From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Sustainability

accepted definition of sustainability: "[to meet] the needs of the present without com- promising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.”[6] Definition

Blue Marble composite images generated by NASA in 2001 (left) and 2002 (right).

The supreme reality of our time is the vul- nerability of this planet. —John F Kennedy... Sustainability, in general terms, is the abil- ity to maintain balance of a certain process or state in any system. It is now most fre- quently used in connection with biological and human systems. In an ecological context, sustainability can be defined as the ability of Scheme of interaction of the three "pillars" of an ecosystem to maintain ecological pro- [7] cesses, functions, biodiversity and productiv- ity into the future.[1] Although the definition of sustainable devel- Sustainability has become a complex term opment (above), given by the Brundtland that can be applied to almost every system on Commission, is frequently quoted,[8] it is not Earth, particularly the many different levels universally accepted and has undergone vari- of biological organization, such as; wetlands, ous interpretations.[9][10] Definitions of sus- prairies and forests[2] and is expressed in hu- tainability may be expressed as statements of man organization concepts, such as; eco-mu- fact, intent, or value with sustainability nicipalities, sustainable cities, and human treated as either a "journey" or activities and disciplines, such as; sustain- "destination."[11] Where we are now, where able agriculture, sustainable architecture and we need to be going, and how we are to get renewable .[3] there are all open to interpretation[12] and For humans to live sustainably, the will depend on the particular context under Earth’s resources must be used at a rate at consideration.[13] This difficult mix has been which they can be replenished. However, described as a dialogue of values that defies there is now clear scientific evidence that hu- consensual definition.[14] Sustainability has manity is living unsustainably, and that an been regarded as both an important but un- unprecedented collective effort is needed to focused concept like "liberty" or return human use of natural resources to "justice"[15][16] and as a feel-good buzzword within sustainable limits.[4][5] with little meaning or substance.[17][18][19] Since the 1980s, the idea of sustainable The idea of sustainable development is human well-being has become increasingly sometimes viewed as an oxymoron because associated with the integration of economic, development inevitably depletes and de- social and environmental spheres. In 1989, grades the environment.[20] Consequently the World Commission on Environment and some definitions either avoid the word devel- Development (Brundtland Commission) artic- opment and use the term sustainability ex- ulated what has now become a widely clusively, or emphasise the environmental

1 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Sustainability component, as in "environmentally sustain- end, it is imperative that we, the peoples of able development."[21] Earth, declare our responsibility to one an- other, to the greater community of life, and to future generations."[29] The next section traces the evolution of thinking about sustainability in human history. History Early civilizations In early human history, although the energy and other resource demands of nomadic hunter-gatherers was small, the use of fire and desire for specific foods may have Another representation showing economy altered the natural composition of plant and and society bounded by the environment.[22] animal communities.[30] Between 8,000 and 10,000 years ago, agriculture emerged in The dimensions of sustainability are often various regions of the world.[31] Agrarian taken to be: environmental, social and eco- communities depended largely on their envir- nomic, known as the "three pillars".[23] These onment and the creation of a "structure of can be depicted as three overlapping circles permanence."[32] Societies outgrowing their (or ellipses), to show that they are not mutu- local food supply or depleting critical re- ally exclusive and can be mutually reinfor- sources either moved on or faced collapse. cing.[24] While this model initially improved the standing of environmental concerns,[25] it has since been criticised for not adequately showing that societies and economies are fundamentally reliant on the natural world. According to English environmentalist and author Jonathon Porritt, "The economy is, in the first instance, a subsystem of human soci- ety ... which is itself, in the second instance, a subsystem of the totality of life on Earth (the biosphere). And no subsystem can ex- pand beyond the capacity of the total system of which it is a part."[26] For this reason a second diagram shows economy as a com- ponent of society, both bounded by, and de- Sumerian harvester’s sickle, 3000 BC, made pendent upon, the environment. As the Amer- from baked clay. ican World Bank ecological economist Her- man Daly famously asked, "what use is a saw- Archeological evidence suggests that the mill without a forest?"[27] The concept of liv- first civilizations arose in Sumer, in southern ing within environmental constraints under- Mesopotamia (now Iraq) and Egypt, both dat- pins the IUCN, UNEP and WWF definition of ing from around 3000 BCE. By 1000 BCE, sustainability: "improving the quality of hu- civilizations were also established in India, man life while living within the carrying ca- China, Mexico, Peru and in parts of pacity of supporting eco-systems."[28] Europe.[33][34] Sumer illustrates issues cent- The Earth Charter goes beyond defining ral to the sustainability of human civiliza- what sustainability is, and seeks to establish tion.[35] Sumerian cities practiced intensive, the values and direction needed to achieve it: year-round agriculture from ca. 5300 BCE. "We must join together to bring forth a sus- The surplus of storable food created by this tainable global society founded on respect for economy allowed the population to settle in nature, universal human rights, economic one place instead of migrating in search of justice, and a culture of peace. Towards this wild foods and grazing land. It also allowed

2 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Sustainability for a much greater population density. The environment. But it was the Western industri- development of agriculture in Mesopotamia al revolution of the 17th to 19th centuries required many labourers to build and main- that tapped into the vast growth potential of tain its irrigation system. This, in turn, led to the energy in fossil fuels. Coal was used to political hierarchy, bureaucracy, and reli- power ever more efficient engines and later gious sanction, along with standing armies to to generate electricity. Modern sanitation protect the emergent civilization. Intensified systems and advances in medicine protected agriculture allowed for population increase, large populations from disease.[41] Such con- but also led to deforestation in upstream ditions led to a human population explosion areas with resultant flooding and over-irriga- and unprecedented industrial, technological tion, which raised soil salinity. While there and scientific growth that has continued to was a shift from the cultivation of wheat to this day, marking the commencement of a the more salt-tolerant barley, yields still di- period of global human influence known as minished. Eventually, decreasing agricultural the Anthropocene. From 1650 to 1850 the production and other factors led to the de- global population doubled from around 500 cline of the civilization. From 2100 BC to million to 1 billion people.[42] 1700 BC, it is estimated that the population Concerns about the environmental and so- was reduced by nearly sixty percent.[35][36] cial impacts of industry were expressed by Civilisations similarly thought to have eventu- some Enlightenment political economists and ally fallen because of poor management of re- through the Romantic movement of the sources include the Mayans, Anasazi and 1800s. Overpopulation was discussed in an Easter Islanders, among many others.[37][38] essay by Thomas Malthus (see Malthusian In contrast, stable communities of shifting catastrophe), while John Stuart Mill foresaw cultivators and horticulturists existed in New the desirability of a "stationary state" eco- Guinea and South America, and large agrari- nomy, thus anticipating concerns of the mod- an communities in China, India and else- ern discipline of ecological econom- where have farmed in the same localities for ics.[43][44][45] In the late 19th century Eu- centuries. Polynesian cultures have main- genius Warming was the first botanist to tained stable communities for between 1,000 study physiological relations between plants and 3,000 years on small islands with minim- and their environment, heralding the scientif- al resources using rahui[39] and kaitiakit- ic discipline of ecology.[46] anga[40] to control human pressure on the environment. Early 20th century By the 20th century, the industrial revolution Emergence of industrial had led to an exponential increase in the hu- societies man consumption of resources. The increase in health, wealth and population was per- ceived as a simple path of progress.[47] However, in the 1930s economists began de- veloping models of non-renewable resource management (see Hotelling’s rule)[48] and the sustainability of welfare in an economy that uses non-renewable resources (Hartwick’s rule).[49] Ecology had now gained general accept- ance as a scientific discipline, and many con- cepts vital to sustainability were being ex- plored. These included: the interconnected- ness of all living systems in a single living planetary system, the biosphere; the import- A Watt steam engine, the steam engine ance of natural cycles (of water, nutrients fuelled primarily by coal that propelled the and other chemicals, materials, ); and Industrial Revolution in Britain and the world the passage of energy through trophic levels of living systems.[50] Technological advances over several millen- nia gave humans increasing control over the

3 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Sustainability

Mid 20th century: Late 20th century environmentalism Peak oil Mitigation of peak oil Predicting the timing of peak oil Hubbert peak theory Related articles Environmental problems were now becoming global in scale.[53][54][55][56] The 1973 and 1979 energy crises demonstrated the extent to which the global community had become dependent on a nonrenewable resource; President Carter in his State of the Union Ad- dress called on Americans to "Conserve en- ergy. Eliminate waste. Make 1980 indeed a year of energy conservation."[57] While the developed world was considering the prob- lems of unchecked development the develop- Silent Spring by Rachel Carson ing countries, faced with continued poverty First Edition and deprivation, regarded development as es- sential to raise the living standards of their Following the deprivations of the great de- peoples.[58] In 1980 the International Union pression and World War II the developed for Conservation of Nature had published its world entered a new period of escalating influential World Conservation Strategy,[28] growth, a post-1950s "great acceleration ... a followed in 1982 by its World Charter for surge in the human enterprise that has em- Nature,[59] which drew attention to the de- phatically stamped humanity as a global geo- cline of the world’s ecosystems. physical force."[51] A gathering environment- al movement pointed out that there were en- vironmental costs associated with the many material benefits that were now being en- joyed. Innovations in technology (including plastics, synthetic chemicals, nuclear energy) and the increasing use of fossil fuels, were transforming society. Modern industrial agri- culture—the "Green Revolution" — was based on the development of synthetic fertilizers, herbicides and pesticides which had devast- ating consequences for rural wildlife, as doc- umented by American marine biologist, nat- uralist and environmentalist Rachel Carson Solar power trough in Silent Spring (1962). North America In 1956, American geoscientist M. King Hubbert’s peak oil theory predicted an inevit- In 1987 the United Nation’s World Com- able peak of oil production, first in the United mission on Environment and Development States (between 1965 and 1970), then in suc- (the Brundtland Commission), in its report cessive regions of the world - with a global Our Common Future suggested that develop- peak expected thereafter.[52] In the 1970s ment was acceptable, but it must be sustain- environmentalism’s concern with pollution, able development that would meet the needs the population explosion, consumerism and of the poor while not increasing environment- the depletion of finite resources found ex- al problems. Humanity’s demand on the plan- pression in Small Is Beautiful, by British eco- et has more than doubled over the past 45 nomist E. F. Schumacher in 1973, and The years as a result of population growth and in- Limits to Growth published by the global creasing individual consumption. In 1961 al- think tank, the Club of Rome, in 1975. most all countries in the world had more than enough capacity to meet their own demand;

4 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Sustainability by 2005 the situation had changed radically society. A plethora of new concepts to help with many countries able to meet their needs implement and measure sustainability are be- only by importing resources from other na- coming more widely accepted including: the tions.[54] A move toward sustainable living by Car-free movement, Smart Growth (more sus- increasing public awareness and adoption of tainable urban environments), Life Cycle , and renewable emerged. Assessment (the Cradle to Cradle analysis of The development of renewable sources of en- resource use and environmental impact over ergy in the 1970’s and 80’s, primarily in wind the life cycle of a product or process), Ecolo- turbines and photovoltaics and increased use gical Footprint Analysis, green building, de- of hydroelectricity, presented some of the materialization (increased recycling of mater- first sustainable alternatives to fossil fuel and ials), decarbonisation (removing dependence nuclear energy generation, the first large- on fossil fuels) and much more. scale solar and wind power plants appearing The work of Bina Agarwal and Vandana during the 1980’s and 90’s.[60][61] Also at Shiva amongst many others, has brought this time many local and state governments some of the cultural wisdom of traditional, in developed countries began to implement sustainable agrarian societies into the aca- small-scale sustainability policies.[62] demic discourse on sustainability, and also blended that with modern scientific prin- 21st century: global awareness ciples.[68] In 2009 the Environmental Protec- tion Agency of the United States determined Renewable energy that greenhouse gases "endanger public health and welfare" of the American people by contributing to climate change and caus- ing more heat waves, droughts and flooding, and threatening food and water supplies.[69] Biofuel Rapidly advancing technologies now provide Biomass the means to achieve a transition of econom- Geothermal ies, energy generation, water and waste man- Hydropower agement, and food production towards sus- Solar power Tidal power tainable practices using methods of systems Wave power ecology and .[70][71] Wind power

Through the work of climate scientists in the Principles and concepts IPCC there is increasing global awareness of Sustainability science and environmental sci- the threat posed by the human-induced en- ence[72] form the basis for much of the philo- hanced greenhouse effect, produced largely sophical and analytic framework of sustain- by forest clearing and the burning of fossil ability. Quantitative data is collected through fuels.[63][64] In March 2009 the Copenhagen sustainability measurement and this data is Climate Council, an international team of then used to inform sustainability gov- leading climate scientists, issued a strongly ernance.[73][74] worded statement: "The climate system is already moving beyond the patterns of natur- Scale and context al variability within which our society and Sustainability is studied and managed over economy have developed and thrived. These many scales (levels or frames of reference) of parameters include global mean surface time and space and in many contexts of en- temperature, sea-level rise, ocean and ice vironmental, social and economic organiza- sheet dynamics, ocean acidification, and ex- tion. The focus ranges from the total carrying treme climatic events. There is a significant capacity (sustainability) of planet Earth to risk that many of the trends will accelerate, the sustainability of economic sectors, eco- leading to an increasing risk of abrupt or ir- systems, countries, municipalities, neigh- reversible climatic shifts."[65] bourhoods, home gardens, individual lives, now seeks to bridge individual goods and services, occupations, the gap between ecology and traditional neo- lifestyles, behaviour patterns and so on. In classical economics.[66][67]: it provides an in- short, it can entail the full compass of clusive and ethical economic model for

5 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Sustainability biological and human activity or any part of • Education and grassroots involvement it.[75] As Daniel Botkin, author and environ- - people and communities mentalist, has stated: "We see a landscape investigating problems and that is always in flux, changing over many developing new solutions[77] scales of time and space."[76] Consumption, population, tech- Global goals nology, resources At the global level a number of key goals The overall driver of human impact on Earth have been isolated: systems is the consumption of biophysical re- sources. Human consumption can be divided into three key components: population num- bers, levels of consumption (affluence), and impact per unit of resource use (which de- pends on the technology used). This has been expressed through an equation: I = P × A × T

Where: I = Environmental impact, P = Population, A = [78] Consumption & sustainability Affluence, T = Technology Key concepts Historically, humanity has responded to a de- Appropriate technology mand for more resources by trying to in- Decarbonisation · Dematerialization crease supply. Sustainability, instead, applies Ecocentrism · Ecodesign Ecolabelling · demand management of all goods and ser- I PAT · Industrial ecology vices by promoting reduced consumption, us- Population growth · Radical transparency ing renewable resources where possible, and · Sustainable living encouraging practices that minimise re- source intensity while maximising resource • Intergenerational equity - providing productivity. Careful resource management future generations with the same is applied at many scales, but especially at environmental potential as presently the levels of economic sectors like agricul- exists ture, manufacturing and industry as well as • Decoupling economic growth from to individual goods and services and the con- environmental degradation - sumption patterns of households and indi- managing economic growth to be less viduals.[79][80] resource intensive and less polluting • Integration of all pillars - integrating Population environmental, social and economic sectors when developing sustainability policies • Ensuring environmental adaptability and resilience - maintaining and enhancing the adaptive capacity of the environmental system • Preventing irreversible long-term damage to ecosystems and human health • Ensuring distributional equity - Human population from 10,000 BC – AD avoiding unfair or high environmental 2000. costs on vulnerable populations • Accepting global responsibility - According to the 2008 Revision of the official assuming responsibility for United Nations population estimates and pro- environmental effects that occur jections, the world population is projected to outside areas of jurisdiction reach 7 billion early in 2012, up from the

6 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Sustainability current 6.9 billion (May 2009), to exceed 9 billion people by 2050. Most of the additional 2.1 billion people will be born in developing countries whose population is projected to rise from 5.6 billion in 2009 to 7.9 billion in 2050. This increase will be distributed among the population aged 15–59 (1.2 billion) and 60 or over (1.1 billion) because the number of children under age 15 in developing coun- tries will decrease. In contrast, the popula- Key concepts and tools Carbon accounting · tion of the more developed regions is expec- Ecological economics ted to undergo only slight increase from 1.23 Environmental impact assessment billion to 1.28 billion, and this would have de- Environmental indicator clined to 1.15 billion but for a projected net Environmental Performance Index migration from developing to developed Environmental Sustainability Index Genuine Progress Indicator countries, which is expected to average 2.4 Happy Planet Index · Input output analysis million persons annually from 2009 to Life cycle assessment 2050.[81] Long-term estimates of global popu- Natural resource economics · Natural step lation suggest a peak at around 2070 of nine Social accounting · State of the Environment to ten billion people, and then a slow de- Sustainability reporting · Thermoeconomics Triple bottom line accounting crease to 8.4 billion by 2100.[82] Emerging economies like those of China To survive on planet Earth humans must live and India aspire to the living standards of the within its measurable biophysical con- Western world as does the non-industrialized straints.[85] By establishing quantitative world in general. It is the combination of pop- measures for sustainability it is possible to ulation increase in the developing world and set goals, apply management strategies, and unsustainable consumption levels in the de- measure progress. The Natural Step (TNS) veloped world that poses a stark challenge to framework developed by Karl-Henrik Robèrt sustainability.[83] examines sustainability and resource use Direct and indirect environ- from its thermodynamic foundations to de- termine how humans use and apportion nat- mental impacts ural capital in a way that is sustainable and At a fundamental level, human impacts on just. The TNS framework’s system conditions the Earth are demonstrated through detri- of sustainability suggest a means for the mental changes in the global biogeochemical scientifically-based measurement of sustain- cycles of chemicals that are critical to life, ability.[86] Natural capital includes resources most notably those of water, oxygen, carbon, from the earth’s crust (i.e., minerals, oil), nitrogen and phosphorus.[84] those produced by humans (synthetic sub- GLOBAL BIOPHYSICAL CYCLES CRITICAL stances), and those of the biosphere. Equit- FOR LIFE able access to natural capital is also a com- ponent of sustainability.[86] The energy gen- erated in use of resources—referred to as ex- ergy[87]—can be measured as the embodied Water Phosphorus Carbon Oxygen energy of a product or service over its life Nitrogen cycle cycle cycle cycle cycle. Its analysis, using methods such as cycle Life Cycle Analysis or Ecological Footprint Sustainability management is necessary analysis provide basic indicators of sustain- through all phases of impact from the direct ability on various scales.[88] human impacts on land, waterbodies and at- There is now a vast number of sustainabil- mosphere to the indirect consumption drivers ity indicators,[89] metrics, benchmarks, in- of these direct impacts. dices, reporting procedures, audits and more. They include environmental, social and eco- Measurement nomic measures separately or together over many scales and contexts. Environmental Sustainability measurement factors are integrated with economics

7 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Sustainability through ecological economics, resource eco- time, living at a globally sustainable level. nomics and thermoeconomics, and social The general trend is for higher standards of factors through metrics like the Happy Planet living to become less sustainable. As always Index which measures the well-being of population growth has a marked influence on people in the nations of the world while tak- levels of consumption and the efficiency of ing into account their environmental im- resource use.[92] At present Cuba is the best pact.[90][91] Some of the best known and example in this category.[93] The sustainabil- most widely used sustainability measures are ity goal is to raise the global standard of liv- listed in the side bar, they include corporate ing without increasing the use of resources sustainability reporting, Triple Bottom Line beyond globally sustainable levels; that is, to accounting, and estimates of the quality of not exceed "one planet" consumption. A sustainability governance for individual coun- wealth of information generated by reports at tries using the Environmental Sustainability the national, regional and city scales confirm Index and Environmental Performance Index. the global trend towards societies that are becoming less sustainable over time.[94][95] Human sustainability Global human impact on biodiversity

Ecological footprint for different nations com- pared to their HDI.

Is humanity living within the carrying capa- city of the planet – are humans living sustain- ably on planet Earth? The Ecological foot- Chicago print measures human consumption in terms of the biologically productive land needed to The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment is an provide the resources, and absorb the international synthesis by over 1000 of the of the average global citizen. In 2008 it re- world’s leading biological scientists that ana- quired 2.7 global hectares per person, 30% lyses the state of the Earth’s ecosystems. It more than the natural biological capacity of concludes that human activity is having a sig- 2.1 global hectares (assuming no provision nificant and escalating impact on the biod- for other organisms).[54] The resulting ecolo- iversity of world ecosystems, reducing both gical deficit must be met from unsustainable their resilience and biocapacity. The report extra sources and these are obtained in three refers to natural systems as humanity’s "life- ways: embedded in the goods and services of support system", providing essential "ecosys- world trade; taken from the past (e.g. fossil tem services". The assessment measures 24 fuels); or borrowed from the future as unsus- ecosystem services concluding that only four tainable resource usage (e.g. by overexploit- have shown improvement over the last 50 ing forests and fisheries). years, 15 are in serious decline, and five are The figure (right) indicates the sustainab- in a precarious condition.[96] ility of a range of countries in terms of the Ecological Footprint compared to the UN Hu- Environmental man Development Index (a measure of stand- ard of living): it shows what is necessary for dimension countries to maintain an acceptable standard Healthy ecosystems provide vital goods and of living for their citizens while, at the same services to humans and other organisms.

8 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Sustainability

There are two major ways of reducing negat- Land ive human impact and enhancing ecosystem Agroforestry · Deforestation services: Desertification · Erosion a) Environmental management. This Forestry · Green revolution Introduced species direct approach is based largely on Invasive species information gained from earth science, Land use · Organic farming environmental science and conservation Reafforestation · Revegetation biology. Salinization · Sodification Sustainable agriculture However, this is management at the end of a long series of indirect causal factors that are In March 2009 at a meeting of the Copenha- initiated by human consumption, so a second gen Climate Council 2,500 climate experts approach is through demand management of from 80 countries issued a keynote statement human resource use. that there is now "no excuse" for failing to b) Management of human consumption act on global warming and that without of resources, an indirect approach based strong carbon reduction targets "abrupt or ir- largely on information gained from reversible" shifts in climate may occur that economics. "will be very difficult for contemporary soci- eties to cope with".[98][99] Management of Environmental management the global atmosphere now involves assess- At the global scale and in the broadest sense ment of all aspects of the carbon cycle to environmental management involves the identify opportunities to address human-in- oceans, freshwater systems, land and atmo- duced climate change and this has become a sphere, but following the sustainability prin- major focus of scientific research because of ciple of scale it can be equally applied to any the potential catastrophic effects on biod- ecosystem from a tropical rainforest to a iversity and human communities (see Energy home garden.[97] below). Other human impacts on the atmosphere Atmosphere, oceans, freshwater, include the air pollution in cities, the pollut- land, forests, cultivated land ants including toxic chemicals like nitrogen oxides, sulphur oxides, volatile organic com- Atmosphere pounds and particulate matter that produce photochemical smog and acid rain, and the chlorofluorocarbons that degrade the ozone layer. Anthropogenic particulates such as sulphate aerosols in the atmosphere reduce the direct irradiance and reflectance (albedo) of the Earth’s surface. Known as global dim- Natural Resource Management ming the decrease is estimated to have been about 4% between 1960 and 1990 although Atmosphere the trend has subsequently reversed. Global Acid rain · Aerosols Air pollution · Albedo dimming may have disturbed the global wa- Climate change · Global dimming ter cycle by reducing evaporation and rainfall Global warming in some areas. It also creates a cooling effect Greenhouse gases and this may have partially masked the effect Ozone layer · Particulate matter of greenhouse gases on global warming.[100] · Photochemical smog Urban heat island Oceans Volatile organic compounds Ocean circulation patterns have a strong in- fluence on climate and weather and, in turn, Water bodies Coral bleaching · Water desalination the food supply of both humans and other or- Eutrophication · Overfishing ganisms. Scientists have warned of the pos- Marine pollution sibility, under the influence of climate Ocean acidification change, of a sudden alteration in circulation Polar ice · Water crisis patterns of ocean currents that could drastic- Water pollution Water quality · Water resources ally alter the climate in some regions of the globe.[101] Major human environmental

9 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Sustainability

Extinction · Genetic erosion Habitat fragmentation · Invasive species IUCN · Systems ecology Wildlife conservation World Conservation Monitoring Centre

Water covers 71% of the Earth’s surface . Of this, 97.5% is the salty water of the oceans and only 2.5% freshwater, most of which is locked up in the Antarctic ice sheet. The re- maining freshwater is found in lakes, rivers, wetlands, the soil, aquifers and atmosphere. All life depends on the solar-powered global water cycle, the evaporation from oceans and Saltwater fish land to form water vapour that later con- denses from clouds as rain, which then be- impacts occur in the more habitable regions comes the renewable part of the freshwater [105] of the ocean fringes – the estuaries, coastline supply. Awareness of the global import- and bays. Ten per cent of the world’s popula- ance of preserving water for ecosystem ser- tion – about 600 million people – live in low- vices has only recently emerged as, during lying areas vulnerable to sea level rise. the 20th century, more than half the world’s Trends of concern that require management wetlands have been lost along with their include: over-fishing (beyond sustainable valuable environmental services. levels); coral bleaching due to ocean warm- Biodiversity-rich freshwater ecosystems are ing and ocean acidification due to increasing currently declining faster than marine or [106] levels of dissolved carbon dioxide;[102] and land ecosystems making them the [54] sea level rise due to climate change. Because world’s most vulnerable habitats. In- of their vastness oceans also act as a con- creasing urbanization pollutes clean water venient dumping ground for human supplies and much of the world still does not [107] waste.[103] Remedial strategies include: more have access to clean, safe water. In the careful , statutory control industrial world demand management has of overfishing by adoption of sustainable fish- slowed absolute usage rates but increasingly ing practices and the use of environmentally water is being transported over vast dis- sensitive and sustainable aquaculture and tances from water-rich natural areas to fish farming, reduction of fossil fuel emis- population-dense urban areas and energy- sions and restoration of coastal and other hungry desalination is becoming more widely marine habitat.[104] used. Greater emphasis is now being placed Freshwater on the improved management of blue (har- vestable) and green (soil water available for plant use) water, and this applies at all scales of water management. [106] Land Loss of biodiversity stems largely from the habitat loss and fragmentation produced by the human appropriation of land for develop- ment, forestry and agriculture as natural cap- ital is progressively converted to man-made capital. Land use change is fundamental to the operations of the biosphere because al- terations in the relative proportions of land dedicated to urbanisation, agriculture, forest, Biodiversity & sustainability woodland, grassland and pasture have a Key concepts/tools/info. marked effect on the global water, carbon Applied ecology · Biodiversity and nitrogen biogeochemical cycles and this Conservation biology · Ecosystem services can impact negatively on both natural and Endangered species · Environmental science human systems.[108] At the local human scale

10 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Sustainability major sustainability benefits accrue from the reafforestation schemes, plantations and tim- pursuit of green cities and sustainable parks ber products. Also wood biomass can be util- and gardens. ized as a renewable carbon-neutral fuel. The Forests FAO has suggested that, over the period Since the Neolithic Revolution about 47% of 2005–2050, effective use of tree planting the world’s forests have been lost to human could absorb about 10–20% of man-made use. Present-day forests occupy about a emissions – so monitoring the condition of quarter of the world’s ice-free land with the world’s forests must be part of a global about half of these occurring in the trop- strategy to mitigate emissions and protect ics[109] In temperate and boreal regions ecosystem services.[112] However, climate forest area is gradually increasing (with the change may pre-empt this FAO scenario as a exception of Siberia), but deforestation in the study by the International Union of Forest tropics is of major concern.[110] Research Organizations in 2009 concluded that the stress of a 2.5C (4.5F) temperature rise above pre-industrial levels could result in the release of vast amounts of carbon[113] so the potential of forests to act as carbon "sinks" is "at risk of being lost entirely".[114] Cultivated land

Beech Forest – Grib Skov, Denmark

Forests moderate the local climate and the global water cycle through their light reflect- ance (albedo) and evapotranspiration. They also conserve biodiversity, protect water Rice paddy quality, preserve soil and soil quality, provide fuel and pharmaceuticals, and purify the air. Feeding more than six billion human bodies These free ecosystem services have no mar- takes a heavy toll on the Earth’s resources. ket value and so forest conservation has little This begins with the appropriation of about appeal when compared with the economic be- 38% of the Earth’s land surface[115] and nefits of logging and clearance which, about 20% of its net primary productiv- through soil degradation and organic decom- ity.[116] Added to this are the resource- position returns carbon dioxide to the atmo- hungry activities of industrial agribusiness – sphere.[111] The United Nations Food and everything from the crop need for irrigation Agriculture Organization (FAO) estimates water, synthetic fertilizers and pesticides to that about 90% of the carbon stored in land the resource costs of food packaging, trans- vegetation is locked up in trees and that they port (now a major part of global trade) and sequester about 50% more carbon than is retail. Food is essential to life. But the list of present in the atmosphere. Changes in land environmental costs of food production is a use currently contribute about 20% of total long one: topsoil depletion, erosion and con- global carbon emissions (heavily logged In- version to desert from constant tillage of an- donesia and Brazil are a major source of nual crops; overgrazing; salinization; sodific- emissions).[111] Climate change can be mitig- ation; waterlogging; high levels of fossil fuel ated by sequestering carbon in use; reliance on inorganic fertilisers and

11 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Sustainability synthetic organic pesticides; reductions in The 2008 IUCN Red List warns that long- genetic diversity by the mass use of monocul- term droughts and extreme weather put addi- tures; water resource depletion; pollution of tional stress on key habitats and, for ex- waterbodies by run-off and groundwater con- ample, lists 1,226 bird species as threatened tamination; social problems including the de- with extinction, which is one-in-eight of all cline of family farms and weakening of rural bird species.[122][123] The Red List Index also communities.[117] identifies 44 tree species in Central Asia as All of these environmental problems asso- under threat of extinction due to over-exploit- ciated with industrial agriculture and ag- ation and human development and threaten- ribusiness are now being addressed through ing the region’s forests which are home to such movements as sustainable agriculture, more than 300 wild ancestors of modern do- organic farming and more sustainable busi- mesticated fruit and nut cultivars.[124] ness practices.[118] Biological invasions Extinctions

Kudzu (Pueraria lobata) infesting trees in At- lanta, Georgia

In many parts of the industrial world land clearing for agriculture has diminished and here the greatest threat to biodiversity, after climate change, has become the destructive effect of invasive species.[125] Increasingly efficient global transport has facilitated the spread of organisms across the planet. The The extinct Dodo (Raphus cucullatus) potential danger of this aspect of globaliza- tion is starkly illustrated through the spread Although biodiversity loss can be monitored of human diseases like HIV AIDS, mad cow simply as loss of species, effective conserva- disease, bird flu and swine flu, but invasive tion demands the protection of species within plants and animals are also having a devast- their natural habitats and ecosystems. Fol- ating impact on native biodiversity. Non-indi- lowing human migration and population genous organisms can quickly occupy dis- growth, species extinctions have progress- turbed land and natural areas where, in the ively increased to a rate unprecedented since absence of their natural predators, they are the Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction event. able to thrive.[126] At the global scale this is- Known as the Holocene extinction event this sue is being addressed through the Global In- current human-induced extinction of species vasive Species Information Network but ranks as one of the worlds six mass extinc- there is improved international biosecurity tion events. Some scientific estimates indic- legislation to minimise the transmission of ate that up to half of presently existing spe- pathogens and invasive organisms. Also, cies may become extinct by 2100.[119][120] through CITES legislation there is control the Current extinction rates are 100 to 1000 trade in rare and threatened species. In- times their prehuman levels with more than creasingly at the local level public awareness 10% birds and mammals threatened, about programs are alerting communities, garden- 8% of plants, 5% of fish and more than 20% ers, the nursery industry, collectors, and the of freshwater species. [121]

12 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Sustainability pet and aquarium industries, to the harmful Energy, water, food [127] effects of potentially invasive species. Energy

Management of human consumption

Flow of CO2 in the global ecosystem

The Sun’s energy, stored by plants (primary producers) during photosynthesis, passes through the food chain to other organisms to Helix of sustainability – the carbon cycle of ultimately power all living processes. Since manufacturing the industrial revolution the concentrated en- ergy of the Sun stored in fossilized plants as Direct human impacts on the environment fossil fuels has been a major driver of techno- are the result of the indirect underlying logy which, in turn, has been the source of driver of these impacts which is human con- both economic and political power. In 2007 sumption. Impact is reduced by not only con- climate scientists of the IPCC concluded that suming less but by also making the full cycle there was at least a 90% probability that at- of production, use and disposal of goods and mospheric increase in CO2 was human-in- services more sustainable. Consumption of duced, mostly as a result of fossil fuel emis- goods and services can be analysed and man- sions but, to a lesser extent from changes in aged at all scales through the chain of human land use. Stabilize the world’s climate will re- consumption, starting with the effects of indi- quire high income countries to reduce their vidual lifestyle choices and spending pat- emissions by 60-90% over 2006 levels by terns, through to the resource demands of 2050 which should hold CO2 levels at specific goods and services, then the impacts 450-650 ppm from current levels of about of economic sectors and even national eco- 380 ppm. Above this level and temperatures nomies. Analysis of individual and collective could rise by more than 2 °C (36 °F) to pro- consumption patterns takes account of total duce “catastrophic” climate change.[128][129] resource use and this is then related to the Reduction of current CO2 levels must be environmental, social and economic impacts achieved against a background of global pop- of that resource use in the particular context ulation increase and developing countries as- under investigation. The ideas of embodied piring to energy-intensive high consumption resource use (the total resources needed to Western lifestyles.[130] produce a product or service ), resource in- Reducing greenhouse emissions, referred tensity (the resources needed for each dollar to as decarbonization, is being tackled at all spent on a good or service), and resource scales, ranging from tracking the passage of productivity (the amount of good or service carbon through the carbon cycle [131] to the produced for a given input of resource) are exploration of renewable energies, develop- important aspects of consumption manage- ing less carbon-hungry technology and trans- ment. At a simple level human consumption port systems and attempts by individuals to can be examined through resouce the de- lead carbon neutral lifestyles by monitoring mand for the resource building blocks of the fossil fuel use embodied in all the goods food, energy, materials and water. and services they use.[132]

13 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Sustainability

Water sufficient by harvesting rainwater and redu- cing use of mains water. [106][136] Food

Water & sustainability

Key concepts Water desalination · Groundwater Peak water · Virtual water Water resources · Water crisis Water cycle · Water stress Water distribution on Earth Food & sustainability Key concepts Water security and food security are inextric- Agroecology · Biodynamic agriculture ably linked. In the decade 1951-60 human Community gardening · Ecoagriculture water withdrawals were four times greater Food miles · Food waste than the previous decade. This rapid increase Forest gardening · Fukuoka farming Guerrilla gardening · Local food resulted from scientific and technological de- Low carbon diet · No-till farming velopments impacting through the economy - Organic agriculture · Organic gardening especially the increase in irrigated land, Permaculture · Urban agriculture growth in industrial and power sectors, and Slow food · Sustainable agriculture intensive dam construction on all continents. Urban gardening · Urban horticulture Vegetarianism This altered the water cycle of rivers and lakes, affected their water quality and had a The American Public Health Association significant impact on the global water (APHA) defines a "sustainable food sys- cycle.[133] Currently towards 35% of human tem"[137][138] as "one that provides healthy water use is unsustainable, drawing on di- food to meet current food needs while main- minishing aquifers and reducing the flows of taining healthy ecosystems that can also major rivers: this percentage is likely to in- provide food for generations to come with crease if climate change worsens, popula- minimal negative impact to the environment. tions increase, aquifers become progressively A sustainable food system also encourages depleted and supplies become polluted and local production and distribution infrastruc- unsanitary. [134] From 1961 to 2001 water tures and makes nutritious food available, ac- demand doubled - agricultural use increased cessible, and affordable to all. Further, it is by 75%, industrial use by more than 200%, humane and just, protecting farmers and oth- and domestic use more than 400%. [135] Hu- er workers, consumers, and communit- mans currently use 40-50% of the globally ies."[139] Concerns about the environmental available freshwater in the approximate pro- impacts of agribusiness and the stark con- portion of 70% for agriculture, 22% for in- trast between the obesity problems of the dustry, and 8% for domestic purposes and Western world and the poverty and food in- the total volume is progressively increas- security of the developing world have gener- ing.[133] ated a strong movement towards healthy, Water efficiency is being improved on a sustainable eating as a major component of global scale by increased demand manage- overall ethical consumerism.[140] The envir- ment, improved infrastructure, improved wa- onmental effects of different dietary patterns ter productivity of agriculture, minimising depend on many factors, including the pro- the water intensity (embodied water) of portion of animal and plant foods consumed goods and services, addressing shortages in and the method of food produc- the non-industrialised world, concentrating tion.[141][142][143][144] The World Health Or- food production in areas of high productivity; ganization has published a Global Strategy and planning for climate change. At the local on Diet, Physical Activity and Health which level people are becoming more water-self- was endorsed by the May 2004 World Health

14 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Sustainability

Assembly. It recommends the Mediterranean Recyclable materials diet which is associated with health and Plastic · Aluminium · Glass · Paper longevity and is low in meat, rich in fruits Textiles · Timber · · Waste types and vegetables, low in added sugar and lim- ited salt, and low in saturated fatty acids; the Materials traditional source of fat in the Mediterranean Sustainable use of materials has targeted the is olive oil, rich in monounsaturated fat. The idea of dematerialization, converting the lin- healthy rice-based Japanese diet is also high ear path of materials (extraction, use, dispos- in carbohydrates and low in fat. Both diets al in landfill) to a circular material flow that are low in meat and saturated fats and high reuses materials as much as possible, much in legumes and other vegetables; they are as- like the cycling and of waste in nature. sociated with a low incidence of ailments and [149] This approach is supported by product low environmental impact.[145] stewardship and the increasing use of materi- At the global level the environmental im- al flow analysis at all levels, especially indi- pact of agribusiness is being address through vidual countries and the global economy.[150] sustainable agriculture and organic farming. Toxic substances At the local level there are various move- Synthetic chemical production has escalated ments working towards local food produc- following the stimulus it received during the tion, more productive use of urban waste- second World War. Chemical production in- lands and domestic gardens including perma- cludes everything from herbicides, pesticides culture[146], urban horticulture, local food, and fertilizers to domestic chemicals and haz- slow food, and organic gardening.[147] ardous substances. [151] Apart from the build- up of greenhouse gas emissions in the atmo- Materials, toxic substances, waste sphere, chemicals of particular concern in- As global population and affluence increases, clude: heavy metals, nuclear waste, chloro- so does the use of materials which has in- fluorocarbons, persistent organic pollutants creased in volume, diversity and distance and all harmful chemicals capable of bioaccu- transported. Included here are raw materials, mulation. Although most synthetic chemicals minerals, synthetic chemicals (including haz- are harmless there there needs to be rigor- ardous substances), manufactured products, ous testing of new chemicals, in all countries, food, living organisms and waste. [148] for adverse environmental and health effects. International legislation has been established to deal with the global distribution and man- agement of dangerous goods.[152][153]

Dematerialization and sustainability

Key concepts The Waste Management Hierarchy Reduce · Reuse · Recycle Barter · Dematerialization Waste Every economic activity produces waste. The · Ecodesign average human uses 45-85 tonnes of materi- Ethical consumerism · als each year. [148] To reduce waste industry, Extended producer responsibility Industrial ecology business and government are now mimicing Industrial metabolism nature by turning the waste produced by in- dustrial metabolism into resource. Demateri- alization is being encouraged through the Simple living · ideas of industrial ecology, ecodesign [154] and ecolabelling (see side bar). In addition to

15 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Sustainability the well-established “reduce, reuse and re- Decoupling environmental de- cycle” shoppers are using their purchasing power for ethical consumerism.[155] gradation and economic growth Economic dimension

The Great Fish Market, painted by Jan Brueghel the Elder

Sustainability interfaces with economics International Recycle Symbol through the social and ecological con- sequences of economic activity.[156] Sustain- In the second half of the 20th century world ability economics represents: "... a broad in- population doubled, food production tripled, terpretation of ecological economics where energy use quadrupled, and overall economic [160] environmental and ecological variables and activity quintupled. Historically there issues are basic but part of a multidimension- has been a close correlation between eco- al perspective. Social, cultural, health-related nomic growth and environmental degrada- and monetary/financial aspects have to be in- tion: as communities grow, so the environ- tegrated into the analysis."[157] At present ment declines. This trend is clearly demon- the average per capita consumption of people strated on graphs of human population num- in the developing world is sustainable but bers, economic growth, and environmental [161] population numbers are increasing and indi- indicators. Unsustainable economic viduals are aspiring to high consumption growth has been starkly compared to the ma- [162] Western lifestyles. The developed world pop- lignant growth of a cancer because it ulation is only increasing slightly but con- eats away at the Earth’s ecosystem services sumption levels are unsustainable. The chal- which are its life-support system. There is lenge for sustainability is to curb and manage concern that, unless resource use is checked, Western consumption while raising the modern global civilization will follow the path standard of living of the developing world of ancient civilizations that collapsed through without increasing its resource use and envir- overexploitation of their resource [163][164] onmental impact. This must be done by using base. The World Business Council strategies and technology that break the link for Sustainable Development states that between, on the one hand, economic growth "business cannot succeed in societies that [165] and on the other, environmental damage and fail" Sustainability studies analyse ways resource depletion.[158] to reduce (decouple) the amount of resource In addressing this issue several key areas (e.g. water, energy, or materials) needed for have been targeted for economic analysis and the production, consumption and disposal of reform: the environmental effects of uncon- a unit of good or service whether this be strained economic growth; the consequences achieved from improved economic manage- of nature being treated as an economic ex- ment, product design, new technology etc. [166] ternality; and the possibility of a more ethical Ecological economics includes the study economics that takes greater account of the of societal metabolism, the throughput of re- social and environmental consequences of sources that enter and exit the economic market behaviour.[159]

16 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Sustainability system in relation to environmental qual- and an increasing willingness to accept pay- ity.[167][168] ment for ecosystem services. Green econom- ics encourages alternatives to free market Nature as an economic capitalism by supporting a gift economy, loc- externality al currencies, Local Exchange Trading Sys- tems and other methods (see side bar).[171] Economic opportunity By focussing on the triple bottom line, sus- tainable business practices attempt to integ- rate ecological concerns with social and eco- nomic ones. This approach treats sustainabil- ity as a business opportunity. The benefits of waste reduction in industry include savings from disposal costs, fewer environmental penalties, and reduced liability insur- Economics & sustainability ance.[172] Energy efficiency can increase Key concepts profit margins through reducing costs. This Bioeconomics · Carbon finance approach has led to the formation of organiz- Corporate social responsibility ations like Entrepreneurs for Sustainability in Ecological economics Ecotax · Energy accounting the Greater Cleveland area which are ori- Energy economics · ented towards small and medium sized enter- Environmental finance prises.[173] Ideas of sustainability as a driver Environmental pricing reform of job creation through green collar jobs has Ethical banking · Ethical investing gained recent attention.[174] Ethical consumerism · Fair trade Financial capital · Fiscal environmentalism Gift economy · Human capital · Local currency · Local currency Social dimension Local Exchange Trading Systems Natural capital · Natural economy Natural resource economics Sustainopreneurship · Social capital Thermoeconomics

The economic importance of nature is indic- ated by the use of the expression ecosystem services to highlight the market relevance of an increasingly scarce natural world that can no longer be regarded as both unlimited and Society & sustainability free.[169] In general as a commodity or ser- vice becomes more scarce the price in- Key concepts creases and this acts as a restraint that en- Corruption · Crime Environmental law courages frugality, technical innovation and Environmental refugees alternative products. However, this only ap- Environmental security plies when the product or service falls within Globalisation · Human capital the market system.[170] As ecosystem ser- Megalopolis · Human migration vices are generally treated as economic ex- Peace · Security Social justice ternalities they are unpriced and therefore Sustainable living overused and degraded, a situation some- Urbanisation · War times referred to as the Tragedy of the Com- mons.[169] Sustainability issues are generally expressed Part of the business of protecting the bio- in scientific and environmental terms, but im- logical world has been the "internalisation" of plementing change is a social challenge that these "externalities" using market strategies entails, among other things, international like ecotaxes and incentives, tradable per- and national law, urban planning and trans- mits for carbon, water and nitrogen use etc., port, local and individual lifestyles and

17 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Sustainability ethical consumerism.[175] "The relationship reliant communities based on principles of between human rights and human develop- simple living, which maximise self-sufficiency ment, corporate power and environmental particularly in food production. These prin- justice, global poverty and citizen action, ciples, on a broader scale, underpin the suggest that responsible global citizenship is concept of a bioregional economy.[181] Other an inescapable element of what may at first approaches, loosely based around new urban- glance seem to be simply matters of personal ism, are successfully reducing environmental consumer and moral choice."[176] impacts by altering the built environment to create and preserve sustainable cities which Peace, security, social justice support sustainable transport. Residents in Social disruptions like war, crime and corrup- compact urban neighbourhoods drive fewer tion divert resources from areas of greatest miles, and have significantly lower environ- human need, they damage the capacity of so- mental impacts across a range of measures, cieties to plan for the future and generally compared with those living in sprawling sub- [182] threaten human well-being and the environ- urbs. ment.[176] Broad-based strategies for more Ultimately, the degree of human progress sustainable social systems include: improved towards sustainability will depend on large education and the political empowerment of scale social movements which influence both women, especially in developing countries; community choices and the built environ- greater regard for social justice notably ment. Eco-municipalities may be one such [183] equity between rich and poor both within and movement. Eco-municipalities take a sys- between countries; and intergenerational tems approach, based on sustainability prin- equity. [177] Depletion of natural resources ciples. The eco-municipality movement is par- including fresh water[178] increases the likeli- ticipatory, involving community members in a hood of “resource wars”.[179] This aspect of bottom-up approach. In Sweden, more than sustainability has been referred to as envir- 70 cities and towns — 25 per cent of all muni- onmental security and creates a clear need cipalities in the country — have adopted a for global environmental agreements to man- common set of "Sustainability Principles" and age resources such as aquifers and rivers implemented these systematically throughout which span political boundaries, and to pro- their municipal operations. There are now tect global systems including oceans and the twelve eco-municipalities in the United atmosphere.[180] States and the American Planning Associ- ation has adopted sustainability objectives Human settlements based on the same principles.[184] Human relationship to nature Sustainability principles 1. Reduce dependence upon fossil fuels, underground metals, and minerals. 2. Reduce dependence upon synthetic chemicals and other unnatural substances. 3. Reduce encroachment upon nature. Local sustainability 4. Meet human needs fairly & effi- Local concepts ciently.[184] Barter · Bioregionalism According to Murray Bookchin, the idea that Ecovillage · Eco-municipality humans must dominate nature is common in Gift economy · Local currency Simple living hierarchical societies. Bookchin contends Rural communities that capitalism and market relationships, if Social accounting unchecked, have the capacity to reduce the Technocracy movement planet to a mere resource to be exploited. Nature is thus treated as a commodity: “The One approach to sustainable living, exempli- plundering of the human spirit by the market fied by small-scale urban transition towns place is paralleled by the plundering of the and rural ecovillages, seeks to create self- earth by capital.” [185]

18 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Sustainability

Social ecology, founded by Bookchin, is based on the conviction that nearly all of hu- manity’s present ecological problems origin- ate in deep-seated social problems. Thus eco- logical problems cannot be understood without understanding society and its irra- tionalities. Bookchin believed that apart from natural catastrophes, it is economic, ethnic, cultural, and gender conflicts that have pro- duced the most serious ecological disloca- tions faced by human civilization today.[186] Deep ecology establishes principles for the well-being of all life on Earth and the richness and diversity of life forms. This is only compatible with a substantial decrease of the human population and the end of hu- man interference with the nonhuman world. To achieve this, deep ecologists advocate policies for basic economic, technological, and ideological structures that will improve the quality of life rather than the standard of living . Those who subscribe to these prin- ciples are obliged to make the necessary change happen.[187] Transition The earth has a finite capacity to provide re- sources and to absorb waste, and human de- mands already exceed that capacity.[188] Cur- rent lifestyles in the developed world, to A new approach to human use of the which many people in the developing world atmosphere also aspire, rely on depleting natural capital and are unsustainable.[189] The United Na- proposes a strategy for sustainability that tions have stated, in the Millennium Declara- goes beyond education to tackle underlying tion, that "current unsustainable patterns of individualistic and materialistic societal production and consumption must be values head-on and strengthen people’s con- changed".[190] Yet weight of information and nections with the natural world.[195] scientific evidence is often insufficient to pro- The level of change required to safeguard duce necessary social change, especially if the life-supporting capacity of the Earth sets that change entails moving people out of new challenges for community and political their comfort zones.[191] structures.[196] Al Gore states that "We have There is a wealth of advice available to in- everything we need, save perhaps, political dividuals wishing to reduce their personal im- will. But, you know what, political will is a re- pact on the environment through small, newable resource.” [197] Political views are cheap and easily achievable steps.[192] But changing; in 2008 United States President the transition required to reduce global hu- George Bush joked about being "the world’s man consumption to within sustainable limits biggest polluter"[198] but Barack Obama involves much larger changes, at all levels promised "Generations from now, we will be and contexts of society.[193] The United Na- able to look back and tell our children that tions have recognised the central role of edu- [...] this was the moment when the rise of the cation, and have declared a decade of educa- oceans began to slow and our planet began tion for sustainable development, 2005-2014, to heal". [199] which aims to "challenge us all to adopt new behaviours and practices to secure our fu- ture".[194] The Worldwide Fund for Nature

19 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Sustainability

[7] Adams, W.M. (22 May 2006). "The See also Future of Sustainability: Re-thinking • Agroecology Environment and Development in the • Applied Sustainability Twenty-first Century." Report of the • Conservation ethic IUCN Renowned Thinkers Meeting, • Conservation movement 29-31 January, 2006. Retrieved on: • Conservation reliant species 2009-02-16. • Energy and Environment [8] International Institute for Sustainable • Environmental movement Development (2009). "What is • Environmental protection Sustainable Development?". • Ecology movement http://www.iisd.org/sd/. Retrieved on • Habitat conservation 2009-02-18. • List of sustainability principles [9] EurActiv (17 August 2004). Sustainable • Natural resource Development: Introduction. Retrieved • Social sustainability on: 2009-02-24 • Timeline of environmental events [10] Kates, R., Parris, T. & Leiserowitz, A. • Water conservation (2005). "What is Sustainable • Zero carbon city Development?" Environment 47(3): 8-21.[2] Retrieved on: 2009-04-14. [11] Commonwealth of Australia (2007). References "Defining Sustainability." House [1] Regional Ecosystem Office (U.S) REO Standing Committee on Environment and Information Center Definitions. Heritage, Inquiry into a Sustainability Northwest Forest Plan (NWFP). Charter. Chapter 2. Retrieved on Definition of ecological sustainability. 2009-02-16. Retrieved on: 2009-03-10 [12] Holling, C. S. (2000) "Theories for [2] Ausubel, K.; Harpignies, J. (2004). sustainable futures" Conservation Nature’s Operating Instructions: The Ecology 4(2): 7. Retrieved on: True Biotechnologies. San Francisco: 2009-02-24. Sierra Club Books. ISBN [13] UNESCO. "Sustainable development an 978-1578050994. evolving concept." [3] Retrieved on: [3] http://lib.berkeley.edu/ENVI/ 2009-04-14. GreenAll.html U.C. Berkeley Library [14] Ratner, B.D. (2004). "Sustainability as a Web. Environmental Design Library Dialogue of Values: Challenges to the Green Design / Sustainable Architecture: Sociology of Development." Sociological Resources. Retrieved on April-21-2009. Inquiry 74(1): 50-69. [4] Gismondi, M. (2000). Interview of Dr. [15] Pearce, D., Barbier, E.. & Markandya, A. William Rees. Aurora Online. Retrieved (2000). Sustainable Development on 2009-03-10 Economics and Environment in the Third [5] Millennium Ecosystem Assessment World. Earthscan, London. ISBN (2005). Ecosystems and Human Well- 1853830887, 9781853830884 being: Biodiversity Synthesis. Summary [16] Blewitt, J. (2008). Understanding for Decision-makers. pp.1-16. Sustainable Development. Earthscan, Washington, DC.: World Resources London. ISBN 9781844074549 Institute. The full range of reports is [17] Dunning, B. (November 01, 2006). available on the Millennium Ecosystem "Sustainable Sustainability." Skeptoid. Assessment web site. [1]. Retrieved on: Retrieved on: 2009-02-16. 2009-03-10 [18] Marshall, J.D. & Toffel, M.W. (2005). [6] United Nations General Assembly (1987) "Framing the Elusive Concept of Report of the World Commission on Sustainability: A Sustainability Environment and Development: Our Hierarchy." Environmental & Scientific Common Future. Transmitted to the Technology 39(3): 673–682. General Assembly as an Annex to [19] Huddelson, B. (2008). "Sustainability. document A/42/427 - Development and The Overtly Ambiguous Buzzword." International Co-operation: Environment. Mustangdaily 5/23/08. Retrieved on: Retrieved on: 2009-02-15. 2009-02-16.

20 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Sustainability

[20] Redclift, M. (2005). "Sustainable and Survival: Rural Ecology in the Development (1987-2005): an Oxymoron Pacific. Bayliss-Smith, T. and R. Feachem Comes of Age." Sustainable Development (eds). London: Academic Press, pp. 13(4): 212-27. 363-384. [21] World Bank (1994) "Valuing the [33] Kramer, S. (1988). History Begins at Environment: Proceedings of the First Sumer: Thirty-Nine Firsts in Recorded Annual International Conference on History. University of Pennsylvania Environmentally Sustainable Press; 3rd edition (April 1988), pp. Development" Serageldin, I., Steer, A. 52–55.ISBN 978-0812212761. (eds.) World Bank Report [34] Wright, R., p. 42. Number:13520. Retrieved on: [35] ^ Wright, R., pp. 86- 116 2009-02-24 [36] Thompson, William R. (2004). [22] Ott, K. (2003). "The Case for Strong "Complexity, Diminishing Marginal Sustainability." In: Ott, K. & P. Thapa Returns and Serial Mesopotamian (eds.) (2003).Greifswald’s Environmental Fragmentation" (pdf). Journal of World Ethics. Greifswald: Steinbecker Verlag Systems Research 28: 1187. Ulrich Rose. ISBN 3-931483-32-0. doi:10.1007/s00268-004-7605-z. Retrieved on: 2009-02-16. http://jwsr.ucr.edu/archive/vol10/ [23] United Nations General Assembly (24 number3/pdf/jwsr-v10n3-thompson.pdf. October, 2005). 2005 World Summit [37] Diamond, J. (2005). Guns, Germs, and Outcome, Resolution A/60/1, adopted by : The Fates of Human Societies. the General Assembly on 15 September New York: W.W. Norton. ISBN 2005. Retrieved on: 2009-02-17. 978-0393061314. [24] Forestry Commission of Great Britain. [38] Diamond, J. (2005). Collapse: How Sustainability. Retrieved on: 2009-03-09 Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed. [25] Ott, K. and P. Thapa (2003) Greifswald’s London: Penguin. ISBN Environmental Ethics Steinbeckerverlag 978-0143036555. Rose ISBN 3-931483-32-0 Retrieved on: [39] Cook Islands National Environment 2009-02-24. Service. National Parks and [26] Porritt, J. (2006). Capitalism as if the Conservation Areas. Retrieved on: world mattered. London: Earthscan, 2009-02-24. p.46. ISBN 9781844071937. [40] Miller, D. N. Tüwharetoa & N. [27] Daly, H. & J. Cobb (1989). For the Kahungunu (2005) Western and Mäori Common Good: Redirecting the Economy Values for Sustainable Development. Toward Community, the Environment MWH New Zealand Ltd. Retrieved on: and a Sustainable Future. Boston: 2009-02-24. Beacon Press. [41] Hilgenkamp, K. (2005). Environmental [28] ^ IUCN/UNEP/WWF (October, 1991). Health: Ecological Perspectives. London: "Caring for the Earth: A Strategy for Jones & Bartlett. ISBN 9780763723774. Sustainable Living." Gland, Switzerland. [42] Goudie A. (2005). The Human Impact on Retrieved on: 2009-03-29. the Natural Environment. 6th ed. Oxford: [29] The Earth Charter Initiative (October 4, Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 2000). "The Earth Charter." Retrieved 9781405127042. on: 2009-04-05. [43] Martinez-Alier, J. (1987). Ecological [30] Scholes, R. (2003) Stories from the Stone Economics. London: Blackwell. ISBN Age. Beyond Productions in association 978-0631157397. with S4C and S4C International. [44] Schumacher, E. (1973). Small Is Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Beautiful: A Study of Economics as if Retrieved on 2009-04-16. People Mattered. London: Blond and [31] Wright, R. (2004). A Short History of Briggs. ISBN 978-0856340123. Progress. Toronto: Anansi, p. 55. ISBN [45] Daly, H.E. & Farley, J. (2004). Ecological 0-88784-706-4. Economics: Principles and Applications. [32] Clarke, William C. (1977). "The Structure London: Island Press. ISBN 1559633123. of Permanence: The Relevance of Self- [46] Goodland, R.J. (1975). "The tropical Subsistence Communities for World origin of ecology: Eugen Warming’s Ecosystem Management," in Subsistence

21 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Sustainability

jubilee." Oikos 26: 240-245. Retrieved [59] UN General Assembly (28 October on: 2009-03-14 1982). World Charter for Nature. 48th [47] de Long, B. (2000). "Cornucopia: The plenary meeting, A/RES/37/7. Retrieved Pace of Economic Growth in the on: 2009-03-30. Twentieth Century." Working Paper [60] Southface Energy and Environmental 7602. Cambridge, MA:National Bureau Resource Center. The history of solar of Economic Research. power. Retrieved on: 2009-04-07. [48] Hotelling, H. (1931). "The Economics of [61] Dodge, D. An Illustrated history of wind Exhaustible Resources." Journal of power development. TelosNet. Retrieved Political Economics., 39:137-175. on: 2009-04-07. [49] Hartwick, J. (1977), "Intergenerational [62] International Centre for Sustainable Equity and the Investing of Rents from Cities. "Sustainable Cities." The Exhaustible Resources." American international Sustainable Cities program Economic Review 66: 972–974. founded in 1993. Retrieved on: [50] Worster, D (1994) "Nature’s economy: a 2009-04-07. history of ecological ideas" Cambridge [63] U.S. Department of Commerce. Carbon University Press ISBN 0521468345 Cycle Science. NOAA Earth System [51] Robin, L. (2008). "The ’Big Here and the Research Laboratory. Retrieved on: Long Now’: agendas for history and 2009-03-14 sustainability." Fenner School of [64] BBC News (5 August 2008). In depth: Environment and Society, Australian "Climate Change." Retrieved on: National University/Centre for Historical 2009-03-14 Research, National Museum of Australia. [65] University of Copenhagen ( 12 March Retrieved on: 2009-03-16. 2009). "Key Messages from the [52] Grove, N. (June 1974). "Oil, the Congress." Proc. International Scientific Dwindling Treasure." National Congress on Climate Change. Retrieved Geographic. Retrieved on: 2009-03-29. on: 2009-04-01. [53] Meadows, D.H., D.L. Meadows, J. [66] Golubiewski, N. and Cleveland, C. (Eds.) Randers, and W. Behrens III. (1972). The "Problems and Principles of Ecological Limits to Growth. New York: Universe Economics." The Encyclopedia of Earth, Books. ISBN 0876631650. Chapter 3. Retrieved on: 2009-04-01. [54] ^ World Wide Fund for Nature (2008). [67] Costanza R. (2003). "Early History of Living Planet Report 2008. Retrieved on Ecological Economics and ISEE." 2009-03-29. Internet Encyclopaedia of Ecological [55] Millennium Ecosystem Assessment Economics. Retrieved on 2009-04-01 (2005). Ecosystems and Human Well- [68] Ganguly, M. "Vandana Shiva: Seeds of being: Biodiversity Synthesis. World Self-Reliance." Time.com, Heros for the Resources Institute, Washington, DC. pp. Green Century. Retrieved on: 1-85. 2009-04-01. [56] Turner, G.M. (2008). " A Comparison of [69] United States Environmental Protection The Limits to Growth with 30 Years of Agency (April 17, 2009). "EPA Finds Reality." Global Environmental Change Greenhouse Gases Pose Threat to Public 18: 397-411. Online version published by Health, Welfare / Proposed Finding CSIRO Sustainable Ecosystems. Comes in Response to 2007 Supreme Retrieved on 2009-01-03 Court Ruling." News Releases by date. [57] Carter, J. (January 23, 1980). State of the Retrieved on: 2009-04-17. Union Address. Jimmy Carter Library & [70] Kay, J. (2002). Kay, J.J. "On Complexity Museum, Georgia State University, and Theory, and Industrial Ecology: the Board of Regents of the University Some Implications for Construction System of Georgia. Retrieved on: Ecology." In Kibert, C., Sendzimir, J., 2009-04-05. Guy, B. (Eds.) Construction Ecology: [58] The Group of 77 (15 June 1964). Joint Nature as the Basis for Green Buildings, Declaration of the 77 Developing pp. 72-107. London: Spon Press. Countries. United Nations Conference on Retrieved on: 2009-04-01. Trade and Development, Geneva, 1964. [71] Bakshi, B. and Fiksel, J. (June, 2003) Retrieved on: 2009-03-31. "The Quest for Sustainability: Challenges

22 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Sustainability

for Process Systems Engineering." [84] Smil, V. (2000). Cycles of Life. New York: American Institute Of Chemical Scientific American Library. ISBN Engineers Journal 49(6): 1355. 9780716750796. Retrieved on 2009-04-04. [85] Costanza, R. (2000). "Visions of [72] Komiyama,H. , Takeuchi,K. 2006. Alternative (Unpredictable) Futures and Sustainability science: building a new Their Use in Policy Analysis." discipline. Sustainability Science 1:1–6. Conservation Ecology 4(1) 5. Retrieved [73] Loorbach, D. (2007). "Governance for on: 2009-04-01. Sustainability." Sustainability: Science, [86] ^ Holmberg, J. and Robèrt, K-H. (2000). Practice, & Policy 3(2): 1-4. [4] "Backcasting from non-overlapping Retrieved on: 2009-04-22. sustainability principles – a framework [74] Agenda 21 text [5] Retrieved on: for strategic planning." International 2009-04-22. Journal of Sustainable Development and [75] Conceptual Framework Working Group World Ecology 7 291-308. Retrieved on: of the Millennium Ecosystem 2009-04-01. Assessment. (2003). ’Ecosystems and [87] Ayres, R. (April 10, 2001) "Resources, Human Well-being’. London: Island Scarcity, Growth and the Environment." Press. Chapter 5. "Dealing with Scale". Retrieved on: 2009-04-01. pp. 107-124. ISBN 155634030. [88] *Holmberg, J., Lundqvist, U., Robèrt, K- [76] Botkin, D.B. (1990). Discordant H. and Wackernagel, M. (1999). "The Harmonies, a New Ecology for the 21st Ecological Footprint from a Systems century. New York: Oxford University Perspective of Sustainability." Press. ISBN 9780195074697. International Journal of Sustainable [77] Stanners, D., et al. (2007). "Frameworks Development and World Ecology 6 for Policy Integration Indicators, for 17-33. Retrieved on: 2009-01-18. Sustainable Development, and for [89] Hak, T. et al. (2007). Sustainability Evaluating Complex Scientific Evidence." Indicators, SCOPE 67. London: Island EEA GEAR-SD framework in Hak, T. et Press. ISBN 1597261319. al. Sustainability indicators, SCOPE 67. [90] Adams WM (2006). The Future of London: Island Press, p. 156. ISBN Sustainability: Re-thinking Environment 1597261319. and Development in the Twenty-first [78] Ehrlich, P.R. & Holden, J.P. (1974). Century. Report of the IUCN Renowned "Human Population and the global Thinkers Meeting. environment." American Scientist 62(3) [91] Paehlke R (2005). "Sustainability as a 282-292. Bridging Concept." Conservation Biology [79] Clark, D. (2006). A Rough Guide to 19 36-8. Ethical Living. London: Penguin. ISBN [92] Ehrlich, P.R. & Holden, J.P. (1974). 9781843537922 "Human Population and the Global [80] Brower, M. & Leon, W. (1999). The Environment." American Scientist 62(3) Consumer’s Guide to Effective 282-292. Environmental Choices. New York: Three [93] Adams, W.M & Jeanrenaud, S.J. (2008). Rivers Press. ISBN 0-609-80281-X. Transition to Sustainability: Towards a [81] United Nations Department of Economic Humane and Diverse World. Gland, and Social Affairs, Population Division Switzerland: IUCN, p. 45. ISBN (2009). "World Population Prospects: The 978-2-8317-1072-3. Retrieved on: 2008 Revision." Highlights. Retrieved on: 2009-04-07. 2009-04-06. [94] [6]UNEP Grid Arendal web site. [82] Lutz, W., Sanderson, W.C., & Scherbov, Retrieved on: 2009-3-12 S. (2004). The End of World Population [95] Global Footprint Network. (2008). Growth in the 21st Century London: "Living Planet Report." Retrieved on: Earthscan. ISBN 1844070891. 2008-10-01. [83] Cohen, J.E. (2006). "Human Population: [96] Millennium Ecosystem Assessment The Next Half Century." In Kennedy, D. (2005). Ecosystems and Human Well- (Ed.) "Science Magazine’s State of the being: Biodiversity Synthesis. Planet 2006-7". London: Island Press, pp. Washington: World Resources Institute. 13-21. ISSN 15591158.

23 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Sustainability

pp. 6-19. [7] Full set of reports available University of California Press. ISBN here. Retrieved on: 2009-04-01. 9780520236684. [97] http://www.economics.noaa.gov/ [111]^ Food and Agriculture Organisation ?goal=ecosystems&file=users/ Retrieved (2006). "Global Forest Resources on: 2009-04-29. Assessment 2005: Progress Towards [98] [8] News item on Copenhagen Climate Sustainable Forest Management." Congress in March 2009. Retrieved on: Forestry paper 147. Rome: FAO. 2009-03-18. Retrieved on: 2009-04-17. [99] [9] News item from the Guardian [112]IPCC (2006). IPCC Guidelines for newspaper, UK. Retrieved on: National Greenhouse Inventories, Vol.4, 2009-03-18. Agriculture, Forestry, and other Land [100]Hegerl, G.C. et al. (2007). "Climate Uses. Japan: Institute for Global Change 2007: The Physical Science Environment Strategies. Basis." Chapter 9, "Understanding and [113]http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/ Attributing Climate Change." nature/8004517.stm Science and Contribution of Working Group 1 to the environment, BBC News Retrieved on Fourth Assessment Report of the April-19-2009 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate [114]http://www.iufro.org/news/article/2009/ Change. p. 676. Cambridge University 04/17/iufro-press-release/ New Study Press, Cambridge. Full report at: [10] Warns Damage to Forests from Climate IPCC Report. Retrieved on: 2009-03-18. Change Could Cost the Planet Its Major [101]Kerr, R.A. (2004). "A slowing cog in the Keeper of Greenhouse Gases. Retrieved North Atlantic ocean’s climate machine on: 2009-04-20. ." Science 304: 371–372.[11] Retrieved [115]Food and Agriculture Organization (June on: 2009-04-19. 2006). "Food and Agriculture Statistics [102][12] News item from BBC, UK. Retrieved Global Outlook." Rome: FAO Statistics on: 2009-03-18. Division. Retrieved on: 2009-03-18. [103][13] News item from BBC, UK. Retrieved [116]Imhoff, M.L. et al. (2004). "Global on: 2009-03-18. Patterns in Human Consumption of Net [104]Lindenmayer, D. & Burgman, M. (2005). Primary Production." Nature 429: Practical Conservation Biology. 870–873. Collingwood, Victoria: CSIRO Publishing. [117]Tudge, C. (2004). So Shall We Reap. ISBN 0643090894. London: Penguin Books. ISBN [105]Clarke, R. & King, J. (2006). The Atlas of 0-141-00950-0. Water. London: Earthscan, pp. 20–21. [118][15] World Business Council for ISBN 9781844071333. Sustainable Development. This web site [106]^ [14] Hoekstra, A.Y. (2006). "The Global has multiple articles on WBCSD Dimension of Water Governance: Nine contributions to sustainable Reasons for Global Arrangements in development. Retrieved on: 2009-04-07. Order to Cope with Local Problems." [119]Wilson, E.O. (2002). The Future of Life. Value of Water Research Report Series New York: Knopf. ISBN 0-679-45078-5 No. 20 UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water [120]Leakey, R. & Lewin, R. (1995). The Sixth Education. Retrieved on: 2009-03-18. Extinction: Patterns of Life and the [107]Clarke, R. & King, J. (2004). The Atlas of Future of Humankind. New York: Water. London: Earthscan, pp. 20–21. Bantam Dell Publishing Group. ISBN ISBN 978-1-84407-133-3. 0-385-46809-1 [108]Krebs, C.J. (2001). Ecology: the [121]Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. Experimental Analysis of Distribution (2005). Ecosystems and Human Well- and Abundance. Sydney: Benjamin being: Biodiversity Synthesis. pp. 42-47. Cummings, pp. 560–582. ISBN Washington, DC.: World Resources 0-321-04289-1. Institute. [109]World Resources Institute (1998). World [122]Kinver, M. (9 May 2008). "Climate Resources 1998–1999. Oxford: Oxford ’accelerating bird loss. BBC News. University Press. ISBN 0195214080. Retrieved on: 2009-04-17/ [110]Groombridge, B. & Jenkins, M.D. (2002). World Atlas of Biodiversity. Berkeley:

24 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Sustainability

[123]BBC News (4 March 2009) "Climate Consumption Pattern." Water Resource ’hitting Europe’s birds’." Retrieved on Management 21(1): 35-48. 2009-04-17. [137]Feenstra, G. (2002). "Creating Space for [124]http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/ Sustainable Food Systems: Lessons from nature/8036785.stm By Victoria Gill the Field". Agriculture and Human Science reporter, BBC News. The wild Values 19 (2): 99–106. doi:10.1023/ ancestors of common domestic fruit trees A:1016095421310. are in danger of becoming extinct, [138]Harmon AH, Gerald BL (June 2007). scientists have warned. Retrieved on "Position of the American Dietetic May-08-09. Association: Food and Nutrition [125]Randall, R. (2002). A Global Professionals Can Implement Practices Compendium of Weeds. Meredith, to Conserve Natural Resources and Victoria, Australia: R.G. & F.J. Support Ecological Sustainabiility" Richardson. ISBN 9780958743983. (PDF). Journal of the American Dietetic [126]Krebs, C.J., 190-205. Association 107 (6): 1033–43. [127]Blood, K. (2001). Environmental Weeds. doi:10.1016/j.jada.2007.05.138. PMID Mt Waverley, Victoria: C.H. Jerram & 17571455. http://www.eatright.org/ada/ Associates. ISBN 0957908601. An files/Conservenp.pdf. Retrieved on: example of a local guide to invasive 2009-03-18. plants. [139]"Toward a Healthy, Sustainable Food [128][16] IPCC (2007). "Climate Change 2007: System (Policy Number: 200712)". the Physical Science Basis. Summary for American Public Health Association. Policymakers." Retrieved on: 2009-03-18. 2007-06-11. http://www.apha.org/ [129][17] "United Nations Framework advocacy/policy/policysearch/ Convention on Climate Change." default.htm?id=1361. Retrieved on Retrieved on: 2009-03-18. 2008-08-18. [130]Goodall, C. (2007). How to Live a Low- [140]Mason, J. & Singer, P. (2006). The Way carbon Life. London: Earthscan. ISBN We Eat: Why Our Food Choices Matter. 978-1-84407-426-6. London: Random House. ISBN [131][18] "The Carbon Cycle" U.S. 157954889X Department of Commerce | National [141]McMichael AJ, Powles JW, Butler CD, Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration | Uauy R (2007 Sep 12). "Food, Livestock NOAA Research. Retrieved on: Production, Energy, Climate change, and 2009-03-18. Health." (PDF). Lancet 370: 1253. [132][19] This is one of many carbon doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61256-2. calculators readily accessible on the PMID 17868818. web. Retrieved on: 2009-04-07. http://www.eurekalert.org/images/ [133]^ [20] Shiklamov, I. (1998). "World release_graphics/pdf/EH5.pdf. Retrieved Water Resources. A New Appraisal and on: 2009-03-18. Assessment for the 21st century." A [142]Baroni L, Cenci L, Tettamanti M, Berati Summary of the Monograph World Water M. (2007 Feb). "Evaluating the Resources prepared in the Framework of Environmental Impact of Various Dietary the International Hydrological Patterns Combined with Different Food Programme. Retrieved on: 2009-03-18. Production Systems." (PDF). Eur J Clin [134]Clarke, R. & King, J. (2006). Atlas of Nutr. 61 (2): 279–86. doi:10.1038/ Water. London: Earthscan, pp. 22-23. sj.ejcn.1602522. PMID 17035955. ISBN 978-1-88407-133-3 http://www-personal.umich.edu/~choucc/ [135]Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. environmental_impact_of_various_dietary_patterns.pdf. (2005). Ecosystems and Human Well- Retrieved on: 2009-03-18. being: Biodiversity Synthesis. [143]H. Steinfeld, P. Gerber, T. Wassenaar, V. Washington, DC.: World Resources Castel, M. Rosales, C. de Haan, Institute, pp. 51-53. "Livestock’s Long Shadow - [136]Hoekstra, A.Y. & Chapagain, A.K. (2007). Environmental Issues and Options", "The Water Footprints of Nations: Water 2006, 390 pp. Retrieved on: 2009-03-18. Use by People as a Function of their [144]Heitschmidt RK, Vermeire LT, Grings EE. (2004). "Is Rangeland Agriculture

25 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Sustainability

Sustainable?". Journal of Animal Science. Industrial Revolution. Snowmass, USA: 82 (E-Suppl): E138–146. PMID Rocky Mountain Institute. ISBN 15471792. Retrieved on: 2009-03-18. 0-31635-300-0. [145]World Health Organisation (2004). [160]National Research Council. (1999). Our "Global Strategy on Diet, Physical Common Journey. Washington: National Activity and Health." WHO.[21] Copy of Academic Press. ISBN 10: 1856497399. the strategy andorsed by the World [161]Adams, W.M & Jeanrenaud, S.J. (2008). Health Assembly. [http://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/ [146][22] Newman, L. (2002). "Permaculture: transition_to_sustainability__en__pdf_1.pdf Designing for a Sustainable Future." Transition to Sustainability: Towards a Sustainability Case Study, Department of Humane and Diverse World. Gland, the Premier and Cabinet, Perth. Switzerland: IUCN, p. 15. ISBN Retrieved on: 2009-03-18. 978-2-8317-1072-3. Retrieved on [147]Cross, R. & Spencer, R., 113-127. 2009-03-10 [148]^ [23] Bournay, E. et al. (2006). Vital [162]Abbey, E. (1968). Desert Solitaire. New waste graphics 2. The Basel Convention, York: Ballantine Books, Random House. UNEP, GRID-Arendal. ISBN 82 7701 042 ISBN 0-345-32649-0. Actual quote from 7 novel is: growth for the sake of growth is [149]e-digest environment statistics the ideology of the cancer cell [150]Product Stewardship Council (US). [163]Diamond, J. (1997). Guns, Germs and Retrieved on: 2009-04-05. Steel: the Fates of Human Societies. [151]Emden, H.F. van & Peakall, D.B. (1996). New York: W.W. Norton & Co. ISBN Beyond Silent Spring. Berkeley: 0-393-06131-0. Springer. ISBN 9780412728105. [164]Diamond, J. (2005). Collapse: How [152]Hassall, K.A. (1990). The Biochemistry Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed. New and Uses of Pesticides. London: York: Viking Books. ISBN 1-586-63863-7. Macmillan. ISBN 0333497899. [165]World Business Council for Sustainable [153]

26 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Sustainability

Transformation." Case Western Layton, Utah: Gibbs Smith, p. 70. ISBN University, Center for Business as an 978-0879052478. Agent of World Benefit. 3(2). Retrieved [188]Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 2009-03-17. (2005). Ecosystems and Human Well- [174]Leo Hickman, "The future of work is being: Biodiversity Synthesis. World green", The Guardian, Feb. 12th, 2009. Resources Institute, Washington, DC. pp. Retrieved 2009-03-17. 1-85. [175]Agenda 21 "Declaration of the 1992 Rio [189]Sachs, J Are Malthus’s Predicted 1798 Conference on Environment and Food Shortages Coming True? Development." Retrieved on: 2009-03-16. [www.sciam.com | Scientific American] [176]^ Blewitt, J. (2008). Understanding September 2008. Retrieved on: Sustainable Development. London: 2009-04-06. Earthscan, p. 96. ISBN [190]Millennium Declaration of the United 978-1-84407-459-9 Nations Retrieved on: 2009-04-06. [177]Cohen, J.E. (2006). Human Population: [191]Macy, J. & Young Brown, M. (1998). The Next Half Century. In Kennedy, D. Coming Back to Life: Practices to (ed.) State of the Planet 2006-2007. Reconect Our Lives, Our World. Gabriola London: AAAS, Island Press, pp.13-21. Island: New Society Publishers, pp. ISSN 1559-1158. 25-37. ISBN 0-86571-391-X. [178]"Water and Political Conflicts" from [192]Gore, A (2006) Ten things to do United Nations Environment Programme Retrieved on: 2009/04/06. 2008 "Vital Water Graphics" Retrieved [193]Stockholm Environment Institute Great on: 2009-03-16. Transitions Retrieved on: 2009-04-12. [179]Billon, P. (ed.) (2005) The Geopolitics of [194]United Nations Environment Programme Resource Wars Retrieved on: (2009) United Nations Decade of 2009-04-05. Education for Sustainable Development [180]Kobtzeff, O. (2000). “Environmental Retrieved on: 2009/04/09. Security and Civil Society”. In Gardner, [195]WWF. (April, 2008). "Weathercocks and H. (ed.) Central and South-central Signposts: The Environment Movement Europe in Transition. Westport, at a Crossroads". Summary also available Connecticut: Praeger, pp. 219-296. here. Retrieved on: 2009-03-13. [181]Sale, K. (2006). Economics of Scale vs. [196]United Nations (1992) Agenda 21 the Scale of Economics: Towards Basic Retrieved on: 2009-04-29. Principles of a Bioregional Economy. [197]Gore, A (2006) An Inconvenient Truth Vermont Commons.[25] Retrieved on: Retrieved on: 2009-04-29. 2009-03-30 [198]The Daily Telegraph (10 July 2008),Bush [182]Ewing, R "Growing Cooler - the Evidence says "Goodbye from the world’s biggest on Urban Development and Climate polluter" Retrieved on: 2009-04-27. Change". Retrieved on: 2009-03-16. [199]Barack Obama (3 June 2008) Speech in [183]LaColla, T. "It’s Easy to be Green! Eco- St. Paul, Minnesota Retrieved on: Municipalities: Here to Stay". 2009-04-29. theplanningcommission.org. Retrieved on: 2009-03-16. [184]^ James, S. (2003). "Eco-municipalities: Further reading Sweden and the United States: A Systems Approach to Creating Books Communities". Retrieved on: 2009-03-16. • Atkinson, G., Dietz, S. & Neumayer, E. [185]Bookchin, M. (2004). Post Scarcity (2007). Handbook of Sustainable Anarchism. Oakland: AK Press, pp. Development. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar. 24–25. ISBN 978-1904859062. ISBN 978-1-84376-577-6. [186]Bookchin, M. (2007). Social Ecology and • Benyus, J. (1997). Biomimicry: Innovations Communalism. Oakland: AK Press, p. 19. Inspired by Nature. New York: William ISBN 978-1904859499. Morrow. ISBN 0060533226. [187]Devall, W. and G. Sessions (1985). Deep • Blackburn, W.R. (2007). The Sustainability Ecology: Living As If Nature Mattered. Handbook. London: Earthscan. ISBN 978-1-844-07495-2.

27 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Sustainability

• Bookchin, M. (2005). The Ecology of • Speth, J.G. (2008). The Bridge at the edge Freedom: the Emergence and Dissolution of the World: Capitalism, the of Hierarchy. Oakland, CA.: AK Press. Environment, and Crossing from Crisis to ISBN 9781904859260. Sustainability. Devon, PA.: Yale University • Brundtland, G.H. (ed.), (1987). Our Press. ISBN 9780300151152. Common Future: The World Commission • Steffen, A. (2006). Worldchanging: A on Environment and Development, Oxford: User’s Guide to the 21st Century. New Oxford University Press. ISBN York: Abrams. ISBN 9780810930957. 019282080X. • Costanza, R., Graumlich, L.J. & Steffen, W. Articles (eds), (2007). Sustainability or Collapse? • Adams, W. M. and Jeanrenaud, S. J. An Integrated History and Future of (2008). Transition to Sustainability: People on Earth. Cambridge, MA.: MIT Towards a Humane and Diverse World. Press. ISBN 978-0-262-03366-4. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN. 108 pp. ISBN • Cothran, H. (ed.). (2003). Global 978-2-8317-1072-3.[27] Retrieved on: Resources: Opposing Viewpoints. New 2009-03-12. York: Greenhaven Press. ISBN • Bartlett, A. (1998). Reflections on 1565106733. Sustainability, Population Growth, and the • Daly H. (1996). Beyond Growth: The Environment—Revisited revised version Economics of Sustainable Development. (January 1998) paper first published in Boston: Beacon Press. ISBN Population & Environment 16(1): 5-35. 0-8070-4709-0 Retrieved on: 2009-03-12. • Daly H. and J. Cobb. (1989). For the • Marks, N., Simms, A., Thompson, S., and Common Good: Redirecting the Economy Abdallah, S. (2006). The (Un)happy Planet Toward Community, the Environment, and Index. London: New Economics a Sustainable Future. Boston: Beacon Foundation. [28] Retrieved on: Press. ISBN 0-8070-4705-8 Review 2009-03-12. Retrieved on: 2009-03-12. • Raskin, P., Banuri, T., Gallopin, G., • Dodds, W.K. (2008). Humanity’s Footprint: Gutman, P., Hammond, A., Kates, R., and Momentum, Impact, and our Global Swart, R. (2002). "Great Transition: The Environment. New York: Columbia Promise and Lure of the Times Ahead". University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-13967-0 Boston: Tellus Institute. Retrieved on: . 2009-03-12. • Hargroves, K. & Smith, M. (eds.) (2005). • Rolando, L. (2008). "Children and Youth in The Natural Advantage of Nations: Sustainable Development". HUGS Business Opportunities, Innovation and Movement, New York. Retrieved on: Governance in the 21st Century. London: 2009-03-12. Earthscan/James&James.ISBN 1-84407-121-9. (See the books online companion at [26]) Retrieved on: External links 2009-03-12. • Sustainability at the Open Directory • McDonough, W. & Braungart, M. (2002). Project Cradle to Cradle. New York: North Point • Microdocs: [29] Elements of sustainability Press. ISBN 0-8654-75873. • [30] Roadmap for a Sustainable Earth, an • Norton, B. (2005). Sustainability, A on-line book by Hiroshi Komiyama and Philosophy of Adaptive Ecosystem Steven Kraines Management. Chicago: The University of • [31] Learning for sustainability web site Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226595214. • [32] International Federation of • Richardson, B.J. and Wood, S. (eds) Accountants Sustainability Framework (2006). Environmental Law for • [33] Sustainable Food Guidelines Sustainability: a Reader. Oxford: Hart published by Sustain: The alliance for Publishing. ISBN 9781841135441. better food and farming (UK) • Robèrt, K-H. (2002). The Natural Step • [34] IHOPE, Integrated History and future Story: Seeding a Quiet Revolution. Of People on Earth, an academic Gabriola Island, BC.: New Society transdisciplinary research program Publishers. ISBN 978-0865714533.

28 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Sustainability

investigating the integration of human interactions between biological, chemical history and Earth system changes and physical processes and interactions • [35] IGBP, The International Geosphere- with human systems and collaborates with Biosphere Programme, a research other programmes to develop and impart program that provides scientific the understanding necessary to respond to knowledge to improve the sustainability of global change the living Earthby studying the

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability"

Categories: Sustainability, Environmental terminology

This page was last modified on 22 May 2009, at 17:52 (UTC). All text is available under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License. (See Copyrights for details.) Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a U.S. registered 501(c)(3) tax- deductible nonprofit charity. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers

29