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The Process Writing Approach in Bhutan : a Case of Cross-National

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The Process Writing Approach in Bhutan : a Case of Cross-National The Process Writing Approach in Bhutan: A case of cross-national policy borrowing Dechen Zangmo Master in Education The University of New England, Australia. Bachelor of Education Samtse College of Education Royal University of Bhutan. Thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the School of Education and Arts at the University of Newcastle, Australia. August, 2013 PWA in Bhutan – Dechen Zangmo Page 1 Declaration This thesis contains no material which has been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma in any university or other tertiary institution and, to the best of my knowledge and belief, contains no material previously published or written by another person, except where due reference has been made in the text. I give consent to this copy of my thesis, when deposited in the University Library, being made available for loan and photocopying subject to the provisions of the Copyright Act 1968. Dechen Zangmo (Signed): ……………………………………………. (Candidate) Date: August 2013 PWA in Bhutan – Dechen Zangmo Page ii Dedication First of all I would like to dedicate this work to my late father, Sonam Wangchuk and mother, Pema Dechen who were both teachers. My father’s passion on using various modern methods to teach English in contrast to my mother’s keenness for rote learning of prayers in Dzongkha, their differences on the preference of methods inspired me to explore the current Bhutanese teachers view on “Process Writing Approach,” an approach from a different culture. I would also like to dedicate this work to Werner Christen, my husband. His passion and interest in different cultures and his role more as a father to me with his special undying love and care inspired me to take up this project. Next, I would like to dedicate this work to my one and only daughter, Sonam Peldon. Sonam’s extremely mature, sensible and hardworking character inspired me continuously. She was always there as a good role model for me. Finally I dedicate this work to my country and government for making me who I am now. PWA in Bhutan – Dechen Zangmo Page iii Acknowledgements “Thousands of candles can be lit from a single candle, and the life of the candle will not be shortened. Happiness never decreases by being shared”. (Gautama Buddha) I have learned the above quote from no other people than my two supervisors during the endeavour of my PhD. I deeply feel indebted to my supervisors Dr. John Mitchell O’Toole and Dr. Rachel Burke. Dr. John Mitchell O’Toole with his stable positive outlook on life provided me with the perfect role model of an optimistic, understanding, diligent, compassionate, generous and efficient supervisor. His continuous assurance that “You will get there Dechen!” upheld me to pull through the hardest turmoil of my PhD even at times when my confidence level fell to zero. Equally, Dr. Rachel Burke also has provided me with the perfect role model of a generous and friendly female academic. I owe my deepest gratitude to both of you, with your guidance, encouragement and support; it was possible for me to reach the destiny of my PhD journey. A very big thank thank you Mr. Bill Buggie of University of New Brunswick, Canada who generously helped me by providing all the necessary information about the writing of the English curriculum. Thanks to Dr. Tom Griffith and Dr. Zsuzsa Millei, Dr. Michael Arthur-Kelly for also giving their guidance and support. My gratitude goes to Professor Max Smith for providing me with all the needed motivation and resources and Dr. Heather Sharp for reading my thesis and giving constructive feedback. Exceptional thanks to my family and friends: my brother in-law Jamba Tobden, without his matured guidance and encouragement; this project would not have been PWA in Bhutan – Dechen Zangmo Page iv completed. By the same token I would like to thank my sister, Pema Wangmo, who is also a Doctoral candidate at the University of Newcastle, and of course, to my sister Sonam Lhaden and nephew Tandin Phub. Special thanks to my friend Selfy Manueke, for all your technical support and Deki Gyamtso for your moral support. Last but not the least my heartfelt thanks to a faraway friend for being always there to support me with a touch of a button on my mobile. PWA in Bhutan – Dechen Zangmo Page v Table of Contents Declaration ....................................................................................................................... ii Dedication .......................................................................................................................iii Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................... iv Table of Contents ........................................................................................................... vi List of Tables ................................................................................................................... x List of Figures .................................................................................................................. x List of Appendices ........................................................................................................... x Definition of Key Terms ............................................................................................... xii Abstract .........................................................................................................................xiii CHAPTER ONE - AN INTRODUCTION TO THE RESEARCH ............................ 1 1.1. Introduction ...................................................................................................... 1 1.2. The Research Problem ..................................................................................... 3 1.3. Rationale and Purpose of the Study................................................................ 5 1.4. Aims of the Study.............................................................................................. 6 1.5. The Research Questions ................................................................................... 7 1.6. Conceptual Framework ................................................................................... 8 1.7. Significance of the Study .................................................................................. 9 1.8. Structure of the Thesis ................................................................................... 11 CHAPTER TWO - LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................... 14 2.1. Introduction .................................................................................................... 14 2.2. Approaches to Writing in English as Second Language (ESL) .................. 14 2.2.1. The Product approach. ........................................................................... 15 2.2.2. The Process Writing Approach (PWA)................................................. 17 2.2.3. Reduced Importance of PWA in Australia. .......................................... 18 2.2.4. PWA still on the go. ................................................................................. 19 2.2.4.1. PWA did not disappear. ............................................................................. 21 2.3. Definition of Curriculum ............................................................................... 24 2.3.1. The explicit curriculum. ......................................................................... 24 2.3.2. Curriculum defined as experience. ........................................................ 25 2.3.3. Curriculum defined as enactment or implementation. ........................ 26 2.4. Approaches to curriculum in Bhutan ........................................................... 27 2.4.1. Who is Responsible? ............................................................................... 27 2.4.2. Introduction of PWA in English Curriculum. ...................................... 28 2.4.2.1. Various groups of people involved. ........................................................... 28 2.4.2.2. Innovation and training............................................................................. 30 2.4.3. Shaping the curriculum to fit the new context. .................................... 33 2.4.4. Four stages of policy borrowing............................................................. 33 2.4.4.1. Cross National Attraction: impulses and externalising potential. ............ 34 2.4.4.2. Decision. .................................................................................................... 35 2.4.4.3. Implementation. ......................................................................................... 35 2.4.4.4. Internalization/indigenization. .................................................................. 36 PWA in Bhutan – Dechen Zangmo Page vi 2.4.5. Cultural differences: Native English Speakers and Nonnative English Speakers. ................................................................................................................ 38 2.4.6. Constructive alignment. .......................................................................... 41 2.4.7. The curriculum documents. ................................................................... 43 CHAPTER THREE - BACKGROUND OF BHUTAN ............................................. 45 3.1. Introduction .................................................................................................... 45 3.2. Brief background
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