, under Roman Emperors, hundreds of thousands of spectators were provided with entertainment under the rubric of ‘public games’ (Guttmann, 1981: 9). In truth, the State controlled leisure activities. So much so, that in the first century AD,88days of official celebrations were dictated; in the second century AD, 135 days were prescribed; and, in the fourth century, a total of 176 days were set aside for festivities (Boren, 1977: 513–33). The underlying principle or cult was to consolidate all parts of the Roman Empire by sports and festive entertainment. On occasion, thousands of birds were set free amongst onlooker crowds and lottery tickets were thrown into the mass of spectators offering vessels, garments, gold and pearls as gifts (Woody, 1949: 186, 495, 617, 715–52) – all to encourage attendee retention, interest and satisfaction. At times, large processions were held prior to certain Games in honour of particular gods, men or victorious warriors (Guttmann, 1981: 22–8)–adelight to onlookers.

Profitability

Supplying gladiators for festive events and games was quite profitable. In fact, many gladiator schools throughout the land were established. Caligula alone had 20,000 gladiators in training from different parts of the Empire, strictly for entertainment purposes (Boren, 1977: 130). This implied touristic displacements. Profitable also was the gambling amongst spectators – an attractive element for local folk and foreign tourists. Even Ovid recommended women to gamble on races – most probably to enhance the sport’s attractiveness and retention. To help identify competitors, colour codes were introduced, thus helping onlookers in their athletic affinities. This classification led to bribery, poisoning of horses, murder and other illegal obstructions (Olivova, 1984: 184).

Rowdiness

Throughout the Roman period, crowds were often rowdy at festivals, contests and games. In fact, in different cities, authorities were forced to suppress public competi- tions from time to time as the participatory effects on and by athletes and spectators became quite bloody. In one instance, Emperor Caligula, irritated by the noise of the crowd, had the auditorium cleared of all spectators. At times, auditoria became slaughter houses in which animals were randomly butchered. Such was the spectacle at the Flavian Amphitheatre, where 9,000 animals were violently killed. On certain festive occasions, both the participants and spectators perished during such bloody displays (Olivova, 1984: 173–4, 179) – certainly, a risk to be taken by tourist athletes and spectators. 46 Zauhar

Dancing

Generally speaking, music and dance were not incorporated in Roman festivities and life circles. In the early years of the Empire, these artistic expressions were mostly associated with religious cults and triumphs. Only on special occasions, such as the Ludi Magni, were dance performances accepted – but in full armour with swords or lances (Olivova, 1984: 179).

Summation

Rome, in its expansion and lifestyle activities, impacted immensely and directly on the sports tourism situation – testifying measures of influence and appeal to inhabi- tants as well as foreign visitors.

ROME – SPORTS TOURISM HIGHLIGHTS

Introduction

Spectacles of all sorts found much expression in the Roman period. Many recorded elements and episodes related to sports tourism could be regarded as meaningful, significant and, perhaps, exemplary. Romans had four basic categories of public festivities – funeral games, circus games, gladiator games and birthday celebrations. The Roman public policy was ‘entertainment’ for the people with the underlying causal motive to honour gods, to secure supernatural aid and to honour man’s success (Woody, 1949: 735–8). This ‘causal motive’, in time, lost some of its intended purpose and glare. Games, in particular, were held to influence certain public opinion, gain court favours and win public attention. To host Games was an honour, a prestige, a status. The costs were borne by men of wealth and high office. The sponsors would purchase specific services from people who would attend to all detailed arrangements. And many competitors hired body guards as measures of safety and compliance.

Pleasure Frenzy

In and through time, gambling flourished, superstitions prevailed and magic ruled. Romans became satiated with ‘pleasure’. The motto no longer was ‘honour’ but ‘revulsion’. Those in highest office dictated rulings, standards and modes of compe- tition. For the Naumachiale, the Arena was flooded for naval combat games. Practically all participants perished; and so did many of the audience. In effect,

the Arena was an immense wooden floor strewn with sand; parts of this floor could be lowered and then quickly raised with a change of scenes; and, at brief notice, the floor could be covered with water. Large chambers beneath it held the animals, machines and men scheduled for the programmes of the day. Just above the Arena’s guard wall was a podium or marble terrace on whose ornate seats sat senators, priests and high officials. Above this was the suggestum, a high lodge where the emperor and emperess sat on thrones of ivory and gold, surrounded by their family and retenue (Woody, 1949: 663). Historical Perspectives of Sports Tourism 47

Any free person, male or female, could come and, apparently, no admission was charged. Three tiers of seats accommodated 50,000 spectators – local as well as foreign (Olivova, 1984: 176).

Amenities

Bath houses built by the state were very popular. Managed by concessions, staffed by slaves, these bath establishments were monuments of splendour. Open to citizens, travelling visitors, at 1 and 1m cents (quadrans), all over-writing costs of services were met by the government. Club houses included bathing facilities, as well as galleries of paintings, statues, libraries, reading-rooms and lecture halls. For would-be diners, a triclinium – dining room with restaurant services – was an added ‘bath house’ attraction (Boren, 1977: 177–206). Some bath houses offered tubs, steam baths, cold swimming pools and massage rooms. Other edifices made use of baths strictly for remedial purposes with hot salts and sulphur. Generally speaking, these public bath houses accommodated both women and men. Nevertheless, several were reserved solely for women. Agrippa, in 33 BC, had 177 baths for public usage. The Baths of Caracalla measured a quarter of a mile on each side (Woody, 1949: 397, 746). In general, Roman bath houses at the disposition of local citizenry and foreign travellers included a main entrance, a palaestra, several rooms/anterooms, dressing rooms, a swimming pool area, a triparium,acoldarium,aheat plant and a fridgidarium (Woody, 1949: 720). Certain bath establishments included a number of sports activities amongst the array of offerings. Usually, these places had gymnasia attached to their bath house facility. Customarily, public baths were free of charge. However, some private thermae demanded a small fee (Olivova, 1984: 177).

Sports Facilities

With respect to sports buildings and constructions, every province within the Roman Empire had its skilled architects. As Rome grew from an impoverished status to a more financially secure one, numerous public and private sports facilities were built. And, monumental buildings provided clearly defined areas for spectators. For in- stance, Augustus established a special stadium on the Campus Martius holding 15,000 spectators. The Circus Maximus extended their onlooker capacity to between 260,000 and 385,000 people (Durant, 1944: 344, 373–90; Olivova, 1984: 177, 185). Five amphitheatres were erected; each surrounded by three-tiered stands for 50,000 spectators. Beneath these complexes, a system of rooms, stables, change rooms and special equipment areas were to be found. In new towns, sports grounds were prepared measuring 650 m long by 100 m wide, with special tribunes for the upper classes (Woody, 1949: 651–2, 678–87). At the end of the first century AD,alarge stadium, the Piazza Navona was built. Later, in the third century AD, many buildings were restored and modernized – as a growing number of spectators from all parts of Europe were attracted by different games, circuses and celebrations. On the competition level, many Roman provinces made it a duty and honour to participate in all types of sports activities. Greek athletes were also incorporated in a good number of festivities. Interestingly, boat races in Rome were one of the most exciting contests. Spectators, domestic as well as foreign, were seen along the river banks (Woody, 1949: 651–2). 48 Zauhar

Migrants

Often, spectators would rush before daybreak to secure seats or places with the best views. For certain festive occasions, spectators were imported to enjoy different sports events and celebrations. Hundreds of athletes from diverse regions took part in a good number of sports festivities – particularly wrestling. This, and other athletic contingents, brought along trainers, doctors, bandage specialists and tailors (Guttmann, 1981: 28). These actions were well indicative of the promotion to increase the number of sports tourists.

Colossal Events

Caesar arranged the first great naval display on an artificial lake. Claudius exhibited a sea combat engaging 19,000 men, while Emperor Trajan celebrated victory over the Dacians at the end of the first century AD by holding spectacular combats amongst 10,000 gladiators (Woody, 1949: 649, 696–8) – all to the amusement and pleasure of the attending audience. To illustrate the extent to which seriousness of spectatorism was implanted and inculcated into the Roman culture, onlookers in Constantinople set fire to their wooden hippodromes in AD 491, 498, 507 and 532. Following the last incident, Justanian ordered a marble stadium to be built. On the private front, club buildings for physical training were also constructed. Selective audiences could view equestrian exhibitions, mock battles and chariot races. In equestrian displays, young riders in training performed before onlookers from the year 304 BC.Inthesphaeristirium, special courts for ball games provided entertainment for selected groups of observers (Olivova, 1984: 164–8, 177–85).

Swimming Pools

Diocletian had a natatorium built, measuring 299 feet by 100 feet. Nero, in AD 60, established the first permanent gymnasium in Rome. And the wealthy class con- structed private luxurious pools for personal enjoyment and visitor satisfaction (Woody, 1949: 672–3, 681).

Brutality

Roman life, ancient as well as modern, demonstrated the love of brutal and cruel festivals. Spectators, especially the educated Romans, took death of men and beasts for granted. Combats between beasts and beasts, beasts and men, and men and men were common entertainment (Guttmann, 1981: 20, 31; Olivova, 1984: 168–77). Amongst the animals displayed were lions (99 BC), crocodiles and hippopotami (58 BC), elephants (55 BC) and panthers, bears, wild bulls and camels (AD 42). Confron- tation of different animals was very popular amongst the spectator societies. On one occasion, 400 bears and 300 lions were killed. Combats between armed women and midgets also attracted observers. And, the spectacle of Christians also delighted throngs of people – be they emperors, senators, knights, slaves or others (Olivova, 1984: 164, 187). Historical Perspectives of Sports Tourism 49

Most spectators paid for their seats or selected viewing areas. The poor or impoverished received free tickets. In most cases, men and women sat together to view different pitting competitions (Woody, 1949: 666, 672).

Fall of Rome

As the Roman period was evolving, no one was wise enough to save the empire. By the end of the third century AD, Rome was no longer the pivotal capital. Athletes were dropping from sight; contests were disappearing – between AD 384 and 426. Roman social order was disintegrating; the organizational character of contests, festivals and celebrations was changing (Chronicle of the World, 1989: 221; Dunning, et al. 1993: 33). In the fourth century AD, Telemachus, a monk, attempted to stop Games by rushing out between gladiators. Enraged spectators tore him to pieces for intervening. Nevertheless, opposition to certain festivities by Christians mushroomed. Some writers of the time declared games as senseless amusement satisfying a fanatical public (Guttmann, 1981: 25). In AD 393, Theodosius put an end to the Olympic Games (Guttmann, 1981: 21). The curtailment of athletic activities diminished sports tourism and extinguished the flamboyancy of active participants and spectators.

Summation

The importance and relevancy of the sports tourism activities during the Roman era seem to have been directly related to governmental powers, policies, practices and procedures. At the very beginning, Rome set a high and intense tempo in terms of active and passive participants, domestic as well as foreign. As Rome declined, so did sports activity, organization and promotion.

BYZANTIUM–AGLITTERING CIVILIZATION

Introduction

As Rome declined, Constantinople became the suitable capital of the era AD 326–565. Religion, in gradual measure, was the mainstream of life. People sought Church blessings in whatever they did or in whatever they intended to do (Guttmann, 1981: 21–9). Byzantine life ‘depended on an indissoluble harmony between Church and State’ (Olivova, 1984: 180). In general, cultural life followed class lines. The citizenry, particularly in towns, was quite active in the handicraft industry (Woody, 1949: 535).

Athletic Facilities

In the course of these centuries, the Roman thermae had spread throughout Europe. Centres for passive care of the body were established and these attractions for social life were customary. In AD 430, Constantinople boasted eight public and 153 private baths (Olivova, 1984: 190–2). Games in amphitheatres were very popular. Countries such as Italy, North Africa, Spain and Gaul constructed colossal amphitheatre facilities. Smaller towns opted for less sophisticated constructions. It is believed that games throughout the Byzantine territory superseded the traditional Greek events (Olivova, 1984: 182–90). 50 Zauhar

Sports Activities

Byzantine peoples truly participated in a wide range of sports activities, either as contestants or as spectators (Dunning et al. 1993: 33). ‘Skill at horsemanship was a predominant feature’ (The Reader’s Digest Association, 1974: 123). As such, chariot racing was considered the most popular sport. Crowds filled the stands every race day, seeking excitement and exhibiting loyalty to sporting associations or circus factions using colour schemes of blue, green, white, etc. (Woolhouse, 1968: 29). During programme intervals, spectators, local and foreign, remained seated to be entertained by a variety of performances. Athletes, often, hired small bands of ‘claqueurs’ to produce loud orchestrated applause to ensure audience appreciation of the spectacle at hand (Brand, 1968: 6, 111). Reliefs dating to this Byzantine era depict races, onlookers and reward monies offered to the victors (Schrodt, 1981: 53). Sports activities of particular interest in this Byzantine period could be listed as follows: polo (similar to lacrosse on horseback); hunting, archery; dancing; wrestling; running; single stick fencing; and chariot racing (The Reader’s Digest Association, 1974: 190). The aristocratic society, living in luxury, revelled in feasts, particularly banquets, where travelling clowns and acrobats entertained the guests (Schrodt, 1981: 41). They also held specific tournaments and hunts–aselection of challenging wild animals such as lions, leopards, antelopes, foxes, bears and boars (Schrodt, 1981: 41). These rich people also travelled outside the capital city to pleasant countryside retreats (Schrodt, 1981: 41) – for rest, relaxation and recreation. From time to time, country inhabitants were entertained by travelling illusionists, acrobats and tight rope walkers (Schrodt, 1981: 48). Hence, performers ordinarily scheduled for urban milieux were made available to those living in rural areas. Furthermore, fairs and church festivals provided opportunities for archery, wrestling, running and stick fencing competitions (The Reader’s Digest Association, 1974: 190–1).

Colossal Structures

The Hippodrome was the most impressive structure in Constantinople, ranging from 1200–1300 feet in length to 600–650 feet in width. Spectator tier seats rose forty feet, with a seating capacity of 40,000 to 60,000. The interior oval track measured 1,000 feet in circumference. Spiral staircases, balconies and organs were featured in this Hippodrome (Schrodt, 1981: 52–6). Race days provided occasions for gambling, shouting, screaming and intoxication. Records show that attendance was chiefly restricted to menfolk; apparently, women spectators were not welcome (Brand, 1968: 11–12).

Conflicting Situations

As colour schemes of competitors represented different classes and affinities, specta- tor conflicts often led to confrontations; and, contrapositions escalated into riots. Furthermore, Christian attitudes and principles gained ground and games were gradually barred. Athletic contests were paralleled with Christian struggles in the minds of many. Consequently, sporting preferences changed; pantomime dancing became a dominant interest (Brand, 1968: 12; Schrodt, 1981: 53). Historical Perspectives of Sports Tourism 51

Control of general sports organizations was taken over by guilds. Cheerleading was introduced in tribute to the Emperor. Still, frustrations continued to be voiced in the Hippodrome; spectator riots persisted. Gradually, colour factions were declin- ing; their importance amongst the onlookers became less impressive. Yet, coloured parties did persist in ceremonial and festive occasions (Schrodt, 1981: 54).

Polo Explosion

‘Not all sports of Byzantine were inherited from Greece or Rome’ (Schrodt, 1981: 54). Persian polo was popular amongst the Byzantine nobility. In fact, this activity was incorporated into ceremonial agendas. French Crusaders passing through the terri- tory became interested in this sport of polo and introduced it to their home country, France.

Games

Around AD 393–433, the Olympic Games were terminated. Edicts against pagan practices were overbearing. Furthermore, changing tastes contributed to the end of the Games. However, in the latter years of the Byzantine civilization, new hippo- dromes were built, particularly in Antioch, Bergtus, Tyre and Caesario – holding as many as 100,000 spectators. Games, per se, never regained past traditional promi- nence and popularity (Schrodt, 1981: 42–3, 45). Wild beast fights and exhibitions as mock forms of entertainment also diminished and dwindled. Difficulties in obtaining animals, and care-costs also led to the disappearance of animal spectacles. Furthermore, barbarian attacks, earthquakes and floods destroyed athletic centres, particularly the Olympiad (Schrodt, 1981: 48).

Summation

During this era, sports tourism had its peculiar genesis. With the demise of sports installations, sports competitions fell to a very low ebb. Hence, the impact could be considered as moving from high intensity travel to low ‘comings and goings’.

THE CRUSADES – PICTURESQUE AND EVENTFUL

Introduction

The commercial ambition of Italian cities, coupled with a weakening of the Byzantine Empire and general oppression, caused thousands of Christians to pledge themselves to a battle cry of serving God – in essence, a Holy War (AD 485–588) (The Reader’s Digest Association 1974: 194). The power of feudalism and glamour of chivalry came to a climax between AD 1095 and AD 1291 – the 200 Years War. The feudal regime placed loyalty and physical courage at the head of all virtues. It produced a social class of people who could ride, use a lance, battle-axe and sword (Schrodt, 1981: 48–9, 52). On the First Crusade, 12,000 people set out from France; another 5,000 from Germany. These numbers included peasants, serfs, prisoners, adventurers, merchants, 52 Zauhar knights, women and children. All other crusade ventures also numbered in the thousands; at times, crowds enlisted en masse (Schrodt, 1981: 54).

Symbiosis

Progressively, the Crusades damaged their initial intent. However, ‘war does at least one good; it teaches people about geography’ (The Reader’s Digest Association, 1974: 192). Through travel, Crusaders transmitted and acquired diverse concepts, lifestyles and sports activities – be they of land variety and vastness, customs, traditions and values. Crusade travellers crossed rivers, seas and mountains. Many found new homes discriminately along their projected routes.

Festivities

Whenever there were moments of peace or friendly exchanges, special celebrations, feasts and tournaments were organized. Strolling players also performed in market places or city squares. The chief effect of the Crusades was the rise in industry and commerce. However, transport progressed the least during this era. Travel on highways and roads was burdensome and painful. Waterways, although more popular, were quite arduous and slow. Nevertheless, during this Holy War period, Vikings developed the art of shipbuilding; and gondolas appeared in Venice. Mention of several abortive attempts to fly or to float in air were made. And, Ibn Khordad- hbeb brought out ‘the Book of the Roads and Countries’ (Durant, 1959: 585–8; Schrodt, 1981: 52–5). Riding, hunting and tournaments were the pastime of Crusade nobility (Durant, 1959: 585). When at peace, they went to the countryside for fishing and hunting – where beautiful orchards, vineyards and olive groves were to be found. They also chased foxes and loved to hunt falcons. As considerable amounts of money were spent on horses, owners and riders selected pasture lands around urban settings as parade grounds for horse displays and horsemanship. Furthermore, during peaceful lapses, foreigners joined in these spectacles. Whenever scheduled, ladies were invited to observe the pageantry and the mock battles. Bath houses along the route were occasions for other types of amusement and social contact (The Reader’s Digest Association, 1974: 219).

Outgrowth

Many men, women and children died from hunger, thirst, exposure to cold and disease. Some, rich and poor, deserted. Along the selected routes, many cities emptied; many castles were vacated. Thousands of art works were stolen, mutilated or destroyed. Many Crusaders seeing the riches along the way, often became bitter. However, even with such chaotic situations, the Crusaders helped blossom the zest for exploration and the stimulus to travel (Durant, 1959: 194, 385–9).

Summation

Here, sports tourism must be viewed from a different perspective. Thousands of people, setting out to foreign lands, continuously planted concepts of sports values Historical Perspectives of Sports Tourism 53 and sports activities as they traversed different unknown territories – la terra incognita.Interms of sports tourism, the combative Crusaders could be considered as the performing athletes, while the followers, groupies and foreign bystanders could be categorized as the spectators.

THE ISLAMIC SCENE – RESOURCES OF THE EARTH

Introduction

The Islamic civilization (AD 569–1258) is described by historians as a union of earthly resources. People raised cattle, horses, camels, goats, elephants and dogs. They also grew varieties of grains, vegetables and fruits. Land transport was chiefly by camels, horses, mules and men. Along the different routes, caravanserais or inns, hospices and cisterns helped travellers and their animals. Inland traffic, however, was borne on rivers and canals. Throughout the era, commercial interests and entrepreneurship developed – domestic as well as foreign. Religion, in the people’s hierarchy of desire, influenced and moulded everyday living. Morals, governmental laws and traditions were based on religious teachings (Durant, 1959: 206–11, 612). Thousands of monsines, villas, and palaces were built, adorned with rugs, carpets, tapestries, azure and gold. The Palace of Pleides housed 9,000 horses, camels and mules in special stables. Ambassadors from different regions were impressed with the richness, the wild animals in spacious parks and royal barges sailing along the Tigris (Durant, 1959: 133, 233–4).

Activities

The upper classes, amid all splendour, lived a life of luxury and sport. They would gather in town plazas to watch polo competitions and horse races. The latter were patronized by the caliphs. On one occasion, reports indicate that 4,000 horses took part in one programme. Assumingly, the common people upheld their daily chores, toils and services. Yet, on festive occasions, they would visit people and enjoy the sporting elements organized and offered. Philosophically, ‘the poor solaced life with heaven, the rich sought heaven on earth’ (Durant, 1959: 233–4). Pleasure boats, passenger vessels and barges were quite common to the Islamic scene. So were public parks and private and public baths. Apparently, in the tenth century, Baghdad had 27,000 baths. In the Court of the Myrrles, there was a swimming pool. And in the ornate Hall of Ambassadors, foreigners and travellers marvelled at the gardens, fountains and balconies. Most dancers, singers and actors for entertainment purposes were slaves (Durant, 1959: 313–6). Other activities that were enjoyed by the rich, the lower classes and the slaves were cock fighting, juggling, boxing, wrestling, running, javelin throwing, gymnastics, fencing, croquet and weight lifting (Durant, 1959: 206–34).

Summation

During this era, there was tremendous religious worship; there was much feasting; and there were many peregrinations. Yet, travel was mostly concentrated on commer- cial ventures. Sports activities, in essence, were secondary and not necessarily the 54 Zauhar primary and direct motivational goal. Nevertheless, local and foreign visitors did travel from one destination to another. As such, they did have opportunities to observe different types of sports activities, thus promoting indirectly the sports tourism movement.

EUROPE – THE RECOVERY

Introduction

Between AD 1095 and AD 1300, many countries within Europe were politically unstable. Hostile populations were noted, in particular, in Scandinavia, Germany, Poland, Russia, Spain, Portugal, Italy, France, England and the Balkans (Durant, 1959: 650–702).

Sports

Sports activities, during this period, tended to be specific to social status or class. The peasantry, as an example, enjoyed soccer; the middle-class burghers participated in crossbow contests; and knights and squires savoured tournaments (Guttmann 1981: 35). Typical sites for contests and tournaments were meadows and open fields. Often, whenever a tournament or trial by combat was held, masses of people would line the highways to regale and feed on the pomp and pageantry – formidable occasions of sports tourism for people near and afar (Durant, 1959: 835; Guttmann, 1981: 13).

Women Spectatorism

At combat or tournament enclaves, crowds of aristocrats also gathered to watch. For certain events, special seating was constructed for onlookers – with a good portion reserved for ladies. Nevertheless, around AD 1177, women, as spectators, were quite a rarity. However, in the following years, women spectatorship gradually increased and became more prominent – so much so, that the selection of combatants was often influenced and determined by ladies. It also became standing practice to have women judges for different contests and tournaments (Howell, 1986: 16, 17).

Tourist Athletes

Teams of knights from England, Brittany, Normandy and Anjou travelled together throughout Europe and, in many circumstances, participated as specific representa- tive groups or partners in games lasting several days. The games resembled wars and, around AD 1200, war simulations and mimickry became the current and major attractions. Thus, more pageantry and less combativeness was evidenced (Guttmann, 1981: 36, 37; Carter, 1992a: 21)

Publicity

Troubadours in France expressed excitement on coming tournaments. They travelled through countryside and even abroad, proclaiming forthcoming contests, combative Historical Perspectives of Sports Tourism 55 events and major feature participants. These heralds and minstrels helped ‘create, inflate and perpetuate sporting reputations’ (Carter, 1992a: 18), as well as enticing sports enthusiasts to travel and attend. It is said that William Marshal had captured five hundred knights, their horses and equipment during his years in the European tournament circuit, a good publicity feature for messengers. In effect, troubadours were the most important communication vehicles of the era – impacting on the success of sports tourism spectatorship (Carter, 1992a: 18–20).

Poland

Conditioned by nature and foreign influences, literary chronicles of the twelfth century AD, report that Poland revelled in foot racing, wrestling and horse racing. Winter sports, particularly skate gliding (blades constructed of bones) on frozen rivers and lakes, also attracted participants and spectators. Jousting tournaments consisting of competitions in stone throwing, jumping, fencing and equestrian skills, with knighthood ceremonies, also allured many onlookers and enticed contestants (Ziolkowska, 1983: 60–8).

Italy–France–England

Throughout this recovery period in Europe, specific sports activities were registered as influencing tourism. For instance, in Italy, horse racing was gaining great popular- ity. Furthermore, football from China found its way to recognition. In England, the first recorded horse race took place in AD 1174. In France, large crowds gathered in open air to watch tennis matches. In AD 1308, King Philip IV, purchasing the Hotel des Nesle built one of the earliest indoor tennis courts in Paris. Forty-two years later, in AD 1351, tennis became an open air game in England, attracting players and enthusiastic onlookers (Durant, 1959: 840; Grun, 1991: 105, 159, 185).

Public Baths

The public steam bath ‘Muslem Style’ was also introduced throughout Europe – although the ‘Church frowned upon public baths as leading to immorality’ (Durant, 1959: 835). Nevertheless, amongst the Slavic peoples, steam bathing was to be found in many villages, towns and cities. In AD 1308, Poznan, Poland, had 12 commercial steam baths in various districts of the city; and Cracow had 11 such facilities (Ziolkowska, 1983: 62, 65). It is assumed that travellers took advantage of such establishments.

Carnivals–festivals

As early as AD 1094, the Carnival, in pre-Renaissance Italy, made popular inroads, particularly with the ladies joining gondola escapades. The ‘traghetti’ also ferried many passengers over the Grand Canal. In neighbouring piazzas or public squares, travelling acrobats performed; they juggled, they walked on tight ropes with sticks and blindfolds, to the great delight of spectators. The nobility preferred hunting. 56 Zauhar

Great estates had aviaries where games of falconry were tremendously enjoyed by owners and in-house guests. Some monasteries, throughout Europe, were used as guest-houses; several were capable of sheltering 700 travellers and stabling their horses. Other wayfarers, depending on their financial resources, opted to seek refuge at wayside inns (Durant, 1959: 711, 727, 839–40). In many European countries, festivals were organized for various occasions, such as the agricultural season, specific guilds, special patron saints and the like. Christian feasts drew immense crowds glorifying the pageantry of tournaments of knightly initiatives. In addition, men and women of this period developed a taste for travel, visiting strange lands, historical sites and legendary monuments. However, these travellers did not carefully distinguish between the historical past and legendary folklore (Durant, 1959: 752, 840; Casson, 1974: 237).

Heritage

It became imperative for tourists to see where past heroes were buried; the olive tree where Hippolytus’ chariot crashed; the two statues at the entrance of the Roman Forum and the statue of Zeus at the Olympia. Guide books were created to indicate roads and points of attractions for all types of travellers. In travelling, ‘a voyageur expected courtesy and hospitality from persons of his own class’ (Durant, 1959: 839). And, was not Marco Polo’s description of his trips across all Asia a good example of this adage (Durant, 1959: 991; Casson, 1974: 234–5).

Summation

Sports tourism travel, during this period of recovery in Europe, was revived to a great extent. People were beginning to create affinities with other countries. Women were also being gradually allured to sports activities. Past historical figures and ruins were becoming of interest and attraction to a good number of foreign visitors, some of which, undoubtedly, were sports enthusiasts.

THE RENAISSANCE – VITALITY AND PASSION

Introduction

From the French word ‘re-birth’, the Renaissance period (AD 1300–1576) ‘produced a more secular spirit, a new interest in classical civilization and increased respect for literature’ (The Random House Encyclopedia, 1990: 1134). People were fascinated by human achievements, believing that humankind possessed the ingredients and power to shape its own destiny (The Random House Encyclopedia, 1990: 1138). In essence, the Renaissance was based materially upon economic exploitation. Politically, it replaced mercantile dignitaries and military dictatorships. Morally, the era left human instincts free. Italy was the initiator of this new civilization. Because of its geographical crossroads, the movement spread through routes: seas and mountains to France, Germany, Flanders, Holland and England (Durant, 1953: 721–4). Historical Perspectives of Sports Tourism 57

Italy

At the outset of the Renaissance period, gioco della pugna,atournament played with fists and rock hurling, was evidenced in northern Italy. In AD 1273, 1,000 men and women joined the annual stone fight. In AD 1332, bull fighting was introduced in the Roman Coliseum and occasionally repeated in other cities, e.g. Sienna, etc. At the Nuremburg knightly tournaments (AD 1434), patriciates, in attempting to climb over the wall, were attacked and beaten (Guttmann, 1981: 38–52).

Order

Society was in transition. Transformation of sport to a spectacle was becoming visible. Certain sports rules were introduced, endorsed and strictly followed. Au- totelic sports activities were becoming detached from warfare. A sports revolution was taking place. Precepts of conduct, behavioural changes and violent transforma- tions took on special importance in terms of participation and spectatoritis. To this effect, Italians brought out handbooks on fencing and general recreation. And, knightly aristocrats were gradually replaced by courtly contestants (Durant, 1953: 595; Guttmann, 1981: 40–6; Elias, 1994: 57, 169).

Activities

Different sports activities, typically found during the Renaissance period were: archery contests, hunting, horse racing, falconry, footraces, boat regattas, tennis and boxing (Durant, 1953: 595; Guttmann, 1981: 46).

Spectatorism

The spectator role increased as sports activities became tamer, more civilized and less spontaneous. This approach changed the nature of sites, facilities and lead time for necessary organizational preparations. In Italy, the highly formalized game of calcio attracted hordes of spectators. The annual meet, the Schuetzenfeste, provided occa- sions for many to watch and enjoy the festivities. Guilds of archers from all over participated – from Artois, Brabant, Flanders, Picardie, northern France and all of German-speaking Europe. Usually, guild participants represented their respective towns, bringing along wives and daughters. Some German musketeer groupings had female members (Guttmann, 1981: 31, 38, 47, 51). Villages competed against villages. Kicking, throwing and carrying the ball across open fields, narrow streets and small waterways, involving both the participants and spectators was quite common – young and old, male and female, rich and poor, residents and visitors. At times, it was difficult to distinguish the players from the onlookers (Guttmann, 1981: 49–50). In 1576, spectators at an archery tournament (Strasbourg) were more interested in the porridge pot being transported (from Zurich) by boat, to win a bet than in the toxophilic skills being demonstrated by athletes. In 1585, in Prague, aristocratic archers competed amongst themselves before spectators of equal rank and social class. Festival and religious calendars, recalling spectacles of ancient Rome, thrilled people, participants as well as bystanders. And royalty, to gain support of their 58 Zauhar constituents, gladly provided games, contests and spectacular events (Guttmann, 1981: 46–8, 50). Evidently, these were all occasions to induce sports tourism. The festivals of Venice always attracted a good number of foreign dignitaries. On the frozen Grand Canal, troops from Crete held joust competitions, not forgetting that around the fourteenth century, this game was very popular. In time, these joust contests were replaced by water festivals and regattas. In effect, aquatic festivities were held on the Venetian Lagoon – the Mancio at Mantra, the Ticiano at Milan. In 1493, when Be´atrice D’Este´e came to Venice as an emissary, 1,000 row and sail boats sailed to meet her ship, Bucentaur (Durant, 1953: 280–8). As there existed a penchant for travel, a good number of sports games were imported from France and Italy. In London, open fields, narrow streets and water- ways involving football games were regular sites where emotions ran high among participants and observers. Football matches were also organized at Shrovetide and Easter. Prints have been found depicting a football game in the Piazza di Sante Cruce within a rectangular field with divided pavilion stands and bleachers for different classes of spectators (Guttmann, 1981: 49–51). In 1331 and 1581, in London, tournament stands collapsed hurting, maiming and killing men and women spectators. As a result, better quality onlooker facilities were henceforth to be constructed. In 1520, Henry VIII ordered the building of bowling lanes. And thirty-eight years later, in Italy, the game of billiard was played for the first time (Guttmann, 1981: 38; Grun, 1991: 233, 245) – attracting spectators.

Marketing

The invention of the printing press was a major factor in encouraging the rapid spread of tournament and contest information. Invitations were announced well in advance. For instance, in 1509, participants and spectators were invited to the Augsburg match seven months prior to the said competition date. Such a time lag allowed sufficient span for necessary organizational preparations, as well as prep time for interested athletes and potential tourists. Evidently, for some tournaments, shorter notice was given. Nevertheless, audiences became increasingly important in all facets of comfort throughout the Renaissance period (Guttmann, 1981: 47–9) – a positive component to the advancement of the sports tourism outlook.

Dancing

During the Renaissance, dancing was considered as the poetry of motion (Durant, 1953: 595). It became increasingly popular. Competitions were held, particularly in Florence; winner contestants were awarded silver garlands. People danced on greens, in ballroom settings and in private homes. In and around the year 1327, ‘rope dancing’ amazed many guests at banquets and fetes held at French courts. Often, dancers and onlookers clapped to the tempo of the music accompaniment. Moreover, Italians published handbooks on the art of dancing (Durant, 1953: 595; Van Dalen & Bennett, 1973: 105–6). Historical Perspectives of Sports Tourism 59

Summation

European societies were in transition. The civilizing of behaviours was noticeable in sports activities. As such , sports organization and publicity measures became models for future developments. Furthermore, the epoch was being permeated with bour- geois features. Codes of sports conduct were introduced; social relations became more distinctive and distinguished. On the whole, the sports tourism phenomenon gained substantial recognition and prominence.

THE REFORMATION – THE ZEST FOR FREEDOM

Introduction

The Reformation period, dating c. 1300 to 1517, repudiated the underlying Renais- sance philosophy. In general, this reactionary movement emphasized ‘earthly affairs and joys’. And religions adjusted to the changes and progress touching particularly the countries of England and Germany, involving the Catholic and Protestant faiths (Durant, 1957: 935). According to Van Dalen and Bennett (1973), authors of A World History of Physical Education, the Reformation represented one of the most extensive and complex transformations. Europe had experienced a substantial increase in trade and commerce. However, overall, there was a stress on morals. There also was intolerance. Some dictated curtailment to Sunday amusements; others argued and sanctioned activities after Sunday worship – such as festivals, dancing, archery, leaping and vaulting. The politics of religion, to many, were cloudy and confused. In essence, sports tourism activities were not necessarily at the forefront – but rather behind the scenes. To say the least, sports activities were still quite strong and frequent (Durant, 1957: 721; Van Dalen & Bennett, 1973: 141).

Sports Tourism

In the realm of sports tourism, people generally could not stay put. The poor travelled by foot; the well-to-do journeyed on horseback; and the rich traversed the lands in horse-drawn vehicles. These travellers gathered in different places, on diverse sites, to see, in particular, acrobats and rope walkers. At festivals, people gave priests and their consorts a place of honour whenever and wherever their presence was noted (Durant, 1957: 22, 104).

England

In the fifteenth century, Englishmen played tennis, football, bowls and quoits. They also wrestled and boxed; set cocks to fighting and baited bears and bulls. In addition, their sports amusements consisted of fishing, hunting, archery and jousting (Durant, 1957: 22, 224; Guttmann, 1981: 56). In London, the display of individual sports heroics was grandly encouraged and appreciated by observers (Henricks, 1982: 22). When Henry VII held a tournament in honour of his son’s birthday in 1501, it was reported that masses of people were present even though there was an admission 60 Zauhar charge. In reality, English spectatorship flourished during this Reformation period. Sports onlookers were to be found in open fields, to the confines of city streets, in castle yards to crowded coloured tents erected at their disposal (Hardy, 1974: 96; Jable, 1976: 97; Guttmann, 1981: 17; Henricks, 1982: 22, 26). Mock tourneys gained much popularity; and sports events between England and France were quite common. For example, in 1299, three Frenchmen jousted all challengers for days to the delight of emotional onlookers. It must be noted that jousting was fashionable in England and was a permanent feature in most tourna- ments (Hardy, 1974: 94–7; Jable, 1976: 97). In the early thirteenth century, English nobles set up a committee of five earls to administer rules and eliminate disturbances of unruly attendants and spectators. A Lord of Misrule was also appointed by the government in question to oversee sports and festive activities (Durant, 1957: 114; Hardy, 1974: 97). This ensured, to some extent, order and security measures amongst all participants, active and passive.

Germany

In Germany, festivals were quite numerous and common. Some were very extrava- gant, particularly in French Burgundy. People came over frontiers and seas to view these spectacles. In effect, thousands of men and women travelled as sports tourists. Furthermore, men, in particular, found outlets in hunting and jousting. And, bathing in public baths was the national passion (Durant, 1957: 127, 305).

France

At Lyon, France, commoners often watched, at a distance, lords joust at tourna- ments. Bear baiting, bull fighting and cock fighting greatly amazed the attending public. Acrobats, in addition to performing for lords and royalty, roamed the countryside of France. Travelling was popular, despite road conditions and the state of inns. Paris in the sixteenth century alone had 250 tennis courts welcoming enthusiasts of the sports communities, locally and afar (Durant, 1957: 369, 754, 768, 769).

Poland

Poland, during this Reformation era, also held jousting tournaments. Nevertheless, the art of hunting held a greater respect, esteem and reverence – for the sport called for courage, skill and strength. Most popular hunts were for bison, bears and auroch (Ziolkowska, 1983: 69). Local spectators and visitors enjoyed these activities.

Archaeological Finds

Artefacts dating 1330–50 attest to women spectators at parades, contests and tourna- ments. Apparently, women were involved not only as onlookers but as active participants in hunting, falconry, archery, fishing, boating, rowing and ice skating. Amongst the most popular boat races in Italy, in the fifteenth century, some regattas were exclusively organized and held for women (Howell & Howell, 1976: 17, 28–30). Historical Perspectives of Sports Tourism 61

Dancing

Dancing, during this era, was as popular as gambling, particularly in England. In effect, statements as to dance being a ‘heavenly sport’ to see and enjoy have been reported and recorded. Often, festive dancing was performed on stage before an audience and, at times, to the approval or disapproval of clergy or political author- ities. In France, Catherine de Me´dicis purposely brought Italian dancers to the French court for health and fitness reasons – particularly for lovers (Durant, 1957: 114, 760–70).

Summation

Although ecclesiastical and political censorships appeared to have been omnipresent, people still did have the urge and desire to participate actively and/or passively in sports activities. Travel was still somewhat burdensome; yet, people did manage and adjust to journeying to destinations that offered possibilities of amusements, enjoy- ments and satisfaction.

THE ENGLISH ENCHANTMENT – KNOWLEDGE TO REASON

Introduction

From 1538 to c. 1638, England progressively gained power and prestige on the home front as well as abroad. During this period, England’s industries developed, com- merce flourished, theological questions were debated and music, arts and architecture excelled (Durant & Durant, 1961: 46–64).

Touristic Ventures

By the fifteenth century, hunting, hawking, long bow shooting and fishing were popular amongst English city dwellers (Gregory, 1976: 27; Guttmann, 1981: 55). Other pastimes, particularly for onlookers, included wrestling, bull baiting and cock fighting. Noble pursuits, on the other hand, embraced deer, fox and hare hunting by greyhounds followed by men and women on horseback. England’s topography, in particular, determined manors suitable for such activities aimed at passers by and e´lite members of society. Furthermore, ‘political and economic elite began to frequent the race course’ (Gregory, 1976: 29; Guttmann, 1981: 54). The Thames River served as a blessing to recreation and sports tourism. This waterway was used as a major thoroughfare for ferries and pleasure crafts (Durant & Durant, 1961: 50). Around 1564, horse-driven coaches were introduced in England from Holland – influencing the sports tourism phenomenon to a reasonable degree (Grun, 1991: 233–49). The English promulgated that every noble youth should travel to complete more fully his education – as did the Roman youth in going to Greece. All agreed on the travel aspect. Yet, philosophies differed as to the definition of education. Francis Bacon (1561–1626) upheld that youth should meet important, influential and presti- gious people rather than pursue specific knowledge. Those affiliated with James I endorsed travel for particular social elements and cultural endeavours. The 62 Zauhar

Table 4 Some sport tourism events and artefacts of the sixteenth century

Date Event Source

1511Historical curling stones dating back to the Brasch (1986: 103) fifteenth century with individual names such as The Saddle, The Horse, The Hen and The Barn are memorable treasures of the Royal Caledonian Club. 1515Fencing sword of Gonzalo de Cordoba, known as Brasch (1986: 133) the great captain who invented the hand guard is displayed at the Madrid Museum. 1545 Classic works on archery called toxophily were Brasch (1986: 14) published. 1575First book on the Alps was published treating Brasch (1986: 267) practical experiences concerning difficulties and ways and means to overcome them. 1580 British football was a penchant for Italian Guttmann (1981: 21–2) travellers. In the sixteenth century, the game was regulated and played by teams of 27 on a rectangular field twice as long as wide. Favourite play area was The Piazza di Santo Spirito in Florence. Participants were urged to be well-mannered to impress the spectators on hand. 1583 3,000 people participated actively in a two-day Brasch (1986: 15) archery meeting at Shoreditch, London, from daybreak to dusk.

middle ground proponents stressed the importance of both aspects – knowledge and social skills. This ‘travel to educate’ came to be known as the Grand Tour (Swingle- hurst, 1982: ch. 3). Few students travelled alone. Mentors or tutors accompanied one to three young voyageurs. Package deals with specific itineraries, stop-overs, travel methods, etc. were developed. And the choice of universities depended on the desired interests and specialization of the students (McIntosh & Goeldner, 1986: 25). During this ‘Grand Tour’ phenomenon (1600–1800), specific cultural events took place, directly or indirectly stimulating domestic and inter-country travel. Furthermore, technical innovations had a tremendous effect on the production process of printing – novels, music, pictures, etc. The use of engravings and stereotype methods provided mass production; hence, new marketing outlooks; new innovative selling techniques and mass newspaper circulations were possible. In essence, all were valuable channels for advertising – of cultural events, artworks, crafts, fairs, festivals, public celebrations, historical sites and sports activ- ities. Sports tourism also flourished in other European countries. For instance, in Spain, bull fighting continued to be the favourite spectacle, attracting people from diverse areas of the country. Duelling, although considered illegal, was also quite popular. In France; tennis was the rage of the people actively involved or passively observing. The Dutch, on the other hand, gave themselves to the sport of golf. And Germany exploited dancing, jolly games and festivals – to the merriment of inhabitants and the travelling public (Durant & Durant, 1961: 277, 479–545). Table 4 details certain other chronicled happenings in terms of sports tourism. Historical Perspectives of Sports Tourism 63

The Hypnotic Dominance

From approximately 1643 to 1715, countries of Europe, were at various times, in different stages of upheaval and turmoil. The dominant and persistent debate was between faith and reason. Intellectual quests, during this era, pertained to science, philosophy, poetry, politics and power. France and England played important and vital roles in dominating and spreading ideologies.

Pastimes

During this historical period, sports tourism had not necessarily enjoyed the previous customary fervour and influence. Nevertheless, in England, sports did flourish somewhat. People did travel to watch cock fighting, bear and bull baiting, wrestling, pugilism and tight rope walking (Park, 1978: 13; Brasch, 1986: 275). Generally speaking, blood-animal sports appeared to be the national pastime draw, particularly for the lower classes. Distance travel for this social class was quite limited. Some aristocrats, however, did move about to enjoy such amusements (Guttmann, 1981: 54).

Tourists

There is evidence that spectators were not always content and happy to watch ongoing contests. On occasion, they would prefer to wrestle with one another. Travellers from other countries were somewhat surprised at the variety of English spectators at Bear Gardens and Cock Pits. It must be noted that, at this specific time in history, England was experiencing a cycle of violence – particularly struggles between the Catholics and the Protestants. And violence was accepted as an ‘un- avoidable fact of life’. Furthermore, many ‘ladies’ of the aristocracy also enjoyed and patronized these barbarous ‘recreations’ (Guttmann, 1981: 17–23; Dunning et al. 1993: 56–66).

Activities

Nevertheless, even with the acrimonious atmosphere in England, bowling, tennis and cricket progressively gained favour and fervour. With the system of royal highways being improved, high society drove in carriages, on pleasant afternoons, from one destination to another. The poor classes began to travel in stagecoaches. As such, roadside inns were more accommodating, inducing people to travel more and enjoy new touristic experiences. On the south bank of the Thames, Vauxhall Gardens became a fashionable resort, particularly for the wealthy. Also, in the 1700s, people in England began forming fishing clubs and holding casting competitions (Durant & Durant, 1961: 175; Cohen, 1994: 128–290). Pleasure sailing, during these years, became popular and enticing in Europe, especially in Holland, around the early 1600s (Cohen, 1994: 290). In Russia, special tracks were developed specifically for sledding, a sport prevalent in Norway during the 1400s. The Irish, with their fairs or aenochs emphasizing sports and athletics, attracted hordes of people from different localities. Shooting arrows from cross- bows, foot racing, jumping and forms of orbicular dances were relatively widespread 64 Zauhar

Table 5 Sport tourism events of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries

DateEvent Source

1681 Female professional dancers appeared for the first Gunn (1988: 311) time at the Opera de Paris. 1702Queen Anne of England gave royal approval to Gunn (1988: 321) horse racing, originated sweepstakes and idea – racing for cash awards. 1711 Queen Anne established Ascot races. Gunn (1988: 327) 1715–59Money-idlers from a dozen different states spent Durant & Durant their savings or declining years in relaxed morals (1967: 231) en plein air – gaiety of the canals – on gondolas in Venice. 1715 Many foreign travellers came to Italy to enjoy the Durant & Durant climate and scenery. (1967: 215) 1715 English actor Thomas Dugett offered prize monies Cohen (1994: 248) to winner of 4m mile race on Thames River. The following year, six-man crews participated from London Bridge to the Town of Chelsea. This race is still being held today.

in Poland, also attracting many spectators. The most significant of all competitions was the ‘marksmen’ held annually. Game hunting – auroch, bison and bear – calling for courage, stood in high respect and regard in terms of active and passive participation (Stanaland, 1983: 39; Ziolkowska, 1983: 60–9; Cohen, 1994: 280). In 1673, Tsfahan, with 1,500 villages surrounding it, and a population of 300,000, had 273 public baths and 1,800 caravanerais or inns. In ‘maidan’, horse races and polo matches retained the interests of many partisans, domestic as well as foreign (Durant & Durant, 1961: 528). Table 5 lists other interesting aspects of sports tourism during this era.

Dancing

Dancing claimed all classes. In Rome, dancing graced private homes, public gardens and urban streets. In many Latin countries, amusements were plentiful – giving occasions for dance such as carnivals, festivals and celebrations. In France, Spanish dance movements, combined with music, became the entertainment of the courts. And, in England, historians report that nearly everyone danced (Durant & Durant, 1961: 59–60, 191–253, 396, 509).

Summation

Under all conflicts, economic advances and different religious beliefs, Europe, in general, was improving and taking somewhat better form. Countries compromised; religions found their niches. Travel, as a form of education, was being endorsed and promulgated – extending to sports tourism activities. Throughout this period, there appears to be a continual urge for active and passive visitor participation. The sports tourism undercurrent seemed to be enduring, persevering and uninterrupted. Historical Perspectives of Sports Tourism 65

THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY: DOMINATION BY WAR

Introduction

Western Europe, from approximately 1715–56, evolved gradually while conflicts between religion and ideology continued. The perspectives of this half-century era lie in the development of the Industrial Revolution, in the collapse of feudalism in France, in the transformation of peripheral nations and in the triumph of certain philosophies (Durant & Durant, 1965: ch. 1). The second half of the eighteenth century also had its troubles and tribulations, for example the Boston Tea Party, the Declaration of American Independence, Britain’s loss of America, the architectural revolution in England, the French Revolution, the fully fledged Industrial Revolution (Chronicle of the World, 1989: 714, 725–7, 729–34, 785).

England

Throughout these tumultuous years, aspects of sports tourism prospered. In England, counties, towns and villages pitted their cocks against one another. The game of cricket, bear baiting , bull baiting and boxing thrived, particularly amongst the richer folks (Durant & Durant, 1965: 178). Practically all sports contests were accompanied by betting; and spectator crowds were abundant. The pleasures of the Gardens of Vauxhall and Ranelagh consisted of promenades, fireworks, acrobats, as well as onlooker sites for regattas, rowing, festivals and barges on the Thames. In 1739, when this river froze, Londoners staged a carnival of dancing ice (Durant & Durant, 1965: 62, 78–9). Weekends in country houses were a feature of this era’s English life. It was also fashionable to stay at some watering place for medicinal purposes. Some of these establishments offered music, Morris dancing, performing dogs and purgative waters. Evidently, the richer valetudinarians preferred sophistication – Bath, with its first pump room attracted a large clientele (Durant & Durant, 1965: 80).

England (specifics)

The Industrial Revolution was accompanied by spatial differentials. Industrialization and urbanization forced many more people to displace themselves. This was also true for sports. In a sense, sports began to move from a ‘rural environment’ to an ‘urban sports space’ – parks, rinks, courts and other facilities. Rural festivities, however, were durable and rooted enough to last into the nineteenth century (Guttmann, 1981). Smock races were very popular. These races were often attested by ballads. Motive for such races was for virgins to win a smock or a ribbon. And, Englishmen who migrated to the country’s colonies continued to be interested in such activity at local fairs. Yet, visitors from the continents often looked at these races with surprise, curiosity and wonder. A number of references to female boxers are quite frequent. Women, during this era, also fenced – however, this sport was not as popular as boxing. Both men and women were amongst the spectators; foreigners also have been noticed at these competitions (Guttmann, 1981). 66 Zauhar

Cricket was favoured by rural Englishmen of every social class. Before the end of the eighteenth century, a number of village teams were formed for women. In 1745, 11 women of Branley met a team from Hambleton. Two years prior, a tournament was held in Finnsbury involving several English villages (Guttmann, 1994). In 1719, Figg became the first bare knuckle champion of Britain – as a result, this new sport became a popular entertainment and drew large crowds. Furthermore, this sport activity was patronized by nobility and royalty. The London amphitheatre became the centre of boxing, attracting many onlookers for years to come (Brasch, 1986: 56). Sir Thomas Parkyns (1741 d.), protagonist of Cornish wrestling, estab- lished an annual wrestling match at Bunny Park, Nottingham, on his ancestral estate (Brasch, 1986: 395). Prize fighters were patronized by some aristocrats and admired by rural and urban masses. In 1737, 10,000 people gathered at Botley, Berkshire, to watch the wrestling matches. Often, spectators en route to the matches were a popular spectacle, fighting amongst themselves. In 1744, nobles and gentlemen complained of disorderly spectators at matches held at London’s Artillery Ground. Hence, special benches were provided for those onlookers willing to pay (Guttmann, 1981: 57, 75–7, 79). English political exiles became enthusiastic and excited about ‘palle malle’ while in France. On returning to England, Charles II and his retinue introduced this game (croquet) to become a rage throughout the country (Guttmann, 1981: 90). Interest in horse racing had developed and grown to such an extent that infor- mation on all possible race horses was published in the English racing calendar established in 1773 – giving accounts of race sites, matches and sweepstakes orga- nized in Britain and Ireland. Throughout the years, patrons became more enticed and allured; and, crowds grew bigger and bigger. In 1776, the buying and selling of horses was current practice, particularly by Richard Tattersall. This gentleman had a number of agents travelling around the country and to other foreign places to gather the finest mounts. Horse owners and race lovers gathered regularly in the establish- ments set up by Tattersall. For horse races, inns were filled and overfilled; and thousands took accommodation for one night in private homes or in barns (Guttmann, 1981: 75). Around 1779–80, aristocratic families inaugurated horse races on their properties – attracting throngs of people from far and wide as spectators (Brasch, 1986: 188). By 1742, skating in England was not merely a sport; it was a graceful and elegant art. In 1772, Robert Jones published the first handbook on figure skating, promulgat- ing this activity as a great pastime and a racing sport (Brasch, 1986: 226). As a consequence, this activity attracted a good number of participants and spectators. By 1774, water parties in England highlighted the royal entertainment circuit. At the very outset, members of the nobility, whose homes were along the banks of the River Thames, made exclusive use of barges. Later, many other boats plied the river. Oarsmen served different masters. Oarsmanship rivalry gradually grew and in- tensified; hence, all strived to prove their superiority in skill, strength and endurance. Races became common site and practice. These competitions became annual festive occurrences attracting large crowds of spectators (Brasch, 1986: 292).

Scotland

The Highland Games of Scotland have a history of dancing, piping and athletic events. The first gathering was at Bailemuirn on a special sports field. Activities Historical Perspectives of Sports Tourism 67 included ball games (horsehair ball), chariot races, wrestling, jumping, hammer throwing, archery and stone putting. Travelling jugglers were usually included to the common attractions. In 1780, to retain certain aspects of Scottish culture, the Highland Society was created, taking active part in the organization and planning of the Games. The tossing of the caber was added to the programmes, as well as pole vaulting. From then on, constant spectator and participatory success was to be found – both from local enthusiasts and tourists. For example, the Grieff Games (1870) attracted 4,000 onlookers (Webster, 1973: 9–11).

Ireland

Around 1752, fox hunters, returning home disappointed from their hunt, compen- sated their lack of success by racing from one church steeple to another over a distance of 6.40 km (steeplechase). From here on (Erin), the sport spread to England, where the course was extended to 32 km. Hunters, cavalrymen, spectators and sponsors welcomed this distance steeplechase riding (Brasch, 1986: 199). Furthermore, a memorable parade of the Water Club of the Harbour of Cork was featured in 1748–aprodigious number of boats with flying colours, beating drums and trumpet sounds. During the second half of the eighteenth century, such races began in English waters. In 1775, a notice in the Advertizer invited interested gentlemen to race from Westminster Bridge to Putney Bridge for the ‘silver cup’. Eighteen to twenty contestants took part. It was reported as a high success. In essence, this race was the introduction of yachting (Brasch, 1986: 307–8).

France

In the 1720s, Frenchmen and -women, bored with domestic chores and everyday routine, flocked to promenades, malls and dance halls, while the rich went hunting and the bourgeois feasted – les fetes champetres. There were also favourite resorts for carriage rides, walks and Easter parades at the Bois de Boulogne, les Jardins des Tuileries et les Jardins de Luxembourg. Dancing was quite popular at these sites – as everyone seemed to dance (Durant & Durant, 1965: 295).

Italy

In the eighteenth century, winter was the carnival season in Venice. Up to 30,000 tourists from all parts of Europe and the Orient flocked to the Canal City. Pro- grammes included masquerades, races, regattas, operas and serenades in the streets. Many cities throughout Europe followed suit and initiated carnivalesque activities (Gay, 1974: 94).

Germany

Bowling had its roots in people’s innate wish to throw or roll objects towards a target. Throughout many centuries, a form of bowling (skittles) was enjoyed. Nevertheless, bowling, of one kind or another, was a popular pursuit in Europe, especially in Germany. It became an integral part of German social life and was commonly practised by many on almost all festive occasions. Wealthy citizens built 68 Zauhar private alleys to entertain their guests. Individual cities arranged public bowling competitions and contests. From Germany, the sport of bowling spread to other countries – England, Scotland, Holland and the New World (Brasch, 1986: 364–70).

Russia

The first ice palace was constructed in Russia in the eighteenth century. The principal aim of building such a structure was to delight, entertain and serve as a focus for the winter carnival. In fact, the first palace was a ‘honeymoon’ suite (1740) for a bride and groom, a villa on the Neva with decorations of flora and fauna sculpted from ice and painted in natural colours. The ice palace was 56 feet long, 17m feet wide and over 21 feet high. The couple travelled from the church to the ice palace on elephant backs followed by over 100 couples from various provinces – travelling on horseback, camelback and sledges drawn by animals such as pigs and wolves (Andires & Agranoff, 1978: 13–15). However, in 1734, prior to the Neva ice palace, fortresses of snow and ice were built in which sham battles were displayed – the so-called storming of the castle. There also is mention of a bastion built of ice with ice-sculpted cannons and soldiers at Lubeck, in Germany (Andires & Agranoff, 1978: 13–15). All attracted keenly interested spectators.

Norway

Skiing was an established feature sport in Scandinavian armies of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. As a sport, Norwegians captured the pastime’s relaxation and competitive possibilities. In 1767, military competitions were held in Oslo – soldiers were invited to compete down a steep slope. The oldest known pair of skis, over 5,000 years old, is displayed in the Djurgarden Museum in Stockholm. Furthermore, hundreds of ancient snowshoes have been dug up, principally from Finnish and Swedish bogs (Brasch, 1986: 316–22).

Spain

During the eighteenth century, bullfights rivalled religion in Spain. Skilful and risk-taking toreadors were the idols of all classes. The colourful entrance , the dramatic exits , the capes and the richly embroidered costumes made bullfighting a symbol of Spanish culture and a great enticement to spectators world-wide. Further- more, dancing was also a major passion, sprouting variations that became famous all over Europe, for example Masquerade Balls sometimes attracted 3,500 dancers from various parts of the country (Durant & Durant, 1967: 291–26; Guttmann, 1994; Park, 1978: 9).

Australia

Australian people, from the very inception of the colony, loved horses and admired horsemanship. In 1788, the First Flat with its convicts and soldiers ran races along the Windsor–Parramatta roads, a distance of 25.60 km, with the intent to soften relationships and ease tensions. Historical Perspectives of Sports Tourism 69

Hawaii

Captain Cook and his crew in reaching Hawaii (1778) were amazed to see men skimming across the water waves on long wooden boards. The popularity and antiquity of this sport activity is quite unknown. However, the Hawaiians have persevered in surfing from approximately the tenth century, as attested by numerous legends, chants and specialized vocabulary. Apparently, surfing displays and fierce competitions in riding out the swells were very prominent. Contests included several heats. The winners received prizes; losers, on the other hand, were obliged to surrender their possessions and even their personal freedom (Brasch, 1986: 331–3).

The United States of America (USA)

A few years after the British–American conflict, the game of cricket made headway throughout the USA, particularly in the South (Virginia, South Carolina). In effect, cricketing activity and competition blossomed during the end of the eighteenth century and the beginning of the nineteenth – attracting active and passive partici- pants. Horse racing came to North America along with the Colonists who journeyed to the New World from England. The first horse race in the USA was set up on Long Island, New York – the Newmarket. Furthermore, as America’s harness racing evolved from a local pastime to an independent sport, trotting races were being arranged for public enjoyment purposes. Implications as to the first public trotting events, although evidence is lacking, appear to be in and around the second quarter of the eighteenth century. In effect, edicts barring and outlawing this sport restricted activities to certain days of the year (1774 in Maryland and 1748 in New Jersey) (Cohen, 1994: 188; Guttmann, 1994).

Native Peoples (Canada–USA)

Canadian Indian tribes had their own secret ceremonies that included dance. In the West, Sun Dances staged at mid-summer lasted for days, consisting of shuffles. At times, to frenzied rhythms of drums, they would perform a Dance of War – a primitive form of play and mimetic drama of an attack against an enemy camp. The Ojibwa had a special rite called the Dance of the Snowshoes (Rasky, 1967: 31–4). Reportedly, around 1730, Canadian Indians of the West impounding of big herds of buffalo was a community sport. Apparently, old women and men would travel a mile or more out of their villages and sit by the wayside to observe the spectacle (Rasky, 1967: 23–4). Sioux Indians played hockey with a soft ball made of elk or moose hair covered with buckskin; while the Chilean Indians used hard balls for this game (Mapuche) (Brasch, 1986: 172–4). No doubt, onlookers were emotionally involved. Amongst the North American Indians, lacrosse was known as ‘baggataway’. Usually, this game was a battle between 500 warriors or more on either side. Spectators who wished to join the fray were most welcome. Villages pitted against each other. Often, thousands of spectators crowded along the sidelines. The Ameri- can Indians were delighted to give displays and play for special onlookers of white settlers (Brasch, 1986: 248–50). Europeans were very anxious to play this sport of 70 Zauhar lacrosse. In effect, records detail a number of earlier matches between Indians and French Canadians (Brasch, 1986: 254). Furthermore, American Indians were well-acquainted with wrestling, long before white men came to the New World. Wrestling was also popular amongst the early American pioneers. As such, many accounts exist describing matches with Indians, not to mention spectators that were delighted to watch these spectacles.

Mountain climbing

The European Alps are known to be the birthplace of mountain climbing (Jones, 1976: 33). In 1741, a party of eight gentlemen, all members of the British colony of Geneva, were determined to climb Montavert in Chamonix and its glaciers (Newby, 1977: 12–14). In 1775, the first serious attempts were made to climb Mont Blanc. Only in the following year did Michel-Gabriel Paccaud and his guide, Jacques Bulmat, succeed (Newby, 1977: 12–15). However, in 1767, professor de Saussure made the first circumambulation of Mont Blanc – now a six-day excursion known as ‘le Tour de Mont Blanc’. His interest in mountain climbing stimulated this activity to become an official sport in 1856 (Newby, 1977: 16, 27). In 1799, the first two English women mountain climbers ascended Le Buet, 3,099 m in height (Newby, 1977: 35). Note must be made that in 433 BC, Greek philosopher Empedocles ascended Mount Etna, an Italian volcano (3,264 m) merely to throw himself into the crater. The Roman Emperor Trajan and Macedonian King Philip V climbed mountains to survey their territories and devise fighting strategies. Also, Italian poet Petrach, climbed French mountain Alps at Varcluse to be elated by joyful experiences and majestic views (Brasch, 1986: 263–4). Mountain climbing officially became a sport in 1929.

Speleology

First attempts of cave explorations can be attested to mathematician Nigel. He descended to the bottom of the Macocha Propast Cave (Czechoslovakia) by order of the Emperor of Austria. Apparently, this was the first incidence of cave exploration since 1660, when Jacques de Cluny scientifically described the ‘grotte d’Avey-sur- CurTe’, in Yvonne, France (Courbon et al. 1989: 13). These attempts have, through time, stimulated interest in touristic endeavours.

Additional Facts

Table 6 lists but a few additional examples of certain facts impacting directly or indirectly, actively or passively, on sports tourism during the eighteenth century.

Summation

Throughout the eighteenth century, there existed a steady sports tourism pulsation, in a sense, ready to be harnessed or exploited to a greater degree. There are a number of occurrences that are not necessarily sports and tourism in nature. Yet, the foundations of these activities were implanted for future sport growth and development; for example, cave exploration, hot air balloon travel and Historical Perspectives of Sports Tourism 71

Table 6 Examples of events impacting on sport tourism in the eighteenth century

DateEvent Source

1735 Pergolesi conducted his opera l’Olympiade in Durant & Durant Rome. (1967: 256) 1770s Travellers turned increasingly to write descriptions Eisner (1993: 81–92) of beautiful nature, searching for novelty in places and emotions to be evoked. 1773 Historian Jean Piletre de Rozier and Marquis The Reader’s Digest d’Arlandes ascended, near Paris, in a 78,000 cu. ft. Association (1982: 35) mongolfiere to land 26 minutes later about five miles away. 1773 Professor Charles and Marie-Nodle Robert rose in The Reader’s Digest an air balloon from the Tuileries before a crowd Association (1982: 35) of 400,000 and were air-borne for two hours, travelling 27 miles. 1780 In Japan, the ancient sport of sumo wrestling Chronicle of the World performed at shrines and temples became a public (1989: 736) spectacle, with competitions lasting for ten days. These matches aroused great passions amongst spectators, men as well as women. 1784 Floating 700 yards above the City of London to Chronicle of the World the acclamation of the Prince of Wales and (1989: 744) 150,000 onlookers, Vincent Lunardi became England’s first hot air balloonist. 1785Jean Frantois Blanchard, a Frenchman, and John Durant & Durant Jeffries, an American physician, flew in a balloon (1967: 933) from England to France. People, first-hand witnesses as well as non-spectators, began talking of flying to America. 1787 James Stewart, an architect and painter, and Eisner (1993: 71–2) Nicholas Revett published The Antiquities of Athens, with drawings of buildings and statues on the Acropolis and elsewhere (actual ruins). mountain climbing. This historical period further exemplifies that human beings have the innate desire for challenge, adventure and excitement.

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY: THE STEPPING STONES

Introduction

In Western Europe, revolutions failed, nationalism was on the reprise and idealism, as a philosophy, prospered. France became the most populous and most prosperous nation of Europe. England, on the other hand, rose to much geographical challenge by making and bearing the Industrial Revolution. The seas became the country’s territorial extension (The Reader’s Digest Association, 1974: 280; Durant & Durant, 1975: 3, 153, 374). Amongst many nations, there existed an underlying current of unrest. Many countries fought and sought control. Some scrambled for African territories; some, through force, gained power and geographical occupation. Still others, through rebellion, freed themselves from certain rules. And, new areas of the USA and Canada were gradually being settled (The Reader’s Digest Association, 1974: 280–1). 72 Zauhar

The world’s economy began to increase. Countries such as France and Germany were becoming industrialized; and colonization engendered powerful impressions upon lifestyles and aspirations – amongst these being sports activities and fandom. The following century (twentieth), was characterized by successive crises – wars, economic depressions, intellectual purges and military oppressions. Only in the mid-1950s was there a spectacular economic recovery resulting, chiefly, from intense development of technology and global trade (The Reader’s Digest Association, 1974: 281). Nevertheless, throughout these upheavals, turmoil and recovery periods, sports activities, development and tourism were prevalent and increasingly becoming imbed- ded into different facets of life.

Sports Formations

The nineteenth century witnessed a tremendous growth of sports clubs, associations and federations throughout diverse countries of the world. In fact, these sports formations through team structures, league affiliations and competitive spectacles helped increase participatory interests, active as well as passive. They also con- tributed to solidify fandom intensity and longevity amongst all levels of society. Furthermore, sports scenarios began to change significantly with the development of the railroad. This commutation mode permitted people to travel more readily from one sports destination to another, thus impacting directly on the sports tourism movement.

Spectatorism

Athletic events, contests and competitions in the nineteenth century gradually became highly rationalized, specialized and professionalized (Guttmann, 1981: 83). The roles between active and passive participation became more distinctive. Athletes began spending more time on their training and perfection of skills; onlookers qualified their sports enthusiasm through the appreciation of athletic achievements and excel- lence. This role delineation between athlete and spectator was induced and facilitated by communications, sports writings and sports periodicals – later, in the twentieth century, more readily by radio, television and electronic media (Guttmann, 1981: 83–5). This distinction, however, did not restrict the general public from participating in sports on an amateur and recreational level; nor did it eliminate the imitation and emulation elements to be found amongst enthusiasts – be they young or old. Popularity of certain sports in the nineteenth century was based on social clan structure. Some sports, because of their required expertise and equipment costs, were quite fashionable amongst the richer populations – for example, horse racing. Certain sports transgressed all levels of society, such as the Soccer Cup Final in the 1880s which attracted tens of thousands of spectators from all walks of life and social strata, growing to 200,000 in 1923 (Guttmann, 1981: 83–4). Moreover, throughout the last two centuries of this millennium, spectators realized that each sport had its season. Evidently, there are constant shifts in popularity and duration, depending on economic conditions, world politics and the like. Nevertheless, basic patterns of spectatorship are evidenced taking into account different social strata, education levels, economic status of athletes, etc. Historical Perspectives of Sports Tourism 73

Women’s Athletics

‘The 19th century was dominated esthetically by Romanticism’. The primary concern was for women’s health – not for athletics. Many thought that exercise for women was necessary but not in a competitive manner. To them, it was thought that sports would spoil women’s looks and attractiveness. Nevertheless, women did perform in athletics. For instance, in France and in England, some women from the working class boxed and wrestled. Some performed on stages, in barns or in backrooms. Female pugilism was also common in the USA (New York). In Pittsburg (1888), women competed in a six-day bicycle race to the delight of 1,500 spectators. Such competitions were also to be found in Great Britain and in France. In the summer of 1903, approximately 2,500 Parisian women took part in a foot race before a crowd of 20,000 onlookers cheering and jeering the participants. The following year, 70 girls competed in the German Damensportsfest, which included 400 m heats and a 500 m final. Scotland (1810) started offering occasional prizes to female golfers. In 1897-8, the Stirling Ladies Golf Club sponsored 22 separate competitions for its members. And, in 1900, the ladies played seven matches against rival clubs. In the USA, athletic clubs were a common feature – particularly amongst the middle social class. Most, however, did not accept girls or women as members. As such, some women formed clubs of their own. By 1905, the Coca-Cola Company published its first advertisement: a man with golf clubs, a girl with a tennis racket in her hand. Women were finding their active way in summer resorts and country clubs. Throughout the decades, other countries introduced women sports. Copenhagen (Denmark) organized rowing competitions in 1890. Berlin (Germany), held canoe races in 1895; while Hamburg had held ice-skating races ten years prior to that. Gradually, the prospect of women’s sports became a reality. Professional sports organizations were being faced with developing more effective and responsive struc- tures and competitions (Guttmann, 1981). Women’s travel displacement for sport purposes slowly increased and became popular.

England

In the nineteenth century, sports began to manifest national characteristics (Brails- ford, 1992: 53). Horse racing was the spectator sports event. Virtually all populations got to the race course at least once a year. Prize fighters, on the other hand, could easily attract 10,000 spectators. Pugilists came from all over the country and national loyalties were commonly stressed. In 1813, steamboat rides were very popular. Trips to Margate and Ramsgate attracted 17,000 passengers, which grew to 105,000 people enjoying these trips by 1836. In 1880, crowds attending cricket matches grew in numbers as the railroad facilitated travel throughout England, promoting new recreational opportunities (Brailsford, 1992: 54–6, 72–84). In the 1800s, formal rowing races attracting many spectators were gaining favour. Competitions between the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge began in 1829. Ten years later, the most famous Henley Regatta was held on the River 74 Zauhar

Thames (Guttmann, 1994). The Harvard/Oxford race of 1869 drew an estimate of one million spectators along the banks of the Thames – an international touristic venture. Cricket, in the nineteenth century, was associated with the upper classes. This aristocratic status sport, in the 1890s, attracted 30,000 spectators, on average, per match. Soccer, on the other hand, was a people’s sport. In the 1870s, soccer crowds numbered around 20,000 per game. Twenty years later, 50,000 was the average; and, for the Cup Final in 1923, 200,000 crammed the Wembley Stadium (Guttmann, 1981: 104–8). Women spectators, during the nineteenth century, were quite rare. Yet, during the next century, the number of women, at times, grew to fifty percent of sports attendees. Evidently, the different crises occurring during the first part of this century fluctuated the active/passive participatory numbers and the flux of tourist crowds.

United States of America

In the USA, specific occurrences or happenings during the nineteenth century fostered the development of and accentuated the sports tourism phenomenon (see Table 7 for examples of but a few of these). Riverboats served as carriers for racers and prize fighters. Later, horse racers were shipped by rail. When, in 1857, the Michigan Central Railway Baseball Club commenced, droves of spectators came by steamers and trains. Furthermore, the surge of westward immigration in the USA contributed immensely to sports develop- ment and tourism. People travelled by rivers. Towns like Louisville, St Louis and Memphis created centres of social activity. Hence, tracks were built for horse racing. Foot race competitions were organized and fighting and boxing exhibitions were presented. In rural agricultural fairs (1840s), boating regattas, foot races and billiard matches attracted active and passive participants (Betts, 1974: 22–33). Moreover, the Westchester Cup, the 1886 Polo Tournament between England and the USA, attracted several sports tourists. The USA, at this time, counted 72 different polo league circuits, 270 private and college clubs implicated in diverse types of competitions (Cohen, 1994: 228–9). American sports, it may well be said, have flourished particularly within the educational system. Growth in interest, enthusiasm and competitiveness resulted in highly skilled professionalism with a fandom following. However, two particular sports have gained prestige and popularity in the USA through country clubs – namely, tennis and golf. These clubs were founded towards the end of the nineteenth century. Amongst the most prominent were the Brookline Country Club in Boston (1882) and the Tuxedo Park of New Jersey (1885). These clubs were set up to suit a proper class of people – race, ethnic or religious groups and economic richness. Privacy was fetish and viewing stands were selective. This protectiveness encouraged specific female spectatorship and active participation (Guttmann, 1981: 95–7). The City of Newport, Rhode Island, opted to become an entire residential country club for the e´lite. The ‘nouveaux riches’ constructed their mansional do- maines, built docks for their expensive yachts and cherished their particular spectator privileges. Social exclusion and inclusion were the motivating factors (Guttmann, 1981: 96–7). Historical Perspectives of Sports Tourism 75

Table 7 Examples of events fostering the development of sports tourism in the nineteenth century

Date Event Source

1823 Horse racing was the major sport. First Boyle (1963: 9) international race attracted 50,000 spectators in New York. 1835 First yacht race was recorded in North America Guttmann (1994) (New York). Today, circuits include the Southern Ocean Racing competitions, the Whitbread Round and the World Race–atransatlantic and transpacific competition. 1868The American Skating Congress held races. Later, Guttmann (1994) in 1927, the Amateur Speedskating Union was formed to organize races and serve as governing body. 1869Cincinnati Red Stockings (baseball team) travelled Guttmann (1994) around the country, thus, directly and indirectly, enticing the formation of the National Association of Baseball Players with ten teams in different cities – to be followed by the National League (1876) and the American League in 1901. 1876 Craze of the bicycle took over after an exhibition Boyle (1963: 26–32) of the English machine at the Philadelphia Centennial. This was followed by the Yellow Fellow Transcontinental Bicycle Relay from San Francisco to New York. The bicycle played a key part in harnessing racing, flying, motorboating, motorcycling and automobiles. 1885 First automobile race in Chicago ( Illinois) – 54 Cohen (1994: 10–11) miles. Today, there are five major types of auto racing: Formula One, Indy Car, Stock Car, Sports Car and Drag racing – attracting millions of spectators, domestic as well as foreign enthusiasts. 1892 Basketball made its first appearance in front of Cohen (1994: 52–3) 200 attendees. Today, this sport is played in more than 100 nations with millions of fans /onlookers. 1895 First professional football game was played Cohen (1994: 148) between Latrobe YMCA and the Jeannette Athletic Club. In 1920, a 14-team American Professional Football Association was formed, changing its name to the National Football League, two years later. Here, again, tourists well number the spectator followership. 1895 The American Bowling Congress was organized Cohen (1994: 84–5) counting ten leagues. Today, more than 2.5 million bowlers compete in over 100,000 leagues. From 1959, professional bowling tour travels have been organized with approximately 3,600 members in 30 tour stops.

On the other hand, promoters and entrepreneurs attempted to allure all social classes to horse races – particularly by introducing a system of betting. For example, in 1845, people drove out to Long Island (NY) in cabriolets, chariots, drays and wagons; a good number (3,000) crossed by ferry – in all, 30,000 spectators filled the grandstands (Guttmann, 1981: 99–9). This was a good example of sports tourism. 76 Zauhar

Table 8 Events contributing to the advancement of sports tourism in Canada in the nineteenth century

Date Event

1850 Beginning of baseball; teams from Southern Ontario, Hamilton and Woodstock compete. 1860 First Queen’s Plate run at Toronto Turf Club. 1866 Caughnawaga Indians become first lacrosse champions in Canada. 1867 Team from St John, NB defeats Europe’s best rowers in four-oared championships in Paris. 1868 Lacrosse Canada team defeats USA. 1870 Teams with ethnic affiliations emerge in Canada (Irish, Scots, French, etc.), competing in lacrosse and swimming. 1874 McGill University football team plays Harvard in Montreal. 1878 Canada plays touring Australian cricket team. 1879 University of Ottawa football team plays University of Michigan. 1885 Lacrosse Championships held in Montreal, 1887 Toronto, St Regis and Ontarians (Toronto) compete. 1886 Representatives from Montreal, Quebec City and Ottawa form the Amateur Hockey Association of Canada and donate the Stanley Cup. 1897 The Canadian Intercollegiate Rugby (football union) is founded. Membership includes: McGill, Queen’s, Ottawa College, Royal Military College, Bishop’s and McMaster.

Sources: Howell and Howell (1969: 27); Metcalfe (1984: 133–40, 192–7); Booth (1997: 112–17); Guttmann (1994).

Canada

Certain initiatives, events and tours in Canadian history contributed to the advance- ment of sports tourism. Amongst available factual information, a number of selected highlights retain relevancy (Table 8). Snowshoeing, in Canada, went through three phases. First, 1840–66 was the era when the sport originated. Secondly, from 1867 to 1879, there was a shift towards organized sport and a competitive racing emphasis. Third, 1880–95, events such as winter carnivals perpetuated snowshoeing competitions until its decline (Morrow, 1988: 7). Ordinarily, members, non-members, Indians and garrison personnel participated in snowshoe events. Competitions included one-mile steeplechase runs, distance contests and tramping components. In 1868, The Montreal Gazette reported 800 spectators at the annual races of the Alexander Snowshoe Club. In Ottawa, the next year, 5,000 spectators attended races. During the following years, commercial and spectatorial interests and enthusiasm intensified all organized sports competitions (Morrow, 1988: 17–19). ‘Spectators would drive in sleighs to observe the start then drive to the destination to witness the finish’ (Morrow, 1988: 27). Hotels and resting spots were busy with snowshoe groups and enthusiasts (Morrow, 1988: 27–8). In Western Canada, canoeing, sleighing and snowshoeing, along with horse racing and dancing, were the sports activities commonly reported (Morrow, 1988: 52–7). Trials of strength were also quite popular. So were wrestling, running, jumping, putting the stone and throwing the hammer. Amongst the more favourite sports were tobogganing, skating and sailing. However, migration influenced Canadian sports Historical Perspectives of Sports Tourism 77 activities. The Scots transported golf and curling. Scottish societies featured athletic events for their co-patriots. Military staff promulgated cricket matches and equestrian contests. They loved horse racing, hunting, trotting and steeplechasing. By the end of 1812, and war with the USA, there were approximately 30,000 troops throughout the Canadian provinces -- hence, the encompassing interests in specific games and sports. Intertown sports competitions grew; return trips by steamship companies along certain routes were offered. Later, railway companies adopted similar practices – to entice touristic interest in travel. Clubs, 25 or 259 miles apart, could now compete. This gave impetus to certain sports such as curling – claiming thousands of spectators in attendance, including the Governor-General in 1841. As a good example, in 1858, clubs from Montreal, Bowmanville, Newcastle, Paris, London, Bayfield, Dundas, Ancaster, West Flamborough, Fergus, Guelph and Hamilton participated in a bon- spiel (168 players on 42 rinks) (Lindsay, 1982: 50–65). Around 1852, covered rinks were sprouting in Canada, starting with Quebec City, then in Montreal, followed by other municipalities. This skating innovation produced gala balls on ice, tournament races, ‘fancy’ skating competitions and shinty, hurley and bandey – all attracting great numbers of spectators, as well as participants from near and afar (Lindsay, 1982: 67–72). By 1900, a pro hockey league was organized, including American and Canadian players. This sports formation later developed into the National Hockey League (NHL), consisting of four teams vying for the Lord Stanley Cup. As an example, in the early 1930s, the Toronto Maple Leafs allured close to 300,000 fans; and, in 1938, the Maple Leaf Garden drew close to 900,000 spectators. Today, with the intent of building a new facility, the million spectator mark is visualized (Kidd, 1997: 192–9). Over the last 25 years, the NHL counts more than 26 teams from Canada and the USA and top players coming from different countries (Cohen, 1994: 208–9). Accessibility to waterplans and waterways helped establish aquatic activities at the early stages of Canadian historical development. The earliest organized regattas were found in the Maritimes (1880), particularly in Newfoundland. Crews from St John’s rivalled oarsmen from Halifax, Boston and New York. Later, Halifax (1826) and Quebec City (1830) organized similar regatta competitions. Sailing regattas were also popularized by the Halifax Yacht Club in 1837. It is reported that harbours, on competition days, were covered with sail and row boats. Throngs of tents and spectators were strewn all over wharves and hills. Furthermore, floating bath houses were constructed on many rivers, lakes and seashores adjacent to invaded towns (Cohen, 1994: 76–9). Race meetings throughout the nineteenth century were also very fashionable, particularly in large urban centres – attracting thousands of spectators. And racing horses on the ice of the St Lawrence and other rivers became a most trendy winter sport. Towns would almost be deserted for such races (Cohen, 1994: 81–2). During this period, Canada also had competitive boxing, wrestling and the pankraton. American Indian tribes – Dogrib, Slave, Ottawa, Algonquin, Huron and Ojibwa – held their games, which included dancing, archery, racquet activities, ring tossing, stone throwing and football. In 1844, the Montreal Olympic Games were held with a variety of competitive activities, such as snowshoeing, racquets, lacrosse, etc. for club members as well as non-members (Booth, 1997: 6, 77–98). All these activities tended to attract local and domestic participation; some requiring much travel displacement. 78 Zauhar

Baseball thrived in and around Hamilton. In 1859, the game received attention in Toronto, Barton and Woodstock, spreading to Halifax and Victoria. In 1867, Canadian teams entered the international competition in Detroit (Lindsay, 1982: 75). Today, the Toronto Blue Jays attract close to three million spectators per season (1977 – 1,700,052), (1995 – 2,826,483) and the Montreal Expos, close to 2.5 million (1969 – 1,212,608), (1993 – 2,320,651) (Rosentraub, 1997: 6–10). Gentlemen from Boston would also make special trips with their horses for the pleasure of joining Canadian Hunt Clubs. Intertown pigeon shooting matches were also very common throughout the nineteenth century. Teams from Scarborough challenged another from Toronto (1835). And some German immigrants from Kitchener would organize a Turnverein, giving public displays on horizontal and parallel bars, climbing ropes and swinging rings. At one such exhibition in 1863, 1,500 spectators were in attendance (Lindsay, 1982: 87). Female attendance at all spectacular sports events, contests and demonstrations was encouraged – so was participation to the measure plausible and possible. Above all, dancing was very popular in both rural and urban milieux. Round and square dances were favoured. In fact, dance academies were set up to assist people in this art (Lindsay, 1982: 97). In essence, traditional sports activities continued in import- ance during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Nevertheless, the emergence of new sports signified a country with keen interest in participation and spectatoritis (Lindsay, 1982: 105).

China

Neolithic cultures have been discovered in China dating to the third millennium BC and possibly earlier. The first millennium saw the passage from feudalism to the development of small municipalities The fifth to the third centuries were ages of great intellectual diversity. Schools of thoughts competed with one another – particularly Confucianism and Taoism. A sequence of major dynasties followed, leading to industrial activity, mainly in Central and South China (Smith & Weng, 1979: 10, 83). In essence, the history of China is long, eventful and illustrious. The selected highlights in Table 9 give an indication of sports achievement prior to the late nineteenth century. Traditional Chinese health sports are mushu, ogung, taijiquam and waguinzi (Knuttgen et al. 1990: 5–91). Western sports, however, have only been introduced in Asia, with competitive elements, in the latter half of the nineteenth century (Knuttgen et al. 1990: 90–1). The first competitive sport activity to be recorded, involving modern sports, dates to 1890 – track and field events at St John’s College in Shangan. The most prestigious Chinese festivity introduced to Western countries is the Dragon Race Festival–asport activity rapidly gaining prominence.

According to popular legend, the exiled poet and patriot Qu Yuam decided to take his own life by drowning himself in the river after hearing of his home province’s defeat in battle. When the local fishermen learned of his intentions, hundreds of them raced out in their boats to save him, all the while splashing their paddles and beating drums to keep the water dragons away from him (Weinberger, 1996: 31).

From this event, (475–221 BC) the yearly festival ‘Dragon Race Regatta’ is held in memory of Qu Yuam. The river he was to have drowned in is the Miluo River in Hunan province (Knuttgen et al. 1990: 95–6). Historical Perspectives of Sports Tourism 79

Table 9 Highlights of sporting achievements in China prior to the late nineteenth century

Date Event

1600–1066 BC Relationship of exercise to good health is recognized at the end of the Shang Dynasty. 1066–771 BC Western Zhou Dynasty’s growing importance and consciousness to health maintenance is noticed, thus introducing exercise routines and skills popularized through ceremonies, music and archery. 772–481 BC For autumn and spring contests, soldiers were required to run 50–150 km in full battle dress. 770–476 BC Horse racing was mostly popular in Tibet, Inner Mongolia, Yunnan and Guizhoe. The number of participants in such events sometimes reached 1,000. 475–221 BC Archery, fencing, boxing, wrestling and weightlifting were commonly practised in China. Cavalrymen participated in horsemanship, shooting from horse back, sword demonstrations and long weapon activities. AD 581–907 The Golden Age, the T’ang Dynasty brought peace and prosperity. Public entertainment was commonly found (variety shows, roadside tents, music, sports activity). AD 700 The sport of polo came to China – thus, need for superb horsemanship developed. The rich, particularly royalty, competed against Tibetans. Countryside playgrounds set aside for polo were large and smooth. When games continued into the night, large candles were lit to illuminate the play area. Certain clay models show female polo players. The same play areas were used for tug-of-war contests. Often, ministers, noblemen and emperors participated. On one occasion, 7,000 soldiers exhibited strength to impress attending dignitaries. AD 907–1279 Painting depicts a gathering of ball players and spectators – showing sport to be loved by Sung people. It also shows colourful costumes, disregarding status in the sports world. AD 1100 Outside public amusements were popularized and the seating capacity numbered several thousands. Singing, dancing and horse displays were prevalent. AD 1368–1644 Paintings by Italian Jesuit, Castiglione, details archery contest in presence of the monarch. Painting of dragon boat race held on the fifth day of the fifth lunar month depicts happy and spectacular sporting event.

Sources: Smith and Weng (1979: 10, 33, 132, 167); Knuttgen et al. (1990: 5, 91).

In 1996, Vancouver, Canada, played host to the World Championship Dragon Boat Festival. This international competition featured over 100 local teams, as well as crews from New Zealand, Australia, Germany, the Philippines, the USA and, without question, the People’s Republic of China. In three days, this sports tourism event attracted more than 100,000 spectators. It is becoming a celebration of diversity and multiculturalism. Since its introduction to North America, festivals have sprung up in Victoria, Calgary, Toronto, Montreal, Ottawa and other cities across the USA (Knuttgen et al. 1990: 31–2).

Australia

The nineteenth century was the ‘genesis’ of sport in Australia. Unification of divided communities was the goal of organized activity. Transportation modes increased participation; visiting ships encouraged sport competition; and the construction of 80 Zauhar sophisticated sports facilities fostered spectator interests. Australia then became, in essence, the home of every sport. For example:

• croquet – Australia was the first country to conceive the idea of international contests in 1868; • cycling–acrowd of 12,000 spectators watched the first race organized in 1869; the first women’s race was conducted in 1888; • rugby – around 1869, the University of Sydney’s students arranged matches with passengers of visiting ships; • horse racing – first specific meeting held in 1810 on the grounds which became Hyde Park and called to welcome hordes of race enthusiasts throughout the years; • water sports – rowing races, sailing contests and swimming competitions particu- larly belong to the Australian way of life (1818); • the Olympics – since the inaugural modern Games in 1876, Australians have participated on every occasion.

Australia also organized intercolonial contests which promoted sports tourism, such as: bicycling in 1881; rifle shooting in 1885; cricket in 1885; soccer in 1890; tennis in 1895; and polo in 1896 (Howell & Howell, 1992: 183). From 1850 to 1890, rowing developed into international competitions; nine- and ten-pin bowling followed in 1855 in various parts of Australia; and, regattas, with few events, were loosely organized. Nevertheless, sports activities did attract large crowds (Howell & Howell, 1992: 183). A good example of large spectatorship could be traced to the Hobart Town Regatta, where in 1834, 5,000 people attended. Often, these crowds would follow, on foot, the flotilla of small boats along the Durvent River. Onshore, whaleboat crews celebrated their ‘war dance’ to the delight of onlookers. Throughout the following years, crowds of 12,000 or more were often estimated – leaving certain towns almost deserted (Atkinson & Avelong, 1987: 266–88). Certain sports were popularized in the twentieth century, gradually gaining interest and evoking competitiveness on many levels. Amongst these late comers, the follow- ing are but a few examples: 1908, ice hockey; 1920, badminton; 1928, judo; 1930, basketball; 1962, karate (Brasch, 1986: ch. 47).

Other countries

Many other countries, through their particular sports interests, expressions and happenings, enhanced, directly or indirectly, the overall concept of sports tourism during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Cubans, for example, because of baseball exhibition games between American ship crews and local stevedores, devel- oped a taste for that sport – thus, leading to professional team competitions between Havana, Almendares and Matanzas. This athletic combatancy evolved into a 16- baseball island team league involving professional athletes and a multitude of enthusiastic followers. By 1891, the Dominican Republic organized baseball games amongst Cuban, North American and German players (Potaviono & Pye, 1994: 26–7, 41). The island of Cuba, from the inaugural bullfights in Matanzas, in 1808, with professional matadors, continued to draw people from different areas of the country. The same may be said for boxing matches – first held in Havana in 1909 (Potaviono & Pye, Historical Perspectives of Sports Tourism 81

1994: 41–50) – inducing sports travel. In the 1800s, weightlifting was popularized in Germany, France and Scandinavia – becoming a medal sport in the first modern Olympics held in 1896. Weightlifting today, both as a sport and as a form of exercise towards fitness, involves millions of people and competitions are held in more than 100 countries (i.e. World Masters Goodwill Games). Germany also initiated the first table tennis World Championship, attracting players from nine countries in Berlin during 1926 (Brasch, 1986: 257; Guttmann, 1994). Although it is considered that India introduced badminton (poona)tothe world, the first national match drawing attention was held in 1909 between England and Ireland. In no time, this racquet sport spread to Europe, Australia and New Zealand – leading to local, regional, national and international competitions. India, on the other hand, organized an important soccer tournament in Calcutta in 1911 (Guttmann, 1994). Crowds of world-wide participants were lured to this event. In 1896, Englishmen joined forces with Italians to create soccer clubs which led to a sponsored national championship three years later in Genoa and Turin. In 1910, Hungarians hosted Italians in Budapest for a soccer match attracting 15,000 Hungar- ian spectators. This same year, France promoted motorcycling by organizing a 139-mile race from Paris to Nantes and back, involving nine riders. This event led to the inauguration of the first International Cup Race held in the country in 1904. France also organized the first World Shooting Championship in 1897 in Lyon – becoming a major event in the modern Olympics for both men and women. In essence, these ‘firsts’ did effect subsequent sports tourism participation and follower- ship (Cohen, 1994: 226, 262). Mexico, in the nineteenth century, greatly encouraged balloon flights – surrounded by pomp and splendour. These events attracted large crowds and allowed customers to special ringside seats (1835). Animal parachute drops, acrobatics and aerialists were often featured to enhance the balloon excitement. By 1908, advertising slogans began to appear on balloons and balloonists began to tour the provinces (Khun, 1986). Also, between 1854 an 1897, aerial expeditions provided much excitement to those wishing to discover unknown parts of the globe. In 1897, a gondola housing three men from Sweden, with supplies and survival equipment, rose into the blowing winds – resulting in failure several days later, yet, attracting much attention and interest (Delpar, 1980). Today, the biggest hot air balloon festival in the world is held in Gatineau, Quebec, attracting 300,000 spectators and participants from more than 20 countries – implicating 12,000 tourist caravans, recreation vehicles and campers; close to ninety percent of this crowd has returned yearly for the last ten years (CBC Information, 1998). Although early fiestas in Mexico included classical Spanish-style matadors, Mexi- cans developed their own particular approach on two distinctive levels: (i) as a gentlemen’s pastime; (ii) as a professional spectacle to be found in challenges, contests and shows. When bullfighting was banned in early 1890, Mexico’s profes- sionals came north to the USA joining popular travelling shows, such as the Vincente Oropeza, thus, evolving and contributing to the makings of the American rodeo (Lecompte, 1983: 60–1); not withstanding the Canadian Calgary Stampede, drawing participants and spectators from wide and afar. Furthermore, in the Mexican Yucatan, there exist 2,000 miles of chartered underwater caves. This system, popular- ized since 1980, allures cave divers, scuba fans and enthusiastic explorers, providing 82 Zauhar sport and educational opportunities – in essence, an underwater playground and touristic attraction (Sport Diver Television, 1997). In Scotland, spectator sports like the Highland Games and professional soccer developed so rapidly in the nineteenth century that they outran the supply of customer–spectators. Too many professional club competitions were simultaneously vying for the favour of the same sports enthusiasts. To ensure viability and to attract participants and onlookers, many sports clubs had to amalgamate. Nevertheless, large crowds continued to watch regattas (1896); and cricket matches regularly attracted throngs of fans. However, in sports circles, the size of spectator masses varied in accordance with imposed admission charges. Memberships in curling, quoiting, golf and bowling clubs suffered the same consequences. Yet, during the latter part of the nineteenth century, the Scots demanded more organized sports and more skilled competitions. This, by itself, prompted sports to become institutional- ized (Tranter, 1990) – thereby increasing the sports touristic undertakings, potentials and possibilities. The Hawaiian archipelago consists of 130 islands, islets, sand cays and reefs. Athletic games, sports, and festivals in ancient Hawaii were highly ritualistic, reflecting the society. Missionaries played an important role in the cultural transform- ation, introducing new pastime games. The Makahiki Festival, similar to the Olympic Games, attracted athletes from various villages to the different competitions until 1819 – the last year of the festival (Howell, 1993) The papa holua, a specifically constructed sled, was very popular during the Makahiki Festivals. Recent archaeolog- ical digs discovered and identified 40 sled courses, ranging from 200 feet to two miles in length. These slide sites are preserved today for educational and touristic purposes (Howell, 1993). Sports in early Nigeria consisted of traditional activities – running, jumping, hunting, acrobatics, horse racing, wrestling, archery and the like. Modern sports came to Nigeria through the British. Thus, soccer, cricket, lawn tennis, table tennis, basketball and racquet sports became dominant. Empire Days Celebrations replaced traditional festivals, leading to competitions and travel between schools, colleges and provinces. In the early 1930s, club organizations were solidified and e´lite competitions were established. By the 1940s and 1950s, Nigerians participated in the British Empire Games, Commonwealth Games and the Olympics (Onifade, 1985: 33–41).

Summation

The nineteenth century, in terms of sports, could be considered explosive, expansive, diverse and colourful. The development of different challenging sports concomitantly spurred and intensified spectator interest and followership. Peoples of all nations realized that e´litism exacted talent, effort, dedication and sacrifice. Through media technical progress, precise and analytical reporting assisted fans in their appreciations of athletes, their skills and their capabilities. As travel modes became easier and more readily accessible, more people attended sports events, contests, destinations and environments – as participants and/or spectators. The touristic allurement was, and still is, the sports element and direction. As challenges became more evidenced and competitive, travel for sports purposes invariably increased. As a result, in the last decade of the twentieth century, sports have become the promotional focus by which and through which travel is being Historical Perspectives of Sports Tourism 83 exploited with regards to individual and collective motivations and psychological inherencies.

SPECIFIC ENDEAVOURS: MEGA INTERESTS

Introduction

The sports tourism movement’ success, in the twentieth century, takes on an added importance through the blooming of specific endeavours catering to athletes and sports enthusiasts. Many of the initiatives undertaken touch upon cultural values, heritage treasures, historical interests, physical and psychological wellness, not with- standing commercial incentives and dividends. On the whole, these sports tourism attempts and efforts affect sports participation and non-participation in varying degrees enriching lives, promoting universal understanding and assisting in cultural diversity appreciation and respect.

The Olympics

“Very few cultural phenomena attract as much attention as the Olympic Games. More than one hundred thousand spectators vie for seats in the stadium, the arena, the swimming pool, the velodrome, the ski slopes and jumps, and the skating rinks or track and field, and other sites of competition; not withstanding another two billion people watching the event on their television screens.” (Guttman, 1994)

Prior to the 1896 Olympics held in Athens, there were few reported olympic festivals in England between 1859 and 1870. Sweden also held its ‘Jeux olympiques scandi- naves’ in the years 1834 and 1836. (Guttman, 1994: 11) Other attempts have been made but with little progress. Baron de Courbertin succeeded in getting peoples’ attention. Nonetheless, some countries were more receptive than others. And, with the suggestion that the first modern Olympics be held in Athens, there were initial and growing pains. (Guttman, 1994: 8–35) Problems with travel, accommodations, programme design, spectator comfort, conflicting athletes and publicity were omni- present and rampant. Through time, organizers gained experience and streamlined administrative decisions, thus rendering the Olympics more conducive to the sports tourism phenomenon. Table 10, showing selected Summer Olympic Games demon- strates the increasing popularity and success directly related to sports travel and site visitations. (Guttman, 1994: 173–174; Chronicle of the Olympics 1998: 16–221; Hassan, 1997: 612–674) The number of sports, throughout the years, fluctuated from six to twenty-four; and the number of events grew from fourteen to two hundred and seventy-one. Spectator- ship varied from 60,000 people to over 100,000 attending the opening ceremonies, depending on stadium seating capacity. (Chronicle of the Olympics, 1998: 29–191) Winter Olympics have also proven to be a great sports tourism reinforcement. Beginning in 1924, in Chamonix, (The International Winter Sports Week) 258 athletes participated representing 16 nations compared with 1717 athletes from 64 different countries in Lillehammer in 1994, (Chronicle of the Olympics, 1998: 674) the latter counting approximately 100,000 spectators daily. Onlookers, at these Winter Games, also numbered in the hundreds of thousands. For instance, in 1952, in Oslo, 84 Zauhar

Table 10 Summer Olympics

YearMale Female Number of & SiteParticipants Participants Countries

1896 (Athens) 2000 14 1900 (Paris)1066 11 26 1924 (Paris) 2956 136 44 1952 (Helsinki) 4407 519 67 1988 (Seoul)6270 2186 159 1994 (Atlanta)6797 3613 197

150,000 people watched the ski-jump events; and in 1960, Squaw Valley accommo- dated two million visitors. (Chronicle of the Olympics, 81:97)

Halls/Walls of Fame

Halls of Fame are highly specialized museums. The need to recognize and honour sports individuals and/or groups-teams helps create a climate of nationalism. (Soder- burg et al. 1977) In essence, Halls of Fame are an American creation. (Dickson & Skole, 1995: 6–8) They come in all sizes, forms and shapes – i.e. stables, saloons, walkways, locker rooms, and full fledge museum structures. (Dickson & Skole 1995: 9–10) Their beginnings could be pin-pointed to the Helms Athletic Foundation of Los Angeles creating Halls of Fame for a number of separate sports in 1936. (Dickson & Skole, 1995: 7; Soderburg et al. 1977) According to report research, ‘five historical sports institutions were organized in the 1930’s, nine in the 1940’s and twenty-three in the 1950’s.’ (Dickson & Skole, 1995: 7) And, in the 1960’s, sixty-six were added to the existing establishments. Today, sports shrines of every conceivable nature can be found with souvenir shops, adventure rooms, galleries, dressing rooms, gardens, patios, screen projections, mythic objects, computerized settings, dinner-banquet facilities and the like. Memorabilia of the past have been assembled and are displayed ranging from ball to racquet sports, from body building to gymnastics, from equine to canine sports, from water activities to ice/snow sports, from wind sailing to motorized racing, etc. In recent decades, the Hall of Fame concept has extended to other countries. For instance, one can visit such facilities as:

• Australian Gallery of Sport; • Central Museum of Sport and Physical Education (Bulgaria); • Musee des Sports (Beijing); • Olympic Museum (Cyprus); • Musee du Sport Francais (France); • Wimbledon Lawn Tennis Museum (Great Britain); • Sports Museum (Korea); • Lahore Museum (Pakistan); • Sports Hall of Fame (Phillipines); • Musee Olympique de Lausanne (Switzerland); • Usee Sportif (Turkey); • National Art Museum of Sport (USA); • Olympic Glory Museum (Russia). Historical Perspectives of Sports Tourism 85

Furthermore, Austria, Belgium, the Czech Republic, Germany, Finland, India, Israel, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Spain and the former Yougoslavia also have sports related institutions. Canada, as an example, has over thirty Halls of Fame throughout its ten provinces. Millions of people worlwide visit these shrines of sports. In eighteen months, the Olympic Museum in Lausanne, Switzerland, welcomed its 300,000th visitor – and during this period, 2500 different events had been organized. In January 1997, this same museum reached its 650,000 visitation mark and in March, 720,000 persons had visited this sports institution. The Helms Hall Olympic Room having the largest collection of Olympic Games awards and mementos attracts 50,000 visitors annually. (Redmond, 1981: 34) The Hockey Hall of Fame in Toronto, Canada, has hosted over 750 special events since its opening in June 1993. (Hockey Hall of fame Magazine, 1996) It is also reported that, in the first year of its operations, half a million fans passed through the gates. (Dickson & Skole, 1995: 86) Certain sports Halls of Fame present special events such as recreational and discovery activities. These may include whale watching cruises, tennis courts, casino opportunities and other on-site organized sports activities. The International Tennis Hall of Fame and Museum of Rhode Island has courts used for competitions and open to public play. In Lenoxville (Iowa), sky boxes are provided to view car races. And in Onconta, New York, the National Soccer Hall of Fame holds clinics and tournaments for soccer beginners. (Dickson & Skole, 1995: 79–97, 104) Furthermore, there are numerous displays of artifacts of all sorts – passageways of photographs, trophy rooms and glass cases (vitrines), literary works, special vaults, etc. Some of these could be classified as the “walls” of Fame particularly those holding portraits and biographies of Hall of Famers for people who wish to be immortalized with sports legends, the Florida Sports Hall of Fame in Lake City will inscribe, on request, their names on bricks or tiles forming the Wall of Fame. Moreover, the Hall of Fame is an authorized Ticket Master outlet for sports events and attractions. In Lyons, France, there exists a Mur de la RenommTe, a wall representing the highlights of the soccer sport (Mondiale, 1998). There is also a multitude of college Halls of Fame – local, regional, provincial or state and territory. Some have permanent homes, others are simply teasers or travelling displays or caravans. Yet, they do attract many sports enthusiasts. Home- coming affairs and alumni reunions are oftentimes associated with sports activities – football, rowing, swimming, golf, tennis. These happenings assemble thousands of alumni and their spouses with well organized gathering events. Above all, Halls of Fame do complete these celebrations. The Olympic Spirit Facility (OS) opened in Munich, Germany, in early 1999, focuses primarily on athletic qualities – inspiration, aspiration, dedication, determi- nation – targeting mainly the youth with specific simulators, interactive games, historical displays and settings. Amenities included are cafe/restaurants, souvenir shop, coaching area, a gymnasium for demonstration purposes and two cinemas. In essence, this OS differs from the Olympic Museum of Lausanne and the efforts pursued by Disney’s sports complex. The motto of the Munich concept is “people walk through the experience”. Other OS installations are to open in London, Sydney and Japan in the years to come. 86 Zauhar

Sports Cruises

Pleasure cruises began in the very earliest civilizations. The Egyptian Pharaohs made frequent voyages along the Nile, not only to view their possessions but to relax and refresh themselves. (Raggerty, 1993: 58) Passenger use of ships offering sightseeing began to attract attention in the 19th century. To allure travelers, charismatic and luxurious amenities were added. Towards the end of the century, luxury liners had steam heating, bathrooms, barber shops, music rooms and libraries. Technologies, particularly the turbine engine, brought a different dimension to transatlantic and transcontinental voyages – the sea became the highway for hun- dreds of thousands of people who wished to be pampered, beguiled, entertained day and night, and delivered precisely on schedule. (Blum, 1988: 9–29) Hotelery was now creeping into shipping. Ship travel was reaching new heights in popularity. Different countries began to compete for passengers. Cruises, as we know them today, began in the 1920’s. The impact of World War 1, immigration restrictions and the American Prohibition Act altered seaway thinking and marketing procedures. Shorter trips were planned; weekend tours were offered. Ships became floating speakeasies. Liquor was legal, gambling was permitted, exotic ports became accessible. (Raggerty, 1993: 58–59) The art of mass travel was now moving into the tourist industry. Class sea travel was being established; one class travel took over, changing the character of ocean travel. (Blum, 1988: 22–23). The Great Depression and W W II hampered touristic travel. Momentum revived around 1960. The number of cruise passengers has been increasing ever since. Ports of call today are worldwide. Many offer sports tourism activities. For instance:

• The Bahama Islands – snorkling, fishing; • Barbados – cricket; • St. Vincent Island – mountain climb; • Caymen Islands – diving; • Tobago – water sports; • Cannes – yachting; • Gibraltar – St. Michael’s Cave; • Delos – walking tours of monuments; • Panpei – uncovered ruins; • Petra – hiking; • Haveluliku – stalagtite/stalagmite caves; • Cuzen – Mount Machu Picchu; • Angel Falls – canoeing; • Helsinki – original sauna; • Monte – toboggan rides. (Deland, 1989: 74–231)

Sports cruises are gaining in popularity. Firstly, many ships are equipped with swimming pools, tennis courts, shuffle boards, ball nets, health club facilities, and water sports apparata: sail boats, motor boats, water skis, snorkling or fishing gear, etc. The stimulation of traveling with people sharing similar interests also attest to cruise popularity. (Raggerty, 1993: 59) Many offer educational ventures such as clinics, special instructional sessions, conferences, lectures and sport site visitations. Amongst the favorable sports features to be found in various cruise lines are: Historical Perspectives of Sports Tourism 87

• health bars; • aerobics; • weight training; • paddle tennis; • jogging deck; • outdoor pool; • libraries; • massage parlours; • hydro therapy; • whirlpools/jacuzzis; • trapshooting; • basketball/volleyball/badminton courts; • golf driving nets; • dance floors/ballrooms.

The huge Disney cruise ship, the latest in the series of mega boats, can carry 2400 passengers; in essence the ship is a distinction by itself approaching the size of an aircraft carrier. Disney offers 3 to 4 day cruises combined with 3 or 4 day stays at Orlando resorts and access to four theme parks at Disney World giving members of an entire family a wonderful vacation time regarless of age. (The Ottawa Citizen, 1998: 15) Furthermore river cruises are becoming more fashionable – down the Nile, the Danube, the Rhine, the Volga and the Yangtze. Visitations to cities and areas inaccessible to large ships are now possible and most modern vessels include a swimming pool and other athletic equipment. (Ward, 1989: 89–90) Canal barges, particularly in Europe, ply inland waterways. Most cruises include historic sites and scenic interests. Usually there are bicycles on board for each guest, enticing passengers to ride along towpaths and explore nearby villages and coun- trysides. (Slater & Basch, 1998: 66) Hot-air ballooning is the most magical addition to barge cruising. Some cruise lines particularly in the British Isles offer golf rounds along the Caledonian Canal in the Scottish Highlands. Visits may also include archeological sites and Roman ruins. Canal cruising in Holland and Belgium involve biking jaunts, jogging and walking opportunities. (Slater & Basch, 1998: 66–72) Adventure cruising was pioneered in the late 1960’s by Lars-Eric Lindblab, wishing to open up parts of the world that tourists had never visited nor seen before. Here passengers take an active role in every aspect of the expedition – be it the Arctic, the Chilean Fjords or East Africa. Evidently a highly trained and knowledgeable staff offers lectures briefings and actual elements relative to the charter sea venture. (Ward, 1989: 92–93). New cruise vessels are equipped with unique stern platforms allowing for water sports amenities. These platforms are lowered when the ship is at anchor, facilitating sailing, swimming, snorkling, scuba diving, sunfishing, jetskiing, wind- surfing or hitching a Zodiac ride. For those who to shoreline excursions speciality companies or local operators offer all types of sports activities relative to area, climate, topography, time of day and port time duration. These could be as diverse as gondola rides, helicopter ascents, museum visitations, guided trail hikes, spectator sports activities, kayaking or roller blading. Available statistics indicate that over three million people worldwide take cruises yearly visiting more than three hundred ports of call. (Ward, 1989: 67) Yet to state at this time how many tourists have been enticed by the sports activities offered on these cruises, is difficult to do. Nonetheless it is safe to assume that a good number of this crowd do enjoy the sports offerings included in their 88 Zauhar travel package deals. Normal year-to-year increases in the cruise industry seem to average out approximately fifteen percent. (Blum, 1988: 29)

Ice Castles

The first well-documented ice palace was built in the winter of 1739–40 on the frozen river Neva in Russia. In effect this first palace was a honeymoon suite for a reluctant couple. The bride and groom travelled from the church to the frozen villa on elephant followed by an elaborate procession. Literature advocates that this palace was built as a joke. Nonetheless the ice structure was beautiful, fifty-six feet long, seventeen and a half feet wide, over twenty-one feet high, containing three rooms: a hall, a drawing room, and a bedroom. The couple spent a night on an ice bed and, without question, survived the ordeal. (Anderes & Agranoff, 1978: 2–24) At the end of the 19th century the City of Montreal Canada provided the first setting for the North American ice castle – between the St. Lawrence River and Mount Royal. This palace served as a centerpiece for a carnival of winter sports. On inauguration day twenty-five to thirty thousand people attended. An estimated 15,000 foreign visitors flooded the city. (Anderes & Agranoff, 1978: 23–25) The following year the carnival sports competitions included a hockey tournament, a curling bonspiel, lacrosse matches on skates, trotting horse races, a snowshoe steeplechase and a fifteen-mile race. Caughnawaga Indians gave concerts, particularly war dances, to the delight of local and foreign spectators. (Anderes & Agranoff: 76–29) In 1885 one hundred thousand people gathered for the showing of the ice castle. Two years later every sleeping train car was needed to transport New Yorkers coming up to Canada to visit; and in 1909 two hot air balloons opened the mock battle, with 10,0000 people turning out for this event. (Anderes & Agranoff, 1978: 30–40) In 1886 when the smallpox epidemic cancelled Montreal’s winter carnival, St. Paul, Minnesota featured a similar event with all kinds of sports activities: skiing, snow- shoeing, a giant ball game, blanket tossing competitions, as well as the building of an ice palace. Sioux Indians were an on-site attraction. Approximately 50,000 people attended the storming. In 1888 a wedding gathering six thousand guests took place in one of the Ice Castle rooms. In 1917 twenty-one thousand people enrolled in the Carnival March. An estimated crowd of 20,0000 people (local domestic and, foreign) viewed the event. It is said that every sport played on ice or snow found devotees during this festive time. (Anderes & Agranoff, 1978: 47–63) In 1894 Quebec City also built an ice structure emphasizing sports activities. 2,500 snowshoers from all across the province and parts of the United States participated. Canoe races were also organized. Crowds gravitated to see the Hurons and the Montagnais Indian tribes engage in the storming of the ice castle. The City of Ottawa in 1895 had skating, snowshoeing, tobogganing and bowling competitions. According to records, thousands of partisans from all over Canada and the USA attended these winter festivities. (Anderes & Agranoff, 1978: 63–84) War and the Depression somewhat hindered or interrupted the building of colossal ice structures and related sports activities. This is not to say that small local community winter festivals did not continue to exist. In 1955 a group of Quebec businessmen founded the Modern Quebec Winter Carnival offering tremendous sports activities – canoe races, broomball competitions, motorcycle, car and snowmo- Historical Perspectives of Sports Tourism 89 bile races, the PeeWee Hockey Tournament etc. Thousands of participants, active and passive, came worldwide to enjoy the festivities. The Ottawa Winterlude first appeared in 1979. The Rideau Canal, a waterway passing through the heart of the city, was cleared and flooded to accommodate 50,0000 to 60,0000 skaters in January and February. Special sports activities like sledge hockey, boomrang, dog racing, bartender or bed wheeling contests are organized attracting more than 10,0000 attendees on its first week-end of activities depending on the weather conditions. In 1950 the City of Sapporo in Japan decided to hold a snow festival with six snow sculptures as attractions, with square dancing, dog racing and fireworks as special activities. 50,000 spectators rushed to see the Festival. Slowly it has grown to be one of the world’s greatest international winter festivals, showing giant sculptures of ice and snow and numerous and varied programmes of activities. This global event attracts visitors from all over the five continents numbering roughly two million during the whole festival period. (Tochinai, 1981: 135–137) Associated with winter and sports tourism, the following are also great attractions and popular destinations:

• Cross Country Ski (Oslo); • Arctic Winter Games (Northwest Territories); • Carnaval Souvenir (Chicoutimi); • 2000 kilometers on crosscountry skis (Mont Tremblant); • The Vasalopp (Sweden); • The World Loppet Medallion Race (Worldwide). (Coltman, 1989: 12)

Knowledge of ice and snow has advanced in the last four decades. Some constructors today use cast snow; some use blocks of ice. Still others are thinking of using icebergs. Yet the International Sports Council (Ottawa) has suggested a ‘hologram’ approach to he applied to floats, monuments, sculptures, floral design etc.

Resorts

When the Roman Empire collapsed Romans stopped going to the Riviera, the Bay of Naples and their spas. In the Middle Ages these spa-baths became health-oriented gradually turning into pleasure resorts. Some of the better known establishments were:

• Bath (England); • Baden-Baden (Germany); • Baden (Austria); • Bains-les-Bains (France); • Lucca (Italy). (Coltman, 1989: 12)

Marco Polo, the great explorer, estimated that there were as many as ten thousand yams at the time of his journey to Asia during 1275–1292. (Howell et al. 1998) By the early 18th century small fishing resorts along the English coast were attracting visitors seeking cures – by drinking sea water and by immersing themselves in it. (Halloway, 1989: 25) By 1900 there were some 750 spas in Europe. As tourists would require certain diversions, spa resorts added facilities for pleasure and entertainment to their 90 Zauhar medical establishments. (Halloway, 1989: 12; Burkhart & Medlik 1992: 10) The aristocracy paved the way to the spas. By 1800 the ‘spa allurement’ moved to the seaside. The rich built luxurious vacation villas along coastal lines. (Coltman, 1989: 12) The growth of seaside resorts was spurred by the introduction of steamboat services. Seaside piers were constructed to accommodate vessels on their arrival. Hence, wherever the rich went, in due time the masses would follow. Apart from offering visitors a beach and the sea, resorts developed promenades, dance halls, amusement galleries and the like. (Mill & Morrison, 1985: 193) The original spa concept has gradually changed from a medical visitor center to a more elaborate accommodation, catering and entertainment destination. (Burkhart & Medlik, 1992: 45) The idea of a resort hotel was born in the 18th and 19th centuries in Europe. Palatial hotels were built along the French Riviera in the Swiss Alps and at various mineral springs throughout the continent. (Howell et al. 1998: 177) The morphology of resorts was not only shaped by the attractiveness of beaches and mild climate but also by railway lines, motor cars, watercrafts etc. Inventions, sport equipment design, sportswear composition and economic prac- tices have been, and still are, influencing summer and winter sports resort centers. For instance, the access to helicopters have introduced new skiing possibilities; the growth of boating has altered the design of water basins, islets and river flows. Existing and popular sports facilities such as golf have been exploited to promulgate the resort concept. Furthermore theme parks, like Disneyland, (Anaheim) have replaced amusement parks. The fly-cruise package also makes it possible for people to participate actively or passively in their chosen sports interests and pursuits. Cruise ships, on the other hand, could be seen as ‘self-contained’ destinations where theme experiences can range from active sports participation, special sports clinics, to seminars and port call sports tourism activity. (Coltman, 1989: 59–140) Sun and surf have always been natural attractions. Organizations have capitalized on this public desire. For instance, only in 1936 did Butlin’s Holiday Camp open in Skeggness, England organizing fun entertainment and games. In 1949, in Majorca the first Club Med opened. Today with over 80 clubs around the world, sporting activities are offered to a great extent. (Coltman, 1989: 39) Many winter resorts and centers have also been developed as more or less self-contained destinations – offering sports and recreational facilities as well as food and accommodation. The use of mountains, hillsides and gulleys for winter sports activity is relatively recent. The development of the ski lift in the 1930’s helped in the creation of winter resorts (Chamonix and Zermatt). Gradually hotels, apartments and villas colonized the surrounding winter terrain and scenery. Commercial development of winter resorts sprouted in Scotland, Norway, Poland, Roumania etc. ‘In the USA complexes and condominiums have been built near major ski resorts in mountain states.’ (Mill & Morrison) In general sports tourists are ‘grafted’ to some existing center – be it a small fishing port, a specific popular game, or a combination of sports facility offerings such as St. Andrews (Scotland), with its seaside climate. (The Ottawa Citizen, 1998: 14) The new Whistler Spa has brought rest, relaxation and rejuvenation to Canada’s West Coast. Chateau Whistler Hotel draws skiers and snowboarders from all over the world. (The Ottawa Citizen, 1998: 8) Overnight stays (Alberta, British Columbia, Hawaii) featuring Rocky Mountain Cycle Tours are becoming unbeatable combinations. (Health Watch, 1998: 38) The base of Mont Tremblant (Montreal) offers a wide variety of lodging within a resort village setting. (Vacation Guide, 1998) Historical Perspectives of Sports Tourism 91

The idyllic resort scene (Czech Spa) at Karlory Vary attracts over 60,000 visitors –athird coming from Russia, particularly the elite. (The Ottawa Citizen, 1998: 10) There is also the Disney Sports Complex; 200 acres featuring major facilities (ball park field, house baseball quadraplex, softball quadraplex, track and field complex, tennis complex, beach volleyball courts, little league fields and multi-purpose fields) giving players and spectators plenty to cheer about. (Athletic Business, 1996, 70) Attention should also be given to the Golf Village (Orlando), with its Hall of Fame, combining historic artifacts and the latest in interactive technology Summer and winter sports resorts today offer a gamut of activities The Ottawa Citizen, 1998 to attract sports tourists of all ages and means. They may range from water sports to snow activities from land base sports to equestrianism fitness and racquet athletics. Lodging may consist of motels, hotels, residential inns, lodges, condos, house boats or yachts cottages and camping facilities.

Tours

The following is a selected list of different sports tours in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries that encouraged not only the development of certain sports but also promulgated and intensified the sports tourism movement – firstly by the touring participants and secondly by the stimulation of individual athletic inherencies to travel for competitive purposes or spectatorship.

• 1844—Group of native Americans competed in swimming in London, England receiving medal from the National Swimming Society. • 1859—All England Eleven cricketeers toured the USA – New York, Hoboken, Philadelphia and Rochester. Certain Canadian cities were also included in the touristic circuit. • 1865—English student soccer team traveled to Brussels to play Belgians. • 1868—Team of Iroquois Indians traveled to England, demonstrating the sport of lacrosse. • 1873—Large crowds gathered in different Australian cities to watch the touring English cricket team. • 1886—Parsee Eleven cricket team from East India toured England for competitive and touristic purposes. • 1888—Chicago White Sox and All Americans made world tour to Hawaii, New Zealand and Australia. Parachute jumping, singing, dancing and baton twirling were included amongst the baseball demonstrations. In Melbourne, for example, the tour attracted 12,000 spectators. • 1932—American baseball team with Babe Ruth toured different cities in Japan. (Guttman, 1994: 20–319)

Today’s sports tours encompass, to a large extent, the following selected experiences:

• heritage site tours; • sports study tours; • nature tours; • facility tours; • event tours; • game safaris; 92 Zauhar

• sports participation tours; • training tours; • walking/fitness tours; • cycling tours; • excursions; • outdoor expeditions; • adventure tours.

Tour operators emerged in the late 1960’s. Tour components are purchased in advance and combined into a single entity to be sold to the consumer as a package deal. On the other hand, there are independent tours offering individual freedom of movement usually arranged by travel counsellors. (Wright, 1990: 229–305)

Speleology

People looking for intangible experiences spend time marvelling at hot springs, geysers glass cliffs, caves and other geological sights. The nineteenth century progres- sively provided such opportunities. Between the years 1839–1909 caves were discov- ered by exploring parties in Italy, Spain, Switzerland, Korea, Algeria, Angola, Botswana, Congo and Gabon. In 1972 the first Atlas describing fifty-six different caves over 500 meters deep was published. From 1976 to 1992 over two hundred and fifty underground chambers have been characteristically portrayed. (Courbon, 1989: 13; Cvancara, 1985: 116) This sport draws participants worldwide. Most, if not all, agree that natural settings should be preserved; enticing and alluring people to experience such spectacles.

Sports Development

Sports clubs organizations, associations and federations (amateur and professional) mushroomed worldwide during the 19th and 20th centuries. Some found fertile grounds without specific growing pains; others, depending on different social cul- tural, geographical and commercial interests, took longer to mature or did not achieve any particular progress. Sport categories involved in the Olympics Pan-Amer- ican Games, Commonwealth Games and World Cups – for men, women or youth as well as the disabled and the seniors – are quite well-known. Some sports disciplines receive particular worldwide attention such as hockey, tennis, golf, skiing and sailing. Others, throughout the years, have developed into specialty areas, such as:

• Formula One Car Racing; • Drag Racing; • Carom Billiards; • Ten Pin Bowling; • Figure Skating; • Ice Dancing; • Salt Water Fishing; • Handball (three-wall); • Flying Disk Open; • Quarterhorse Racing; • Cross-country biking; Historical Perspectives of Sports Tourism 93

• Calf- roping and Steer-wrestling (Rodeo); • Speed Roller Skating; • Tidal Water Racing; • White Water Rafting; • Single Sculling; • Running Target Shooting; • Gig Racing (three-wheeled carts); • Dog Weight Pulling; • Giant Slalom Snowboarding.

All sports today have different types of competitions exhibitions and displays, attracting local, regional, national and global tourists – either as spectators or active participants, coaches, managers, trainers, medical staff, organizers, sponsors and mediatic crews.

Spectator Madness

Commercialization of sports for the masses was mostly a product of the late nineteenth century. (Vamgiew, 1980: 5) In time and through interest sports sub-cul- tures developed; individual and group socio-psycho inherencies were manifested. Competitiveness amongst active and passive participants intensified in varying de- grees dependent on the particular sport environment and milieu. Seating arrange- ments were and still are modified altered and adapted to accommodate necessary spectator numbers chiefly for profit motives and purposes. The following are various attendance figures for certain worldwide sports compe- titions, non-inclusive of the twentieth century radio, television and internet audi- ences. Evidently not all spectators were tourists. Nonetheless, a certain percentage were undoubtedly people who displaced themselves for the sake of sport:

• Football (Soccer): 1890 – 30,000 spectators czarist Russia 1950 – 19,9854 onlookers Rio de Janeiro Cup Final 1966 – 10,7412 observers Mexico City Cup Final 1998 – 35,67415 overall attendance Pasedina Cup Finals (Hassan, 1997: 733–746)

• Baseball: 1990’s – Forty million yearly average total attendance American and National Baseball Leagues; 25,0000 yearly visitors to baseball Hall of Fame Cooperstown USA 1993 – 23,20651 total year attendance, Montreal Expos 1995 – 28,26483 total year attendance, Toronto Blue Jays (Rosenhaub, 1997:76–78, 95, 193, 265, 383; The Baseball Encyclopedia, 1996: 3–10)

• Orienteering: 1963 – 18,2000 participated in promotional event in Sweden 1990 – Asia Pacific Orienteering Carnival in Washington State attracted 869 contes- tants, mostly from foreign countries 1995 – Boy Scout Orienteering Championship near Baltimore Maryland registered 1,095 orienteerers 94 Zauhar

1990’s – Certain competitions drew up to 25,000 contestants from 100 different countries (Boga, 1997: 1–5)

• American Football: 1967 – First Super Bowl attracted 61,946 fans at the Memorial Coliseum in Los Angeles 1993 – 98,374 people attended the Rose Bowl in Pasedina California (Carroll et al. 101–117)

Trends

Sports tourism towards the new millennium is conceivebly taking on a different marketing approach, capitalizing on experimental travel – promoting countries as a whole. In essence the stimulus to travel is enhanced and packaged by special interest products, be they cultural, culinary, sportive or a combination thereof. Australia, as an example that today’s tourist is more sophisticated and more realised knowledgeable and aspired to sell the country’s personality and people. Special interest activities are tailored to one’s desires and aspirations. Hundreds of different experiences are offered within yearly thematic overviews:

• 1993 – Play in the Australian Year of Sport • 1994 – Discover the Great Australian Outdoors • 1995 – Celebrate Australian Art and Culture • 1996 – Experience the Festivals of Australia • 1997 – Enjoy Great Living Down Under

Throughout these thematic marketing strategies sports activity offerings range from water sports to nature outings from motorized sport products to special events and from tour modules to hobby pursuits (photography, farmstay, air ballooning, horse- back riding etc.) The Malaysian Sports Tourism Council is similarly promoting Malaysia as a ‘world class destination for international sporting events.’ (Malaysia Fascinating Destination, 1998: 3) Further objectives are ‘to identify and attract international sporting events of high level of exposure and strategic importance and to promote Malaysia, its facilities, natural environment and recreational opportunities as an action holiday destination.’ (Malaysia Fascinating Destination 1998: 3) Portugal is another nation that, towards the end of the twentieth, century has concocted touristic promotion in tems of selling the country as a whole as a sports destination. “Sportugal” as a marketing concept paraphrases its touristic sports allurement in the following terms: ‘Whatever your sport you’ll be pleased to know that there is one place where you’ll always play better than you ever thought possible.’ (Soortagal 1998: 1) Sports such as golf, tennis, polo, fishing, hunting, bicycling and the like are depicted as attraction vehicles to visit the country Portugal. ‘Sporting Barbados’ is another example (Barbados Tourism Authority, 1998) promoting the island’s diversified products, including sporting activities. People with a sporting interest are invited to sample what Barbados has to offer in cricket, field hockey, diving golfing, yachting, clay pidgeon shooting, racing, surfing, regattas and cruises. Allurement is further enhanced by the presence of leading sports personalities and the wealth of talent that exists on the Islands – the leitmotiv being ‘see the country through the eyes of sport and leisure’ (Sporting Barbados, 1998: 1–4). Historical Perspectives of Sports Tourism 95

Inventions

From the inventiveness of men and women throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, certain aspects of sports conditions have been refined developed or created. The following are but a few examples that blend well into the history and perspective of the sports tourism phenomenon:

• cable cars (ski-lifts); • photography (cameras); • time-clocks (computerized); • compass (hiking, mountaineering); • sports equipment (high tech); • sports wear (friction, aerodynamics); • holography (images); • video (re-runs to study moves); • helicopter (skiing, hiking, camping, fishing, hunting, climbing); • life jackets (floaters, aquatic sports); • underwater speakers (swimming, scuba diving); • digital maps (orienteering); • parachutes (jumping, trekking, mountain climbing supplies); • plastics (equipment); • pressure suits (underwater and space); • radio telescope (waves); • respirators (positive pressure); • thermal wave (winter camping); • robots (practice); • spectacles (contact lenses); • aids to living (handicapped, disabled). The Invention that Changed the World, 1982: 9–335

Without question, at various moments the introduction and perfection of the above mentioned items (as well as others) have generated more sports activity participation and induced more onlooker interest. Furthermore, building designs, concepts and materials have also enhanced the sports tourism movement. For example, downhill skiing on coloured snow under a dome (Japan); night golf under a skydome; all inclusive sport-tech structures; artificial grass surfaces and wave-tech swimming pools; or “state-of-the-art” Stade de Paris (794) attracting visitors. All (annual spectator forecast: 175,0000) have been and will be impacting on the sports tourism domain.

Summation

Sports tourism mostly throughout the last decade could be categorized directly or indirectly through societal value systems. Furthermore, the progressive and accentu- ated interests in sports tourism provides a foundation for its definition by the nomenclature of actual sports acitivities – rather than by philosophical circumscrip- tions. Hence different kinds of sports mobilities undertaken by sports tourists may be characterized as:

• adventure tourism (reality experiences); 96 Zauhar

• incentive tourism (productive motivational techniques); • cultural tourism (vestiges of lifestyles); • heritage tourism (glories of the past); • marine tourism (water oriented activities); • festival tourism (celebrations); • leisure tourism (away from work time); • ecotourism (scenic/environmental experiences); • educational tourism (visitation learning); • wilderness tourism (nature related activities); • sports tourism (centered physical activities).

These qualifiers with their perspectives and related touristic followership, be they active or passive, fall into five reality categories of sports tourism namely:

• attractions; • resorts; • cruises; • tours; • events.

Early peoples tended to stay in one place in familiar surroundings. Travel or physical displacement was essentially to seek food, to secure better shelter or to escape danger. As families, groups, tribes, nations and empires grew the development of conditions necessary for travel were evidenced – particularily for trade purposes. And as modes of transportation if somewhat crude at the very outset were designed, hospitality centers were built along major routes and in urban milieus. Slowly pleasure travel was introduced and integrated with official business. In time the former became a stimulant for tourism in and by itself. Throughout the ages leisure, that is free time, varied in duration and intensity. Members of the elite classes could afford to travel long distances and stay away from their home environment for a while. The vast majority of the populations on the other hand could hardly travel beyond their village or nearest town. Nonetheless with a tourism perspective, most, if not all, tended at one time or another to migrate temporarily – be it for commercial, pilgrimage, educational, medecinal, sporting or curiosity reasons. Power conflicts, wars and colossal sports events and attractions as well as the development of an array of different sports helped people to visit distant places, engage in foreign travel and share cultural affinities, affiliations and differences. Methods of communications networking of roads, establishment of security measures and diffusion of travel literature progressively facilitated journeying. Throughout history sports proved to be, and still do, a great motivator for travel and tourism. From the initial ‘formative years’ of sport development interest and enthusiasm, the phenomenon has invariably grown into mass worldwide tourism frameworks – implicating a gamut of sports activities and contests. In studying the past the sports tourism marvel did have its cycles, trends and significant emerging factors and facets – each bearing some positive or negative relationship to the contemporary sports tourism inclinations, enticements and propensities. At the very heart, sports values, be they nostalgic or ever present, are to be found in the different categories of sports tourism namely, attractions, resorts, cruises, tours and events. Historical Perspectives of Sports Tourism 97

A look at the history of civilization reveals that sports have been a viable cultural characteristic. From the lost continents to the Egyptians, the Romans, the Europeans, the Asians and the Americans, spectator sports have provoked a pleasure derived from observing excellence. Spectators imagine and fantasize success. Athletes become a symbol of perfection, a mastery of skills, a direct or indirect contributor to participatory and non-participatory sports travel implications. As Aristotle’s theory of catharcism well-describes and emphasizes the need for individuals to express feelings, tensions and excitement to prevent monotony and stagnation, rationalizes the sports tourism movement. Hence from Antiquity to Modern times athletes, spectators and travel were always associated in varying degrees with sports tourism – trip distances fluctuating in terms of opportunities, modes of transportation, economic means and discretionary free time.

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