Contemporary Problems of Social Work

ACADEMIC JOURNAL

Vol. 6. No. 2 (22) 2020

MOSCOW CCONTEMPORARYONTEMPORARY PROBLEMSPROBLEMS CONTENTS OOFF SOCIALSOCI AL WWORKORK VVolumeolume 6,6, No.No. 2 (22),(22), 20202020 ECONOMY ISSN 2412-5466 Galinovsky D.S. Prospects and Directions of Development The journal is included into the system of the Non-State Pension Market of Russia...... 4 of Russian science citation index and is available on the website: Khirbeik Yazan www.elibrary.ru Chinese Investments in Africa ...... 12

DOI 10.17922/2412-5466-2020-6-2 PEDAGOGY CHIEF EDITOR Frolova E.V. Tleukina B.Sh. doctor of sociological Professional Training of Social Work Specialists sciences, associate professor, Russian in the Secondary Professional Education System. . . . .20 State Social University, Russia DEPUTY EDITOR SOCIOLOGY Rogach O.V. candidate of sociological sciences, Bek V.V., Rozental D.M. Russian State Social University, Reasons for the Decline Russia of the Rule of Left-Wing Governments in Brazil at the Turn of the XXI Century ...... 27 EDITORIAL BOARD Belokhvostkina D.S., Martynova M.Yu. Visegrad Group As the Basis for the Integration Feber J. (PhD, University of Trnava, Slovakia) of Eastern Europe into Western Structures ...... 36 Mirsky J. (PhD, Ben-Gurion University Chernikova A.A. of the Negev, Israel) Foreign Students’ Satisfaction Moore Alan Thomas (Bachelor of of Russian Educational Environment in 2019 ...... 44 Arts (Hons), M.A., leading to the Capital FM 105.3, Ireland) Deshevykh M.S., Yudaev V.V. Nikiporets-Takigawa G.Yu. (PhD, SpaceX As the Challenge professor, University of Cambridge, UK) to National Security ...... 51 Petrucijová J. (PhD, University of Deshevykh N.S., Yudaev V.V. Ostrava, Czech Republic) Prospects of the Development Roer-Strier D. (PhD, Hebrew of Artificial Intelligence in the World Arena ...... 58 University of Jerusalem, Israel) Santiesteban Perez M. (PhD, Kurniawan Iwan Jaconiah University of Guantanamo, Cuba) Intercultural Interaction: Turdubaev S.K. (doctor of economic Indonesia and Soviet Society in the Sphere sciences, associate professor, director of Art Paintings in the Second of Russian State Social University in Half of the XXth Century ...... 65 Osh, Kyrgyz Republic) Leontyeva T.V. Turro Breff A. (PhD, University of Guantanamo, Cuba) Perception of the Visual Image Vietze D. (PhD, The City University of of the Family in Animation By Children New York, USA) of Different Ages ...... 72 Vietze P. (PhD, Montclair State Standhope Anamoa-Pokoo, University, USA) Delali Margaret Badasu, Urzha O.A. Badmatsyrenov T.B. (candidate Assessing the Assets and Welfare Conditions of sociology sciences, associate professor, Buryat State University, of the Left-Behind Migrant Households Buryatia, Russia) in the Ekumfi District of Ghana...... 79 Chernikova L.I. (doctor of Stoyanova D.D., Urzha O.A. economic sciences, associate The Role of the Leading Party professor, Financial University under the Government of the Russian in Solving Social Policy Issues ...... 88 Federation, Russia) PSYCHOLOGY Dusenko S.V. (doctor of sociological Ivanov D.A., Abakumov N.V., sciences, associate professor, Russian State University of Physical Meskhiya A.T., Veretekhina S.V. Education, Sport, Youth and Tourism Development of Testing Environment (SCOLIPE), Russia) for Analyzing the Psycho-Physiological Rostovskaya T.K. (doctor of State of a Person Using Neural Networks sociological sciences, professor, and Computer Vision ...... 96 Institute of Social and Political Studies of the Russian Academy of Petrova E.A., Sisoshvili M.S. Sciences (ISPR RAS), Russia) Psychological Observation Skills in the Sizikova V.V. (doctor of pedagogical Daily Work of Transport Police Officers ...... 104 sciences, professor, Russian State Polyakova O.B. Social University, Russia) Features of Professional Reflection Vinogradova M.V. (doctor of economic sciences, associate of Social Workers with Professional professor, Russian State University of Deformations ...... 112 Tourism and Service, Russia) Vishnyakova V.A. (candidate of economic sciences, Russian State LABOUR PROTECTION Social University, Russia) Kurbatov S.A., Zubkova V.M. Antioxidant Activity of Medicinal Plants EXECUTIVE SECRETARY from Habitats with Different Vishnyakova V.A. Anthropogenic Loads ...... 119 candidate of economic sciences, head of department scientific and technical information RSSU

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Galinovsky D.S., Postgraduate Student, Russian State Social University, Moscow. E-mail: [email protected] ORCID ID: orcid.org/0000-0002-5714-0368 UDC 33; 332.01 DOI 10.17922/2412-5466-2020-6-2-4-11 Prospects and Directions of Development of the Non-State Pension Market of Russia

Receiving date: Preprint date: Taking to print date: 10.03.2020 29.05.2020 29.06.2020

Annotation: the subject of the article is the analysis of prospects and new directions of development of the non-state pension provision market in Russia. The article offers solutions for further development of this market segment. In particular, early non-state pension provision is being considered. The prospects and risks of introducing a guaranteed pension plan are analyzed. A comparative analysis of the main characteristics of these two pension products is carried out. As part of the expansion of the investment Declaration of the portfolio of pension reserves of non-state pension funds, their participation in infrastructure projects is analyzed. Key words: non-state pension funds, non-state pension provision, guaranteed pension plan, state co- financing of pensions, pension reform, infrastructure investment. JEL classification: А100, А110, А130.

Introduction Over the past decades, the Russian pension market has been repeatedly reformed. Despite this, according to many experts and most citizens of the country, the national pension system needs further reforms. Experts, in particular doctor of economics A.A. Shirov, give the following definition of a “successful” pension system: “the pension system can be considered fair when it allows maintaining an acceptable standard of living for pensioners and does not have significant negative effects on economic development” [15]. Thus, the main task of the Russian pension reform – ensuring a decent standard of living for pensioners – has not been solved. The level of pensions is still low, and the role of non–state pension funds (hereinafter referred to as NPF) in the economy is not significant. Every year, the French financial Corporation Natixis publishes a “Global pension index” that describes the degree of comfort of countries for pensioners. The rating takes into account 18 indicators divided into 4 groups: income level, economic situation, quality of life and level of medical services . Each factor is evaluated in the range from 0 to 100%. 4 VOLUME 6, No. 2 (22), 2020

At the end of 2017, out of 43 countries, Russia was in the fortieth place. Norway (86%), Switzerland (84%), Iceland (82%), Sweden (80%) and New Zealand (80%) were ranked first. The top 10 also included Australia (78%), Germany (77%), Denmark (77%), the Netherlands (77%) and Luxembourg (76%). The last places were taken by Brazil (41%), Greece (40%) and India (12%). Russia, in turn, has 45%, which is 1% less than in 2016 [19]. The results of this study allow us to conclude that despite repeated attempts to change the pension industry, the state was unable to perform one of its key social functions and provide former employees with an income level comparable to their pre-retirement level. On the one hand, this is due to the state of the Russian economy. In our opinion, in the near future, given the current level of budget revenues, the decrease in the number of people of working age and the demographic crisis, the government will not be able to provide sufficient payments to pensioners. On the other hand, as the experience of pension systems functioning in countries with developed economies shows, no pension system can guarantee a decent level of pension payments solely due to its mandatory component. The pension should have several sources and be formed at the expense of a multi-level pension system. In these circumstances, NPFs can play an important role in the development of the national pension system . According to the Bank of Russia, as of the third quarter of 2019, the number of active NPFs was 49 funds, and the total portfolio of pension funds exceeded 6 trillion RUB [9]. Thus, during their existence, these financial institutions have accumulated sufficient experience in accumulating and placing pension reserves. In our opinion, it is necessary to maximize the potential of the NPF to expand the segment of non-state pension provision. Methods In this article, on the basis of analysis of scientific-informational base of the study subject and through the lens of major initiatives by the two self-regulatory organizations NPF – National Association of pension funds (hereinafter – the NAPF) and the Association of private pension funds “the Alliance of pension funds” (hereinafter – ANPF) we consider the main prospects and possible directions of improvement of pension market of Russia. Results It is obvious that the pension services market needs new development vectors. This is primarily due to the negative conditions currently prevailing in this market. The modern Russian pension market can be characterized by the following main attributes:  uncertainty and permanent reforms;  public distrust of the pension system in General and of non-state pension funds in particular;  insufficient income of the majority of Russians;  low level of awareness of citizens about the possibility of additional independent formation pension. Let’s examine these signs in more detail. Continuous reform of the pension system over the past 20 years. “Freezing” of the funded component of the pension. The emergence of the concept of individual pension capital (hereinafter referred to as IPC) that has not received support from either the professional community or the population. The latest proposal of the Ministry of Finance and the Сentral Bank of Russia called the Guaranteed pension plan (hereinafter referred to as the GPP) also has numerous comments and questions. The joint position of the NAPF and the ANPF with regard to the GPP, which is essentially derived from the IPC, can be summarized as follows. The proposed GPP concept is generally supported by the NPF, but a number of provisions need to be refined. First of all, this applies to the procedure and timing of transferring the funded component of the pension to the GPP system, the appearance of a pension administrator who provides a centralized system of accounting and administration of participants’ contributions, the possibility of using funds in «critical life situations», as well as requirements for the minimum contribution and the amount on the account.

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Do not forget about such repeated negative facts related to the NPF industry, such as the cancellation of Fund licenses, complaints about illegal transfers of pension savings, etc. [1] to all of the above, we should add the lack of temporarily available funds for the population, the inability to make savings, the lack of publicly available information and a lack of understanding of the basic principles of the NPF. In addition, the significant potential for developing a non-state pension system has remained undervalued for many years. This was due to both the government’s policy on NPF and the orientation of most NPF’s towards a mandatory pension product – a funded pension that had ample opportunities to attract clients. Currently, the opposite trend is observed. NPF is returning its interest in the non-state pension market segment. In our opinion, the main reason for this is the “exhaustion” of the mandatory pension insurance market (about 50% of all insured persons already form savings in NPF), as well as the lack of certainty regarding the GPP/PPI. In these circumstances, the simplest and most obvious, at first glance, direction of NPF development is the expansion of non- state pension provision services by attracting new client. The domestic NPF market has not yet exhausted its growth opportunities [3]. Given the “hang-up” of the pension reform, the main source of this growth will be contracts of non-state pension provision, and legal entities will be the suppliers of pension reserves. Today, most companies do not have social programs for corporate pension provision of employees. The low social orientation of enterprises is explained, in our opinion, by the following factors:  lack of funds to Finance corporate pension programs;  the lack of tax incentives for the conclusion of non- state pension agreement;  the lack of competition between employers for employees. The solution to the above problems is possible only with the development of enterprises, changes in tax policy and strengthening of social orientation. In our opinion, tax incentive measures should first of all be related to:  with the exemption of non-state pension payments formed at the expense of contributions from the employer and/or other individual from the tax on personal income;  excluding from the tax base employer’s income tax of contributions under non-state pension providing contracts in favor of employees, including former employees;  allocation of the pension tax deduction in a separate item, or increase the amount of the tax deduction to 400 thousand rubles per year, as well as providing the possibility of redirecting the social tax deduction for payment of contributions under pension agreements. Taking into account the fact that all system-forming corporations (Gazprom, Russian Railways, Transneft, Sberbank, VTB, etc.) have corporate pension programs in the near future, the development of non-state pension provision by attracting new clients, primarily medium-sized enterprises, can have a certain effect, but should not be considered as a priority. In the current situation, one of the possible options for further development of the market is to stimulate early non-state pension provision [5]. Improvement of the Institute of early pensions based on the use of various mechanisms for the implementation of rights to early retirement security was also noted as priority measures in the “Main directions of the Government of the Russian Federation for the period up to 2024” [17]. At the end of 2013, the Federal law “Оn non-state pension funds» [8] was amended to describe the system of early non-state pension provision for employees engaged in harmful and (or) dangerous jobs (special working conditions). These changes were intended to ensure the development of corporate pensions formed by the employer with the possible participation of the employee, as part of the Strategy for the long-term development of the pension system of the Russian Federation [6].

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During 2016–2018, a number of regulations on early non-state pension provision were adopted, including:  Government resolution on authorized non-state pension funds that provide early non- state pension provision;  Government resolution on approval of the standard pension program for early non-state pension provision [16]. The following main criteria are set for entering a non-state pension Fund into the system of early non-state provision [14]:  the Fund must be a joint stock company;  the Fund must have a license to carry out activities on non-state pension provision and mandatory pension insurance;  the size of the Fund’s assets must be at least 80 billion rubles;  the Fund must have at least 10 years of experience in non-state pension provision;  the Fund must have experience in simultaneously maintaining at least 50 000 registered pension accounts for at least 5 years;  the Fund must have experience in simultaneously paying non-state pensions to at least 2500 pensioners for at least 5 years;  no bankruptcy procedure should be applied to the Fund for at least the last 2 years;  for at least the last 2 years, the Central Bank of Russia should not impose a ban on all or part of the Fund’s operations;  the Fund must not have an actuarial deficit identified in the last 2 financial years;  the Fund must have no tax arrears;  the Fund has an audit report with an unmodified audit opinion. The essence of the concept of early non-state pension provision is as follows. Employers who provide jobs with harmful and (or) dangerous working conditions will have the opportunity to choose one of two options for implementing the right of their employees to early retirement security:  payment of additional insurance premiums to the Pension Fund of the Russian Federation, in the order of mandatory pension insurance;  transfer of contributions to a non-state pension Fund in the order of non-state pension provision. At the same time, other necessary measures were not taken by the state to support and develop this area [18]. In particular, it was not adopted by a separate Federal law on state support pension early non-state pension under paragraph 5 of article 36.34 law “On private pension funds» [8]. The main obstacle to the development of early non-state pension provision, in our opinion, is the following. Existing legislative provisions allow only for the possibility of creating an employer an additional system of non-state pension provision for employees with special working conditions, but this does not relieve the employer from the obligation to pay the premiums on additional tariffs for compulsory pension insurance, established by the Tax code of the Russian Federation (from 2 to 9% depending on the class of working conditions established by the results of special assessment of working conditions or workplaces). For the development of early non-state pension provision, we propose to fix at the legislative level the possibility of exemption from payment of contributions at additional rates for those employers who will form a system of early non-state pension provision and who pay in full and on time to the specified system the appropriate funds (pension contributions) for their employees employed in harmful (dangerous) working conditions. In the future, the model can be supplemented with the possibility of additional co-financing by the state of personal contributions of employees.

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In our opinion, the development of early non-state pension provision will increase interest in the opportunities of the non-state pension market and achieve targeted delivery of services. The employer will pay pension contributions in favor of a particular employee. This position also coincides with the opinion of the professional community. Both NAPF and ANPF expressed their position on the need to improve the segment of non-state pension provision. According to the calculations of the NAPF, the development of an early non-state pension provision will increase the coverage of citizens with non-state pension programs by 1.5 million people. Thus, in the first phase of implementation of the proposed model (release employers, created the program early non-state pension provision, from payment of insurance premiums) will result in an increase of assets in the private pension scheme for 0.5–0.6 billion RUB (with estimated coverage of up to 10% of potential participants) and will lead to insignificant loss of income of the Federal budget (up to RUB 1 billion) [10]. At the second stage (in case of introduction of state co-financing), the growth of assets in the non-state pension system can reach up to 9 billion rubles (with the expected coverage – 15–20% of potential participants in the system). At the same time, the falling Federal budget revenues may amount to 6–7 billion rubles, and the cost of co-financing will need 0.2–0.3 billion rubles. The ANPF has a similar position to the NAPF. As part of its proposals to improve the regulation of the current activities of the pension industry, the Association points to the need to develop early non-state pension provision [13]. As another area of development of the Institute of non-state pension provision related to the investment component of the NPF, we can note the expansion of the list of permitted assets for the placement of pension reserves. This proposal of the NAPF is also in line with the position of the ANPF. The extension of the NPF investment Declaration, on the one hand, will be a necessary addition, potentially aimed at increasing the NPF’s profit and, as a result, at fulfilling the NPF’s obligations to depositors and participants. Scientists and economists, in particular, Pochinok N.B and Andryushenko G.I., also speak about the need to expand the list of investment instruments of the NPF [2]. World practice shows that NPFs can play an important role in meeting the investment needs of the real sector of the economy. A study conducted by the Economist Journal in 2008 showed that pension funds are the largest institutional investors in the world economy in terms of assets. The total assets of pension funds exceeded $ 21 trillion USA [4] at the beginning of 2011, pension funds in 13 leading countries of the world had assets of $ 26 trillion. The assets of American pension funds amounted to $ 15 trillion USA [11]. In Russia despite the growth of assets, NPF can not be called significant investors. As of the beginning of 2012, NPF assets accounted for only 2.3% of Russia’s gross domestic product. If you add the assets of the Pension Fund of Russia to the assets of the NPF, it turns out that in the Russian Federation, pension money account for only 6% of the value of the gross domestic product. For comparison, in the US and the UK, this figure is more than 100%, in the Netherlands – 130%, in Japan-more than 60%, in Brazil – about 15%, in Germany – about 13% [12]. At the same time, it is necessary to take into account the following. “Investment in infrastructure is not for the faint – hearted around the world”, says Svetlana Bik, Executive Director of the National Association of concessionaires and long – term infrastructure investors (hereinafter – NAKDI). According to experts, not all funds are able to evaluate and implement a complex project. At the same time, these investments provide a relatively high and stable return on NPF (for example, in Australia – about 5%), and the risks, although not completely, are still isolated from the situation in the economy and markets, according to experts of the Organization for economic cooperation and development (OECD). Participation in the project by the state-through a concession agreement or public-private partnership (PPP) – also significantly increases the reliability of investments.

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Despite the complex system of these investments, funds in different countries are increasingly involved in infrastructure projects. For example, the Ontario teachers’ pension Fund manages airports on five continents, the state pension investment Fund of Japan has provided 5% of assets for infrastructure investments, the Dutch public employees’ pension Fund ABP has acquired 85% of the Amber motorway construction project in Poland, and the South Korean “Natational pension service” has invested more than 1 billion rubles. in the high-speed rail UK, system, company IFM Investors which accumulates funds from 27 Australian pension funds, bought the company that serves Britain’s M6 Toll motorway for 1.9 billion euros. Infrastructure projects are a good investment for NPF. Investment horizon matches the long- term pension liabilities, rates of return tend to be higher than profitability short-term securities and investments are socially oriented. Currently, in Russia, pension funds due to regulatory restrictions can not be direct investors and buy a share in an infrastructure project. In their portfolio can only be securities traded on the exchange. Funds are content with bonds. The book “in search of the real” for the first time describes the history of the formation and development of the concession bond market in modern Russia. This story begins in 2010: it was then that JSC “Main road” issued bonds to Finance the first Federal concession – a paid section of the route “Moscow – Minsk” [7]. From an investment point of view, concession bonds are an interesting financial tool for pension funds. Concessions usually have a guaranteed cash flow that ensures repayment. Returns on infrastructure assets are not linked to fluctuations in financial markets, but to inflation, which is fundamentally important for funds. However, the capacity of these tools is small. In total, according to NAKDI, as of mid-September 2017, the Central Bank of Russia registered 28 issues of concession bonds totaling 94.7 billion rubles. According to the investment company InfraOne, which specializes in direct investments, funds of several groups were invested in infrastructure projects under the PPP scheme, including VTB, Gazfond and OTKRITIE. For example, VTB pension Fund invested 7.5 billion rubles in the construction of two sections of the highway between Moscow and St. Petersburg (the “Highway of two capitals” bonds). At the same time, experts recognize that only a few domestic NPFs are able to manage the risks associated with infrastructure investments. The first and simplest argument is the lack of competence. In addition, there are two other reasons for the weak interest in infrastructure:  regulatory restrictions;  economic instability. Let’s look at the above reasons in more detail. First, the bond mechanism through which domestic NPFs invest in PPP infrastructure projects is quite difficult to implement in terms of its compliance with all regulatory requirements. Secondly, in conditions of economic instability, most active players do not risk making long- term investments, preferring short-and medium-term instruments with guaranteed returns. As possible future directions for socially responsible investment, NPFs in the professional environment consider, among other things, various services for the elderly and long-term care infrastructure, as well as projects for sorting garbage and recycling waste. In particular, NPF “Welfare” created a rehabilitation complex for the elderly “Monino” [20]. Sberbank’s non-state pension Fund has announced a tender for the development of a “concept for creating a network infrastructure for living and providing long-term care for the elderly” [21]. However, these areas, in our opinion, can not be massively implemented in the near future and therefore will not be considered in this article. Discussion Thus, the possible options for developing non-state pension provision discussed by the professional community are reduced to two main areas – IPC/GPP and early non-state pension provision. The most important characteristics of these directions are given in the table 1.

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Table 1 Main features of IPC/GPP and Early non-state pension provision Characteristic Pension program IPC/GPP Early non-state pension provision Initiator of the program state body professional community implementation The need to develop a reg- requires the development of a number the main regulatory documents ulatory framework of new regulatory documents and the have been developed, the current adjustment of the current regulatory regulatory framework needs mini- framework mal revision Need for state support it is highly likely that the system will the system can function without require state support in the form of tax government support incentives, co-financing and guaran- teeing the safety of contributions. Main contributors natural person employer Principle of participation voluntary automatic inclusion of employees in the program Who participates in the for all individuals who have joined the employees of enterprises with program system harmful working conditions Possibility of early with- yes, in critical life situations excluded drawal of funds

Conclusion As a result of the analysis of the proposed options for the development of non-state pension provision in Russia, we come to the following main conclusions. The modern Russian pension system is not able to solve its main task – decent social security for older people and needs to be reformed. The capacity of the national economy does not allow this task to be carried out exclusively at the expense of public funds. The professional community offers the development of a non-state pension system as a promising way of development. Currently, experts are actively discussing the «forks» of this path. State regulatory bodies to increase the size of the pension offer the introduction of GPP as an element of the so-called third level of the pension system related to personal savings of citizens. Market participants are generally ready to support this pension product, but note the potential risks for the industry associated with the introduction of GPP. First of all, it is the competition of a new product with already operating corporate pension programs and lobbying by the state regulator of GPP. Secondly, in system should be integrated as a mandatory element of the pension administrator, who is, in fact, a monopolist and independently sets tariffs. Taking into account that the potential of corporate pension programs has actually been exhausted, as a driver for the further development of NPF in the face of their self-regulating organizations at the present stage, it is primarily proposed to launch the system of early non-state pension provision already provided for by legislation. A significant advantage of this system is that the obligation to pay contributions lies with the employer. Employees can participate on a voluntary basis. At the same time, the system of early non-state pension provision is limited to employees of enterprises with harmful working conditions. In order to attract the personal savings of citizens to the pension system, we consider it necessary to introduce a guarantee of pension contributions. at the same time, the guarantee of individual contributions should apply to all pension products. In our opinion, the introduction of the GPP is possible if the institution of corporate pension programs is preserved and after the main provisions of the product are agreed with the professional community in the face of the self-regulating organizations of the pension market.

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In order to support and develop the NPF Institute, it is proposed to Supplement the investment Declaration for placing pension reserves and simplify the procedure for financing infrastructure projects by pension funds.

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REFERENCE TO ARTICLE Galinovsky, D.S. (2020) Prospects and Directions of Development of the Non-State Pension Market of Russia, Contemporary Problems of Social Work. Vol. 6. No. 2 (22). P. 4–11. DOI 10.17922/2412-5466-2020-6-2-4-11 (International bibliographic description).

CONTACT INFORMATION: Galinovsky Dmitry Stanislavovich Postgraduate Student Russian State Social University Wilhelm Pieck str., 4, build. 1 129226 Moscow, Russian Federation E-mail: [email protected]

11 CONTEMPORARY PROBLEMS OF SOCIAL WORK

Khirbeik Yazan, Master Student, Russian State Social University, Moscow. E-mail: [email protected] ORCID ID: orcid.org /0000-0001-7131-5999 UDC 33; 329 DOI 10.17922/2412-5466-2020-6-2-12-19 Chinese Investments in Africa

Receiving date: Preprint date: Taking to print date: 16.03.2020 29.05.2020 29.06.2020

Annotation: this article focuses on Chinese investment in Africa and its role in achieving economic development. The author examines the most important Chinese investment sectors and the volume of American and European investments in Africa compared to China in 2016–2018. The article discusses the economic, political, and security goals that China seeks to achieve in Africa with these investments, and identifies the tools it uses to achieve this. Key words: investments, energy, America, European Union, Africa, China. JEL classification: А100, А110, А130.

Introduction China is one of the countries pursuing an active foreign policy in Africa. Recently, China’s relationship with an African continent has become warmer Although the Chinese presence in Africa is not a result of modernity, the size and nature of relations between the two sides has multiplied many times until China has become a competitor to great countries (France – America – European Union – United Kingdom). It is China’s pragmatic, practical, policy in the future that will boost its influence away from the harsh competition conditions. China’s growing influence in Africa is reflected in the supply of energy flows, access to African markets and raw materials, which it regards as a manufacturing market. To achieve this goal, China resorted, first and foremost, to economic investment in a positive way that creates a common benefit. Africa considers China one of the most important economic partners, as it is the second most powerful economic force, which opens wide doors for partnership in various fields, which reflects positively on economic development. On the other hand, China sees Africa as having a political and economic dimension through which it can limit Western influence in Africa. The African continent is not only one of the most marginalized regions in the world, but also a subject of competition between developed countries, because of its important resources. Energy, especially the oil and gas industry, plays an important role in international relations, and forms the basis of the economy upon which developed and developing countries depend. China’s economic growth accelerated, as a result of which the Chinese government sent investments abroad with the goal of even greater capitalization. China through its investment policies in Africa aims to expand its own economic potential. By making Africa a market for its products, as well as an object of profitable investment, China, first of all, takes advantage of the lack of investment on the continent, which in 2018 amounted to almost ($ 46 billion). “Globalization is the focus of Chinese economy, and Africa is an important place for Chinese investment’’, said the President of China [6, p. 72].

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Chinese investment in Africa has risen sharply since 2009. Chinese investment in Africa takes many forms. Not only energy and minerals, but also services and construction are China’s priority investments in Africa. We detail this judgment in figures. 1. In Africa, there are about 1043 projects and 2500 companies operating in more than 50 countries, in addition to their contribution to building 2233 km of railways and 3530km roads, as well as China’s contribution to linking the countries of the continent to the global economy [11]. 2. Establishing an industrial city to receive 200 Chinese industrial enterprises near Tangier, located in the north of the Kingdom, in partnership with the Chinese group Heiti. The value of this project is one billion dollars. Where the project contributes to creating 100 000 new jobs [12]. 3. The state of chaos and instability in the Horn of Africa, and its money from negative effects on international navigation, contributed to China’s desire to establish a permanent base, that works to ensure the flow of its energy imports, and to maintain its presence in Africa, in a manner that guarantees its permanent stay in Africa, and there is no Better place than Djibouti, which is located at the entrance to the Arabian Peninsula, in an important strategic corridor (the Bab al-Mandab strait) which secures half of China’s oil needs [5]. 4. In Uganda, China has implemented a highway project that connects the capital to the airport, which cuts the time from two hours to 30 minutes, in 2018, and negotiations are underway for the construction of a railway between Uganda and the Kenyan port of Mombasa [20]. 5. Construction of a 1400-km coastal railway, worth $ 11 billion, led by China Civil Construction Corporation (Tesis) and the Federal Republic of Nigeria [12]. Chinese investments in Africa have specific features. 1. Chinese investment in Africa extends to all African countries, regardless of the economic potential of the latter, unlike western investments, which can only be found in economically developed African countries (see fig. 1). 2. Investment sectors are focused on capital-intensive sectors with a small amount of labor and include sectors that do not require experience [16] (see fig. 3). 3. Chinese investment on the continent is aimed not only at the economic component, but also at intercultural interaction (unlike Western analogs, where there is a focus on profit [13]. 4. Chinese investments are characterized by low cost compared to their Western counterparts, and they prefer to invest in areas of low security and are very unstable, and thus bear difficulties and risks that foreign investment cannot make, since they prefer to invest in areas where rule of law and power dominate [6, p. 73–74]. China’s goals in Africa China aims to expand its influence in Africa to achieve a set of strategic goals, which enable it to strengthen its growing global role. The following are the most important basic objectives that explain the growing role of China in Africa. Economic goals. 1. Access to mineral wealth and natural resources. It can be said that one of the reasons for the Chinese orientation towards Africa China desire to have resources, especially since China has become the second largest energy importer after America, and the third largest importer of oil as it imports about 30%, meeting one third of its needs from Africa [3]. 2. Economic resources in the South China Sea. The “Daiko Cinco Islands” is one of the controversial issues between China and its neighbors (Philippines – Vietnam – Malaysia – Japan). The Daiko Cinco Islands are economically important area for all countries, including China [20]. The importance of these islands is not because of its global waterway, but the region contains huge quantities of oil and gas, as studies indicate that there are approximately 130 billion barrels of oil in the South China Sea region, and 500 billion cubic meters of gas according to the results of geological research that Conducted by Chinese

13 CONTEMPORARY PROBLEMS OF SOCIAL WORK companies. China is working to gain the voting power of African countries in the Security Council, in its dispute over these islands [17]. 3. Search for markets for production discharge. Economic relations between African countries and China have developed in a positive way, as reflected in the trade exchange. 4. China has become the second trading partner after America and before France. The volume of trade exchange 2018 between the two parties reached 204 billion dollars. Chinese exports amounted to Africa. In the first half of 2018, approximately (50.37) billion dollars, an increase of 8%. While imports amounted to 47.48% billion dollars, with a growth rate of 6.28% on an annual basis. Trade is expected in the year 2020 to reach about 225 billion dollars [11] (see fig. 4). Large Chinese production requires a large market for the disposal of production, and this issue is available on the African market as it is:  The African market is huge and has the potential to absorb mass production (Chinese production);  Africa has a large number of untapped workers, which is reflected positively on the Chinese industry, which needs a lack of experience and intensity at work;  China provides products that are compatible with the consuming power and purchasing power of the African consumer [1]. Political goals. As long as the economic factor is the political engine of the decision maker, China seeks to achieve goals no less important than economic goals, which can be summarized as follows. 1. China seeks to create a multi-polar international system. China seeks to break the US hegemony over the outputs of the international system, by establishing a multi-polar international system, a demand that most countries of the world seek to fulfill. Away from the state of terror and fear that prevailed in the 1980s, between the United States and the Soviet Union. 2. Support the Chinese position on the Taiwan issue. Taiwan will remain an area of US-China dispute because of the arms sales that prevent the realization of the “Chinese unit” that Beijing hopes for. China is working to contain the Taiwan issue, by presenting itself instead of Taiwan, and politically and economically, to Africa. 3. UNO reform and Facing Japan and India’s attempts to join the UNO Security Council. Within the framework of developing its relations with African countries, China seeks to confront the attempts of Japan and India to join the Security Council in the context of what is being talked about in reforming international institutions. Therefore, it is considered one of the challenges of Chinese national security. Because of the atrocities committed by the Japanese towards China, so China is very keen to prevent Japan from obtaining a seat on the Security Council [14]. 4. China is working to establish strategic relations with African countries on the basis of world peace, support pragmatic cooperation, and enhance friendship between peoples [15]. Security and military objectives. Security threats and energy sources are among the most important factors in the international trend in Africa. China has found in developing countries and in Africa in particular, a vital field to put forward a new concept of security, enabling it to achieve a global peaceful rise, which secures the rise of China as a global power [2]. Because energy supplies, especially oil, are a pillar of Chinese national security, China has sought to maintain its presence in Africa by supplying arms. As the Stockholm Peace Research Institute indicated that the increase in Chinese arms sales to Africa increased by 55% from 2013–2018 [19]. In order to achieve its goals, China depends on the use of many tools, divided between political, economic and security.

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1. Economic Aid. China presents itself to African countries as a clean country that aims not to colonize, but to achieve mutual benefit and mutual interest, within the framework of cooperation and equality between the peoples of the world. One of the most important tools through which China seeks to expand its influence in Africa and secure energy sources is Chinese aid, economic and development. In 2018, the Chinese president pledged $ 60 billion to Africa, to finance development projects, in the next three years, which include aid, investment and interest-free loans, including $ 15 billion in free assistance and interest-free loans [9]. China takes a smart approach to providing financial and development assistance to ensure that investments are fully realized. First, you put the money in Chinese banks, and then you list the infrastructure projects. When Chinese companies obtain investment contracts, the money is transferred to the corporate account. This method prevents theft from corrupt officials. Good reputation among the peoples of the continent. Project improvement. Chinese assistance has contributed to the promotion of economic development, and granted it a kind of independence, despite the criticism directed that China’s assistance will produce political corruption among the ruling circles in Africa, in addition to causing many of its countries to arrest debts [4]. 2. Holding conferences and seminars. China worked to expand its trade relations with African countries to establish the China- Africa Cooperation Forum (FOCAC) in 2000, whose membership included nearly 45 countries. This conference aims to expand Chinese trade hegemony in Africa. This conference resulted in the development of two-way trade between Africa and China, to record in the year 2011 approximately 160 billion dollars, after it was in the year 2000, about 106 billion dollars. The Fifth Conference of China-Africa Cooperation, held in Beijing 2012, approved its plan that includes training more than 30,000 cadres from various African countries, and African countries obtaining soft loans from China of nearly 20 billion dollars to develop infrastructure in various fields (agriculture – industry etc. [13]). 3. Non-interference in internal affairs. China pursues an active policy in its foreign relations with African countries based on the following: 1) non-interference in the internal affairs of African countries; 2) mutual respect for national sovereignty; 3) no mutual assault; 4) ensuring equality and mutual benefit [6, p 118–119]. China is moving away from engaging in African internal affairs, or putting pressure on the African ruling elite to achieve political influence, as political systems are dealt with regardless of whether or not they have legal legitimacy. This Chinese policy aims to create a good impression on Africans, far from the colonial era. Chinese politicians stress not to confuse politics with economics. On the other hand, the ruling elite in China found the possibility of obtaining benefits without political conditions. 4. Participation in peacekeeping operations. China took advantage of the poor conditions in the African continent (ethnic conflicts – ethnic wars – tribal differences – political conflicts), to put forward the concept of intervention in accordance with international legitimacy. China is the largest country participating in peacekeeping operations in Africa within the United Nations system. The number of soldiers involved in peacekeeping operations in Africa reached nearly 2,500 soldiers and workers in 2017. Six military missions were also sent to Africa, four of them to Darfur, Southern Sudan, Mali and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. There

15 CONTEMPORARY PROBLEMS OF SOCIAL WORK are also small units in the Western Desert and Ivory Coast. The killing of Chinese soldiers participating in peacekeeping in southern Sudan, the kidnapping of Chinese workers in the Kameron, and the spread of the Islamic state in Africa have contributed to strengthening China’s security and military presence in Africa [8]. Methodology In his study, the researcher relied on the descriptive approach through studying the most important Chinese investments in Africa and analyzing the relationship between western countries in Africa. The statistical approach was also relied on through pictures and diagrams. Results When talking about the growing Chinese influence in Africa, the most important data must be mentioned to clarify the size of the relationship. The following are the most important data: shows the extent of economic competition among Western countries for resources in Africa, and this competition is increasing.

Figure 1. The most important Chinese projects in 20 African countries

2016 2017 2018

Figure 2. The volume of Chinese investments in Africa (2016–2018)

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Figure 3. The extent of the distribution of Chinese investments in Africa and their spread in all sectors without exception 2018

2016 2017 2018

Figure 4. The trade exchange between China and Africa (2016–2018) which is expected to reach approximately $ 225 billion in 2020 Investments are one of the most important economic instruments by which countries seek to expand their external influence in Africa. Discussion The Chinese foreign policy in Africa is based on several security economic and political interests. It has faced many internal challenges: represented by internal conflicts resulting from the colonial era and external challenges: represented by America and Europe, which sees Africa as a traditional area of influence. – The African continent is and will be the main arena of confrontation between the great powers in connection with the presence on the continent of huge reserves of natural resources. In particular, the stumbling block is the oil reserves of Africa, which play an important role in ensuring the national security of modern powers.

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China European Union America

Figure 5. The volume of foreign investments in China (European Union – America – China) during the years 2016–2018 [10]

– Investment is one of China’s most important economic instruments for expanding its influence in Africa. The presence of China in Africa is a positive factor in Africa’s development. Sino-European-American competition seems to the author a catalyst for the accelerated development of African countries. – The Chinese presence in Africa is characterized by many positives, but it has caused many problems for the local people who suffer from the problem of Chinese labor, in addition to the policy of dumping. – The Chinese presence in Africa has harmed European and American interests and policies, which pushed Western countries to criticize China continuously, and try to pressure it to change its strategy. It can be said that the Chinese pragmatic approach has created a kind of hostility with Western countries. The economic variable is the explanation for most interactions in international relations, conflicts of US-European and Chinese interests in Africa (markets – energy sources – sea lanes). – The economic strength of the state gives it a better position in managing international affairs and protecting its interest. Conclusion The author concluded that China’s approach to Africa is due to the following reasons. 1. China realized that the Middle East is an area of American influence, and thereby redirected the orientation of its foreign policy to the African region. 2. Taking into account the first factor, China pursues an active foreign policy in the African region, not only through investment, but also through the marketing of its own products. The African continent is and will be the main arena of confrontation between the great powers in connection with the presence on the continent of huge reserves of natural resources. In particular, the stumbling block is the oil reserves of Africa, which play an important role in ensuring the national security of modern powers. Investment is one of China’s most important economic instruments for expanding its influence in Africa. The presence of China in Africa is a positive factor in Africa’s development. Sino-European-American competition seems to the author a catalyst for the accelerated development of African countries.

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References 1. Abdel Halim Amir Mohamed. China earns $ 440 billion in profits from Africa by 2025. URL: https://bit.ly/2WwZxZy (date of access: 08.03.2020). 2. Abdul Hakim Sharif. The Challenges of Chinese Foreign Policy Toward the Horn of Africa After the Cold War. 2018. URL: https://bit.ly/2wobwQ8 (date of access: 10.03.2020). 3. African readings, the Chinese incursion into the brown continent domains – motives – future scenarios). 2019. 8 November. URL: http://bit.ly/2pP42Cv (date of access: 13.3.2020). 4. Al Amri Ibtisam. The Chinese Role in Africa: A Study of Dimensions and Challenges, Center for Strategic and International Studies // African Studies Journal. 2017. No. 1. P. 36–37. URL: https://bit.ly/3djTXAn (date of access: 10.03.2020). 5. Anatolia, Why China is Building a Military Base in Djibouti, N-26-26-2016, seen 10-Nov-2019. URL: http://bit.ly/2Q3kXMm (date of access: 09.03.2020). 6. Cat Samir. The Chinese Economic Strategy in Africa: Post-Cold War Period / Master Thesis, University of Muhammad Khidr – University of Law and Political Science, 2007–2008. 7. Center for China and Africa Studies, Chinese Foreign Policy toward Africa, seen on 9-November 2019. URL: http://bit.ly/2NWyWAB (date of access: 11.03.2020). 8. China in Africa. 2017. July 12. URL: https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/china-africa (date of access: 18.03.2020). 9. China pledges $ 60 billion in loans and investments for Africa’s development, 03.09.2018. URL: https://bit.ly/3aMmX2N (date of access: 14.03.2020). 10. China’s investment in Africa: What the data really says, and the implications for Europe. 2019. July 22. URL: https://bit.ly/3c6GSKw (date of access: 12.03.2020). 11. Dabiq Yaman. China’s Rise in Africa, Strategies and Goals Followed Bariq. 04.01.2020. URL: https://bit.ly/2xOwZSG (date of access: 16.03.2020). 12. Ghoneim Hanaa, Hussein Abdul Latif. The Development of Economic Relations Between China and Africa, African Readings, 26.12.2018. URL: https://bit.ly/2ULlZyk (date of access: 15.03.2020). 13. Habib Sheikh Bay. Chinese Investments in Africa: How China Succeeded in Winning the African Continent, Doha, Al-Jazirah Center for Studies. 2014. April 30. P. 3–4. 14. Hasnawi Hassan. The Strategy of the Chinese Presence in Africa, Dynamics of Implications / Center for Arab Unity Studies. URL: https://bit.ly/39DLjuk (date of access: 12.03.2020). 15. Hussein Rania Nadi Mohamed. Chinese incursion into the brown continent, Domains – motivations // African readings. 2018. URL: https://bit.ly/2V3EInR (date of access: 20.03.2020). 16. Magazin Finance and Development Review, Longy Chen, David Dollar, and Huai Tang, The Rise of Investment ,folder 52, No. 4, 2015, December. P. 33–34. URL: https://bit.ly/2A114zj (date of access: 17.03.2020). 17. Nawar Ibrahim. The Great Conflict over Oil and Gas in the South China Sea, Arab Jerusalem, December 21, 2019. URL: https://bit.ly/2XcbhCA (date of access: 19.3.2020). 18. Reuters: Chinese-built expressway divides Uganda as debts mount. 2018. January 31. URL: https://reut.rs/3dcZPvk (date of access: 16.03.2020). 19. Suleiman Ahmed. China in Africa, a hand that protects peace and a hand that sells arms // Al-Tahrir newspaper. 07.08.2018. URL: https://bit.ly/2V7VnXm (date of access: 18.03.2020). 20. The New Arab: Excavation in the South China Sea raises differences between Beijing and its neighbors. 23.08.2019. URL: https://bit.ly/34cUj8C (date of access: 19.03.2020).

REFERENCE TO ARTICLE Khirbeik Yazan (2020) Chinese Investments in Africa, Contemporary Problems of Social Work. Vol. 6. No. 2 (22). P. 12–19. DOI 10.17922/2412-5466-2020-6-2-12-19 (International bibliographic description).

CONTACT INFORMATION: Khirbeik Yazan Master Student Russian State Social University Wilhelm Pieck str., 4, build. 1 129226 Moscow, Russian Federation E-mail: [email protected]

19 PEDAGOGY

Tleukina B.Sh., Teacher, State Budgetary Professional Educational Institution College for the Training of Social Workers, Department of Labor and Social Protection of the Population of Moscow. E-mail: [email protected] ORCID ID: orcid.org/0000-0003-1870-456X UDC 377.6 DOI 10.17922/2412-5466-2020-6-2-20-26 Professional Training of Social Work Specialists in the Secondary Professional Education System

Receiving date: Preprint date: Taking to print date: 09.03.2020 29.05.2020 29.06.2020

Annotation: the article considers the system of professional training of specialists in social work of secondary professional education (SPE). The subject of the study is the features of the system of professional training of social work specialists in SPE. The aim of the study is to analyze and generalize foreign and domestic experience of professional training of specialists in social work. The research methodology is based on the scientific concepts of well- known Russian scientists on designated problem. The article is analytical in nature. The research methods are socio-pedagogical analysis of existing approaches in the system of professional training of specialists in the social sphere. The result of the study is formulated provisions concerning the construction of more effective educational activities in the field of training specialists in social work in the system of secondary special education. Key words: secondary professional education, professional training, social work specialist. JEL classification: I200, I290.

Introduction Nowadays, specialists of various fields and profiles work in the social sphere (social workers, social teachers, organizers of work with young people, educators, etc.). To date, the experience of training employees for the social sphere, both in Russia and abroad, is covered quite well, and this applies to both domestic and foreign publications [7, p. 10]. In this regard, we should Note a number of research materials (master’s and doctoral theses, monographs, analytical articles in specialized journals) and descriptive materials (reflecting the authors’ impressions of studying foreign experience directly in educational institutions). The nature and content of training specialists in social work in the domestic education system are considered in the works (V.G. Bocharova, A.M. Egorychev, L.V. Mardakhaev, I.A. Lipsky, L.I. Starovoitova, M.F. Firsov, Y.V. Shimanovskaya, T.F. Yarkina, etc.). The foreign experience

20 VOLUME 6, No. 2 (22), 2020 is described by many modern scientists (R.A. Valeeva, A.A. Dregalo, R.V. Kornyushina, T.A. Romm, D.R. Sabirova, D.A. Chaadaeva, M.P. Tselykh, etc.). As noted by almost all the authors, today there is No single international universal set of requirements for training and certification of social workers. Each country defines its own set of requirements for training specialists in the social sphere, which is to a certain extent legitimate, based on the level of socio-economic and socio-cultural development of each particular country. Methods (theoretical foundations) This study is strictly analytical. Scientific works were used in its implementation ( ideas, concepts, regulations, approaches, theories), both foreign (S. Ramon, R. Sarri, M. Doel, S. Shadlow, K. Kendall, A. Pincus, A. Minahan), and domestic (V.G. Bocharova, A.M. Egorychev, L.V. Mardakhaev, I.A. Lipsky, L.I. Starovoitova, M.F. Firsov, Ya.V. Shimanovskaya, etc.) scientists who are studying in this problem. Theoretical research methods were used (analysis, comparison, matching, classification and generalization of scientific material on the investigated problem). Results As a result of the conducted research on the problem of professional training of social work specialists in the system of secondary professional education, certain scientific provisions were made, the implementation of which will allow to organize and implement professional training at a higher level. It is primarily concerned with: an increase in the number of hours of practical (classroom) lessons in the educational process of the ACT system, as well as the introduction of practical classes with students, starting from the first course of study, based on practice, i.e. in a social institution or organization; the use of the demonstration exam as the main form of intermediate certification in all professional disciplines, as well as the use of the demonstration element during the educational process in the disciplines; organization of a permanent monitoring of quality of educational process in training specialists in the system SPE. Discussions The appeal to foreign experience in training specialists in the field of social work is due to a number of reasons: firstly, insufficient coverage of the issue in the domestic scientific literature; secondly, by identifying the distinctive features of the system of training students of other states; thirdly, the need for comparative studies in this area [2, p. 11]. According to the analysis of scientific and periodical literature, one of the main problems of professional training of social work specialists can be distinguished; this is an insufficient amount of the practical component in the process of professional training of social work specialists in the secondary vocational education system. Often, it is practical work at the enterprise, in the organization, that helps the future specialist to master all the necessary skills for working with clients and receive better professional training [22, p. 163]. The authors note that vocational training in the framework of social work in Denmark and Norway does not require interaction with academic communities, but should be based on a large degree of practical mental abilities necessary to solve professional problems [1, p. 410]. It is generally accepted that vocational training is very different from a purely academic education. Professional education grows out of the needs of practice and is carried out for the sake of improving and improving real life. Therefore, professional training of social work specialists is characterized by a close relationship between the educational process and the activities of practical social agencies and professional associations that put forward requirements for the level of readiness of young specialists. The organizational basis for the training of social work specialists abroad varies in many respects [21, p. 282]. For example, in the UK there are more than one hundred institutions that train social workers, one third of which are universities, and two thirds are colleges [20, p. 128]. Education of social workers takes place in various types of educational institutions that offer a variety of types of qualifications from a university diploma to a community college diploma [9].

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The current models of training social workers in different countries differ in many ways, from the most common issues (how to manage an educational institution, financing, the choice of didactic methods) to specific problems (content of training, percentage of theoretical and practical courses, organization of educational field practice). Today, almost all countries that train social work specialists are convinced of the need for a close unity of theory and practice in the learning process [8, p. 407]. By analyzing and comparing the ratio of theoretical and practical part of training in a number of countries – Hungary, Switzerland, Germany, Great Britain, Denmark – it can be determined that the share of practical work in institutions is quite large and amounts to one third of the total training time [3, p. 74]. That is why in vocational education, the curatorial model is so widely used, which allows you to translate the theoretical knowledge obtained in academic audiences into the real practice of social assistance [15, p. 67]. In practice, under the guidance of a mentor, students acquire specific skills by participating in the activities of social agencies. Conducting clients’ affairs, they learn to establish a social diagnosis, recognize the type of problems and use social resources to solve them, evaluate possible solutions to the current social situation, plan work with clients, implement the plan, evaluate the results of work, establish professional contacts with colleagues, etc. [19]. Studying the world practice of training social workers can expand resources on this issue; to increase the practical experience of domestic specialists involved in the educational process; may enable students from several countries to relate the benefits and challenges of learning; help to shape the vision of the unchanging requirements for the profession of a social worker worldwide. The main forms of training specialists in social work abroad are higher education (universities) or secondary vocational education (specialized vocational institutions, colleges) [10, p. 19]. In the modern world the experience of training social workers and specialists, there is both differentiations, the emergence of new specializations, and integration. In connection with the processes of differentiation of branches of social work as independent disciplines, and integration (mutual influence of sciences and knowledge in the content of training of social sphere specialists), there is a problem of understanding further directions concerning professional training of social workers [4, p. 156]. Thus, we can conclude that the training programs vary in each country, there is a specificity of compiling curricula, studied disciplines, hours of practice, the introduction of new electives and special courses, as well as the exchange of experience and students from other countries. Main types of training social workers (specialist in social sphere) in the Russian education system are presented at the secondary professional level and the higher level of education, which have an interconnection at the level of the logic of the educational process. In Russia, a complex multilevel system of educational and vocational training of social workers has been formed. The system of the educational and educational process is implemented on the basis of the requirements and requirements of the Federal state professional and educational standards of secondary vocational and higher education, taking into account the characteristics of the region of the country and other factors [17, p. 13]. Today, social work can be considered as a multifunctional professional activity aimed at solving many social problems of a person, aimed at rehabilitation, adaptation and integration of an individual in society. Social work as a profession has an important social and ethical meaning; the field of activity of a specialist in social work is very extensive. It can influence the fate of a particular person, his family, relatives and social relations in general. In this regard, the training of specialists in the Russian Federation occupies one of the main positions in the system of socio-humanitarian education.

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In the process of analyzing the dynamics of the development of secondary professional education in the social work profile, positive trends are observed. This concerns, to a greater extent, the effectiveness of training, but there are also some problems. One of the main problems of young professionals in social work who have just graduated from educational institutions is ignorance of the practical aspects of work [13, p. 151]. We can assume some solutions to the problems of practice-oriented training of specialists in social work in Russia as follows. 1. Increasing hours of practice at the enterprise, in organizations and in social institutions to consolidate theoretical knowledge, skills and to gain practical experience in social work. Such a system of organizing practice can look like this, three days a week students will be in an educational institution and will study various disciplines, then the remaining two days of the school week, students will be trained in the territory of the fixed practice place (social service centers for elderly citizens and disabled people, centers for helping families and children, social rehabilitation centers, etc.). The student will be able to choose the institution for practice independently or may be directed to practice by the administration of the educational institution. One of the conditions conducive to the implementation of the personal component of professional training of a future specialist in social work is the updating of the individual and general cultural experience of students in various situations of providing and accepting assistance. The use of this type of application of practical exercises on the basis of practice (organization), perhaps, will expand the professional experience of a specialist, more seriously prepare him for a future profession. The expected result of mastering this innovation is the students’ appearance, on the one hand, of their readiness for professional interaction with clients of different social groups, and on the other, of a reflective attitude towards themselves as a Novice specialist. 2. Research course in the system of professional training of a social specialist. This block is based on the tasks of teaching students to develop, use and effectively link the empirically obtained knowledge necessary for the practice of social work, as well as to be able to assess the work done by them. The research course must include a standard set of competencies: the ability to conduct a review of literature, formulating research problems and hypotheses, drawing up programs for the work of experimental groups, drawing up programs for studying people and population groups, analyzing the data obtained and implementing the results of the study. To facilitate a closer connection between the theoretical and research content studied in the classroom and practical skills, students should be able to study in parallel, for example, when students attend classes at an educational institution several days a week and work several days a week in a social institution during the academic year. Such an innovation should be introduced from the first year of training and as an additional element of preparing a first-year student for the upcoming practical activity at the enterprise, you can consider the introduction of a new special course “Fundamentals of social work”, which would cover the main aspects of social work, forms and types of activities of a social work specialist, ethical foundations and deontology of social work. The main factor for updating professional education is requests for the development of economy and social sphere, science, engineering and technology. The solution of the problem of orientation to the labor market will be the creation of a system of continuous monitoring of current and forthcoming needs of the labor market (federal, local) in personnel of various qualifications, which will allow to provide better professional training for social work professionals and to continuously improve the system of secondary professional education [16, p. 112]. The following aspects can be considered as the main directions for improving the training models of competent specialists in social work in the system of secondary vocational education:

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– establishing an accessible and sustainable relationship between the needs of practice and the content of education of specialists [11, p. 26]; – achieving maximum compliance between the practice-oriented and theoretical content of the education of social work specialists; – activation of activities aimed at developing standards, ethics and basic competencies of professional activities in accordance with the changing situation in the labor market; – the development of new forms of theoretical and practical training in college; – the use of foreign innovative technologies for training specialists in social work, taking into account the characteristics of the Russian education system, socio-cultural development and lifestyle characteristics [5, p. 96]. The analysis of the scientific literature on the research problem, including the analysis of practical activities in the professional training of social specialists (social workers), allows us to make the following assumptions concerning the construction of more effective activities in the field of training specialists in social work in the system of secondary professional education. Training and group forms of training have a specific application in the training of social work specialists, which make it possible to use direct and indirect feedback; conducting seminars in a new format, for example, using demonstrations of knowledge, skills of students in dialogue with the prospective client (another student plays the role of a person in a difficult life situation). In a limited period of time, students have the opportunity to build and reflect on collective activity, to experience collective feelings. A teacher in such an interactive lesson can play the role of an expert evaluating the correctness of the built-up consultation of students with a client. Thus, as shown by the positive educational practice of developed countries, the curriculum for training a specialist can include: a) training courses “Training of social worker’s communication skills”, “Training of written interaction”, “Psychodrama: conflicts in the professional environment”, etc.; b) the introduction of a demonstration exam for preliminary, mid-term and intermediate certification of students in any discipline, as well as the use of a demonstration element during practical seminars; c) the project method, which is characterized by the inclusion of students in one form or another in real social project activities related to the future professional activity of a social worker. To increase the level of professional training, an important role is played by monitoring the quality of the educational process in the professional training of a specialist in the SPE system [18, p. 245]. Using the best examples of foreign experience and the main trends in the development of secondary professional education in Russia, it is necessary to determine the main constitutive provisions of professional training of a social work specialist [14, p. 219]. When determining the quality of training of social sphere specialists in the SPE system, it is necessary to consider the positions of all interested parties. Practice shows that all subjects of the educational process and interested persons (students, teachers, administration, educational support staff, employers, working specialists, etc.) should be involved in the examination of various aspects of the educational process of the SPE. The process of implementing a quality assurance system in the SPE system will be systematic, cyclical and effective if it initially contains a monitoring component. Well-organized monitoring allows you to get initial information and make appropriate adjustments if necessary, during the entire training process of the future social work specialist. Conclusion Taking into account all of the above in the professional training of social work specialists in the system of domestic SPE, suggests:

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– it will lead to an increase in social activity of students, will encourage the formation of their responsible position regarding the learning process; – it will increase the level of mastering professional knowledge, significantly expand the repertoire of professional skills and abilities that correspond to their future work; – it will allow to update the process of forming a deontological culture, develop a system of ethical and moral relations to the surrounding world among future specialists of the social sphere of a high level [12, p. 260]; – it will activate the personal and professional growth of future social work specialists, create a strong motivational base for self-development and further studying. Thus, among the urgent problems of training specialists in social work in the Russian Federation, there is a need to organize a closer connection of students’ training with their future professional activities, which will allow them to form professional consciousness and self- awareness, develop and strengthen motivation for future professional activities, starting from the first year of training. The specificity of the profile “social work” is expressed in its organic unity as a scientific and educational discipline, the integration of knowledge of all socio- humanitarian disciplines (philosophy, sociology, history, social psychology, social pedagogy, anthropology, etc.) related to the functioning and development of man and society. Without such unity, a high-level social worker cannot take place and act as an effective representative of the social sphere of the developing Russian state and society. This implies that the training of social work specialists should provide for high-quality obtain of both general knowledge, skills and knowledge of a specific specialization (specializations) with obligatory consideration of the specifics of social work fields. A competent and scientifically-based combination of universal (general) and special professional training, using both traditional and innovative approaches, makes it possible to organize and implement professional training in the domestic SPE system at a high-quality level, and future social workers can more successfully solve their problems in the labor market. This also requires updating current basic educational programs and creating new ones, preparing textbooks and manuals for academic disciplines provided by the new Federal state educational standards that are as close as possible to professional standards, introducing new collective forms of training, and updating forms of professional training using foreign technologies. In the professional training of social work specialists and in the content of social work , you should Not ignore the usefulness of foreign experience , but first of all, you should build on the traditions of your country, the mentality of the people, and the lifestyle features of the Russian population [6, p. 8].

References 1. Ausbildung fur Soziale Arbeit in Europa / F. Hamburger, G. Sander, & M. Wobcke, 2001. 2. Bauer E.A., Neigaard M. Training of specialists in the field of social work in Denmark (From the experience of academic mobility of Nizhny Novgorod State University and UC SYD) // Bulletin of the Nizhnevartovsk State Humanitarian University. 2019. No. 1. P. 10–16. 3. Davidenko S.A., Medko I.V., Petrova G.A. State, problems and prospects of training specialists in social work // Bulletin of the Nizhnevartovsk State Humanitarian University. 2012. No. 2. P. 68–80. 4. Doel M., Shadlow S. Social Work Practices: Exercise and Method the developer for training and professional development social. Workers / transl. from Eng. under the ed. B.Yu. Shapiro. M.: Aspect-press, 1995. 236 p. 5. Dregalo A.A., Ulyanovsky V.I. Social work in Sweden. Arkhangelsk: ELPA, 1996. 114 p. 6. Egorychev A.M., Kretinin A.S. Experience and traditions of Soviet education: the need to use in the modern education system // CITITS. 2017. No. 2 (11). URL: http://ma123.ru/ru/ (date of access: 02.28.2020). 7. Firsov M.V., Studenova E.G. Technology of social work: textbook. M.: KnoRus, 2016. 344 p.

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8. Juliusdottir S., Petersson I. General standards for education in the field of social work in the countries of Northern Europe: to the statement of the problem // Journal of Social Policy Studies. Vol. 2. 2004. No. 3. P. 399–420. 9. Kendall K.A. Reflections on social work education, 1950–1978. N.Y.: International Association of Schools of Social Work, 1978. 10. Kornyushina R.V. Foreign experience of social work: textbook // TIDOT FENU. Vladivostok, 2004. 84 p. 11. Lipsky I.A. Social pedagogy: practice, scientific discipline, educational complex // Pedagogy. 2001. No. 1. P. 24–32. 12. Mardakhaev L.V. Social pedagogy. Full course: textbook for high schools. 5th ed., revised and add. M.: Yurayt, 2011. 797 p. 13. Morozov E.A. To the question of the practical training of specialists in social work // Bulletin of Tomsk State Pedagogical University. 2011. No. 4. P. 151–155. 14. Pincus A., Minahan A. The practice of social work: Form and methods / transl. from Eng. M.: Union, 1993. 223 p. 15. Sarri R. Selection of students and training in their social work / ed. S. Ramon and R. Sarri; transl. from Eng. under the ed. of Yu.B. Shapiro. M.: Aspect Press, 1996. P. 59–69. 16. Shimanovskaya Yu.V., Kozlovskaya S.N. Preparation of bachelors of social work for the development and implementation of the event-project // Scientific Notes of the Russian State Social University. Vol. 15. 2016. No. 1 (134). P. 111–119. 17. Shmeleva N.B. Introduction to the profession “Social Work”: textbook. M.: Dashkov and Ko, 2015. 222 p. 18. Social pedagogy: monograph / A.I. Arnoldov et al.; ed. V.G. Bocharova. M.: Vlados, 2004. 366 p. 19. The Charities review New York: Charity Organization Society of the City of New York, 1891– 1901. Periodical. Vol. 1 (Nov. 1891) – V. 10 (Feb. 1901). 20. Training in social work: continuity and innovation / Ed. S. Ramon and R. Sarri; transl. from Eng. under the ed. of Yu.B. Shapiro. M.: Aspect Press, 1996. 157 p. 21. Tselykh M.P. Models of training social workers abroad / M.P. Whole // Bulletin of the A.P. Chekhov Taganrog Institute, 2008. P. 282–288. 22. Valeeva R.A., Koroleva N.E., Sakhapova F.Kh. A comparative analysis of training models for social workers in the United States, Western Europe and Russia // Fundamental Research. 2014. No. 5 (Part 1). P. 162–166.

REFERENCE TO ARTICLE Tleukina, B.Sh. (2020) Professional Training of Social Work Specialists in the Secondary Professional Education System, Contemporary Problems of Social Work. Vol. 6. No. 2 (22). P. 20– 26. DOI 10.17922/2412-5466-2020-6-2-20-26 (International bibliographic description).

CONTACT INFORMATION: Tleukina Bibigul Shamelevna Teacher State Budgetary Professional Educational Institution College for the Training of Social Workers Department of Labor and Social Protection of the Population of Moscow Bolshaya Novodmitrovskaya str., 63 127015 Moscow, Russian Federation E-mail: [email protected]

26 SOCIOLOGY

Bek V.V., Master Student, Russian State Social University, Moscow. E-mail: [email protected]

Rozental D.M., Candidate of Historical Sciences, Deputy Director for Research at the Institute for Latin American Studies, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow. E-mail: [email protected] ORCID ID: orcid.org/ 0000-0001-9224-3701 UDC 316; 32 DOI 10.17922/2412-5466-2020-6-2-27-35 Reasons for the Decline of the Rule of Left-Wing Governments in Brazil at the Turn of the XXI Century

Receiving date: Preprint date: Taking to print date: 13.03.2020 29.05.2020 29.06.2020

Annotation: the article discusses the reasons for the decline of the rule of left-wing governments in Brazil at the turn of the XXI century. The key points of the study are the problems of the Latin American, in particular the Brazilian “left turn”, embodying a moderate version of change. In addition, the article is raised issues related to the experience of the rule of left parties in this state. The purpose of this article is an author’s study of the main causes of the failure of left-wing governments in Brazil at the present stage. Key words: “Left Turn” in Latin America, Brazil, Latin America, modernization, social reforms. JEL classification: А140.

Introduction Brazil is a representative example of a left turn that took place in Latin America at the 21st centuries as it reflects many features of the general Latin American phenomenon. Despite the originality of the contemporary left movement, with all its dissimilarity to the predecessors, one can clearly see the trend that is characteristic of the Latin American model – the tradition of powerful left movements, the struggle for transformation in the social sphere. The problems of social modernization have always been emphasized by its government structures and located at the center of the political agenda of the governments of Brazil from the moment the state became democratic (since 1985) [13, p. 15]. 27 CONTEMPORARY PROBLEMS OF SOCIAL WORK

Over the past 25 years, these issues have been resolved by various methods with one degree or another of success. Nevertheless, it was from the beginning of the left turn that this problem began to determine the political direction of the authorities. The Latin American left turn is indicative. Its content, orientation and conceptual content of “leftism” differ from Eastern and Western European counterparts, as it is based on those realities that have developed on the continent. They “push” left-wing politicians to move further along the path of deep social modernization. The slogans of the “new social policy”, represented the main direction of activity and at the same time the main challenge of the left government. First of all, we ought to understand in more detail the phenomenon of “left turn”, its nature and specificity, since without understanding these details it is difficult to assess the Brazilian version of social modernization. This case is an example of a “moderate version of changes”, but not a radical one [14, p. 54]. In other words, on the “graph” of modern leftist movements in Latin America, “Brazil under Lula da Silva” occupied the middle mark. The coming to power of left movements in Latin America was due to the fact that in Brazilian society at that time there was increasing socio-economic inequality (combating poverty and stimulating domestic demand): negative economic phenomena (6% of the population had income less than 1, 25% at PPP – purchasing power parity), which subsequently led to the financial crisis, as well as the lack of significant results of social transformations of neoliberal reforms [16]. Among them: decisions on compensatory measures to mitigate the consequences of structural adjustment of the economy: large share of unemployed, a sharp social polarization, the overall reduction in living standards [14, p. 41]. In this case, it is talked about the “new leftish”, who had nothing to do with the representatives of the “international communist system”. In other words, they can be called “left-wing reformers”. They accept market economic, although they recognize its limitations in the social sphere. There are the largest political parties of «new leftish». 1. The Brazilian democratic movement. Center: populism, left-wing liberalism (fractions – Christian democracy, nationalism) [17, p. 34]. 2. The party of workers. Left center / left: democratic socialism (fractions – social democracy, Christian socialism, Marxism, Leninism, Trotskyism) [17, p. 37]. 3. The Brazilian Social Democratic Party. Center: the path – neoliberalism, social liberalism, (historically – social democracy) [17, p. 41]. 4. Democratic Labor Party. Left Center: Democratic Socialism, Social Democracy, Left Populism [17, p. 44]. 5. Brazilian labor party. Center: populism, nationalism, federalism [17, p. 47]. The common denominator for left-wing governments is a combination of reasons: 1) social disintegration, pauperization of the masses in general and the middle class in particular, growing social discontent amid financial crises, and the lack of significant social results of neoliberal reforms; 2) they are pragmatic in their actions, they do not reject market mechanisms, but strive for a balance between the market and social justice (fair distribution of income) through the return of the state to the economy. However, it is important to note that the tendency of left-wing views arose from the period of the presidency of Itamar August Kauitiere Franco (1992–1994). He tried to mitigate, mainly in the field of privatization, the most negative effects of the “shock therapy” (there was a difficult economic crisis in Brazil, when inflation reached 1100% in 1992 and almost 6000% in 1993) of ex-president of Brazil Fernando Fons Fool Color de Mel. In 1992 he was accused of corruption and was forced to resign as he lobbied for the economic interests of individual companies and businessmen. In 2002, the society reflected the rejection of neoliberalism and advocated for changes. So, the victory in the presidential election in the same year won by Luis Inacio Lula da Silva, who later became the most popular president in the history of Brazil. Government experienced a huge economic and social shift in the 2000s

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because of Lula’s policies, the key points of which were tight fiscal policies and inflation control. Material and Methods To analyze the methods, relevant documents were analyzed from the website of the Brazilian Ministry of Defense [15], articles from an independent Brazilian newspaper and Folha de S. Paulo [6; 7], Correio Braziliense [3]. During the study, the following methods were used: • Historical method is used for stages of political development of “leftish movements” from the beginning of the 90s to nowadays in Brazil, to understand the structure of the political system in its retrospective and compare its modification in the past with the current state. • Comparative method is used for analysis the economic and social situation in Brazil since 2002 till 2012 and to understand that during this period is observed a positive dynamic in increasing expenditures on education, healthcare and social needs per capita (compared to the period before Lula da Silva). Despite this, corruption under Dilma Russeff (second the “leftish” president, 2011–2016) has become one of the fundamental factors behind the decline of the era of left-wing rule in Brazil. Results Economic measures that Lula da Silva took were implemented in the market economy: tax reform (tax on large fortunes, the implementation of which depended only on the will of the government), agrarian reform had very insignificant results, which did not were able to solve its main tasks [19, p. 42]. Only Bolsa Familia had significant results: this Family Package supports million poorest Brazilian families receive small monthly payments, provided that their children attend school regularly and receive the necessary medical vaccinations [19, p. 48]. It is a large- scale social assistance program implemented by the government since 2003 This Brazilian government social security program provides financial assistance to poor families. It aims to mitigate the social consequences of structural economic reforms of the 90s. It is important to note that under this president, the number of super-rich people in Brazil has increased significantly. As a result, instead of combating poverty and reducing social inequality, the opposite process took shape: “the rich are rich and the poor are poor”. Here, the fight against poverty also carries some contradictions that are associated with the general vector of development of the economic model of the policy of the government of the party of workers. Objectively, market reforms that are carried out are a mechanism for increasing social inequality. According to the center-left regime that prevailed in the state for 13 years, the institutions of power in modern Brazil act as auxiliary levers that can mitigate the negative effects of the market. Thus, the government implemented the poverty alleviation program “Fome – Zero”, the main goal of which was to help the poorest sections of the population of Brazil whose incomes were below the subsistence level [10, p. 19]. The country ended the famine among the poor, significantly increased spending on education and health (Table 1). In the mid 90’s. under Fernando Cardozo, economic and technological modernization of the country was impossible without solving social problems  eliminating poverty and misery among the population. The upward dynamics of state appropriations for social payments and benefits is connected with the course on social reform and the poverty alleviation, launced by the governments of L.I. Lula da Silva and D. Rousseff. When the left-wing governments in Brazil come to power this issue began to determine the political course of the government and moved to the center of economic policy. Based on the data in the table, it becomes clear that 73.5% of government spending was allocated to social needs. Positive dynamics are observed in increasing expenditures on education, healthcare and social needs per capita. This is due to the implementation of the Hunger Zero Poverty Alleviation Program. The chosen period is connected with the rule of Lula da Silva and Dilma Rousseff (second the “leftish” president, 2011–2016) with their Party

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Table 1 Government spending in Brazil on education, healthcare and social needs in general, 2002–2012, in constant US dollars 2005 and in percent of GDP, on average for the corresponding years [1, p. 32–33, 35–36, 39–40] 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 All social expenses per capita 963 1028 1120 1291 1444 1512 – including % GDP 21,6 22,4 23,1 24,6 26,6 27,8 Cost of education per capita, 204 221 224 273 311 327 $ 2005 Education costs in % of GDP 4,6 4,7 4,8 5,3 5,8 6,3 Health expenditure per 175 194 212 244 276 294 capita, $ 2005 Health expenditure in % 4,0 4,3 4,4 4,7 5,1 5,5 of GDP Source: CEPAL. Panorama Social de América Latina 2013. of Workers. At this point, more than 30 million Brazilians have overcome poverty. An increase in social spending, along with an increase in the minimum wage from 2002 to 2012, increased 1.7 times. At that time, more than 30 million Brazilian citizens escaped from poverty, because according to the criteria of United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (CEPAL – Comisión Económica para América Latina y el Caribe) a family is considered poor if it spends 50 percent or more of its current expenses on food products. Consequently, poverty is equal to half the poverty level.

Table 2 Changes in the minimum wage, poverty and social inequality indicators in Brazil, 2002–2012 [15] 2002 2004 2008 2012 Minimum wage, real / month 200 300 415 540 The share of the poor in the country’s population, % 37,8 36,4 25,8 20,9 The number of poor, million people 68,0 68,3 49,5 41,9 Ginny coefficient for the entire population 0,634 0,613 0,594 0,569 Source: Panorama Social de América Latina 2015.

From the data in the table it is clear that over 10 years (from 2002 to 2012), the minimum wage for the month increased, and the portion of the poor in % decreased. So, in 2002 the proportion of the poor among the Brazilian population was 37.8 % (68 million people), and already decreased in 2012, 20.9% (41.9 million people). The Ginny coefficient, which is used to reflect economic inequality in the state, confirms the above results. Over the past 20 years, the level of inequality in incomes of Brazilian citizens has decreased, but it remains quite high. The dynamics of changes are visible in Table 2. The creation of new jobs reduced the poverty level, the unemployment rate from 10.0% (2001) decreased to 6.7% (2012). In 2017 unemployment again increased to 13.7% [18, p. 92]. However, the essence of the problem is not in increased employment, but in its quality. Since new jobs to a greater extent appeared in the service sector and did not require high qualifications, a phenomenon such as the loss of “rent from education” was identified. The last decade of Brazil’s booming growth has led some 40 million people who previously lived below the poverty line to cross that line. The country was unable to quickly recover from the financial crisis. Economic growth has spawned the middle class, and now these people are confident

30 VOLUME 6, No. 2 (22), 2020 enough in themselves and their strengths to make demands to the government [5, p. 29]. Brazilians pay high taxes compared to other emerging economies, and in return they require the best schools, hospitals and public transportation. Due to preparations for the 2014 World Cup, the government of major cities increased public transport fares by 10–15%. As a result, social tension arose in society, which led in 2013 to massive social protests [15]. The protests were directed not only against increasing travel prices, but also against corruption and the irrational use of funds from the budget. As a result, a crisis arose with inevitable socio-political conflicts, and the question arose about the further development of Brazil. The presidential and parliamentary elections declared a clear shift in the political course towards right-wing movements. So, in 2015, the growing demands for impeachment Dilma Rousseff (second the “leftish” president, 2011–2016) led to its removal by 2016. As a result, she lost the support of the Workers Party, but did not acquire it from the Conservative Congress. What is more, she did not satisfy the needs of the middle class: she was unable to strengthen the fight against corruption and crime and to bring the region’s largest economy out of stagnation. After 13 years of leftist rule in Brazil, a right-wing policy of populist orientation began, led by Jair Messias Bolsonaro, who won the presidential election in 2018 [21]. The politician is sympathetic to military rule, and also supports anti-democratic values, he is an ultra- conservative in issues of politics, public life, moral and family values[1, p. 29]. The left regime ended with the reign of Michel Miguel Elias Temer Lulia (2016–2019), a centrist with neoliberal values. The main reasons for the political change were: • the undermined confidence of the center-left coalition on the basis of corruption, which the “rightish” took full advantage of; • unfulfilled promises on the part of the authorities: for several years, public disclosures and scandals related to the investigation of abuse; • disappointment from the public in Lula da Silva, as in a strong, charismatic personality as “the leftmost president of the people”; • unfulfilled demands of the middle class by the state; • reorientation of the interests of the majority of voters to pressing problems in Brazilian society, loss of trust in the existing parties and institutions of power on the part of the electorate, de-ideologization. Discussion The ideology of leftist movements carries social equality and a denial of the principles of capitalism, that is, the existence of equal opportunities for all social groups. At that time, in Brazilian society, the responses of leftist motives were expressed in the political interest of the lower strata of society, which were against neoliberal politics [ 20, p. 27]. One of the priority areas of the “leftist movement” policy is the fight against poverty. They consider that the market independently is not able to solve the problem of a low level of well- being, and entrepreneurship is not able to overcome the class division in society [17, p. 36]. Therefore, state institutions should appear here that will carry out reforms in the social sphere, aimed at narrowing the gap between rich and poor. A fair question arises: did the right-wing movement supporters not noticed this problem in society and do not propose ways to solve it? Naturally, they offered some measures. Earlier, in the 80-90s, the solution to the problem of poverty, mass unemployment, and general impoverishment of the population was considered possible to resolve exclusively with the help of market mechanisms, which themselves are able to naturally establish the state’s economy. As a result, market reforms in the 1990s only led to an increase in the gap between rich and poor, an increase in social tensions, and not to socio-economic modernization, as planned by the authorities. As a result, the victory in the presidential election of Lula da Silva in 2002 gave rise

31 CONTEMPORARY PROBLEMS OF SOCIAL WORK to new hopes in society: after taking office, the government institutions announced about the social orientation were proclaimed [1, p. 48]. Nevertheless, the largest parties of the left opposition expected more decisive changes from him, for example, a significant change in economic policy. Due to the fact that Brazil itself is sufficiently integrated in the global economy, the economic strategy of Lula da Silva had a “moderate course” [11, p. 57]. He rather sought to reassure foreign investors and local business circles. As a result, the economic status has not changed, and because of this, discontent has begun from below, sharp criticism of the president by the “parties of workers” has begun [1, p. 29]. In addition, the President of Brazil, Lula da Silva himself, declared that he did not belong to the left circles, but was forced to be in order to fight for the equality of all segments of the population [2]. It is believed that left-wing leaders in the 21st century identify with left- wingers only to deal with social inequality and poverty [4, p. 32]. Moreover, those who know him personally denied the president’s membership in the left circles, among them: the significant Brazilian businessman E. Odebrecht, who has known the president since 1992. He claimed that Lula da Silva never had anything to do with left movements [20, p. 25]. Also, Olavu Setubal, president of the holding’s governing council, which includes Itau, the largest bank in Brazil, argued that “the government of Lula da Silva ultimately shows itself to be extremely conservative”. Lula himself responded as follows: “the one who is initially on the right side is shifted to the center. One who adheres to the left side, gradually departs from it. This is what happens ... especially if the amount of gray hair is added to your head, as there simply is no other way to change [12, p. 19]. Thus, for both terms of the reign of Lula da Silva, he was strongly criticized both from the side of grassroots organizations (such as the party of workers) and from the left intelligentsia. It manifested itself in the absence of the implementation of a sharp change in the economic course, for the “betrayal of the interests of the masses”, which was expressed in the continuation of the neoliberal policies of the previous governments by the supporters of Lula [8]. The proof of its continuation is the existence of a tight monetary policy, the preservation of agreements with the international monetary fund, and the general orientation of Brazil on the part of the external and internal market. All these factors became a serious basis for criticism. It should be noted that they began to rebuke him already during the 2nd presidential company. Significant importance is the view that Lula da Silva only succeeded in developing the privatization and strengthening of private capital policy pursued by the previous government (F. Collor, F.E. Cardozo) and did not accept a single attempt to revise the results of privatization [18, p. 94]. A good example is the world’s largest metallurgical plant, which in 1997 was sold significantly lower than its real value. Brazilian politician Dilma Van Rousseff was the next president (from January 1, 2011 to August 31, 2016) after Lula da Silva, around whom there are rumors of corruption scandals [3]. The most famous is the one associated with the state oil and gas company Petrobas: there the total amount of bribes exceeds the mark of 4 billion dollars. According to Transparency International, this corruption scandal is one of the largest in the world [11, p. 48]. It is believed that there was a cartel conspiracy where top managers from the Party of Workers were paid kickbacks, as well as senior management took bribes from businessmen for providing profitable contracts. So, in 2017, the following were convicted: former head of the presidential administration Antonio Palochchi, former minister of planning Paulo Bernardo (under Lula and Rousseff), former head of the administration of Lula (minister) Jose Dirceu [8]. All of the above factors contributed to the economic recession that occurred in 2015-2016. Increased social tension amid the corruption scandal that reigned then in Brazilian society led to the impeachment of Dilma Rousseff (representative of the left). Right-wing politician Michel Temer took over as president. His assumption of office marked the sunset of the 13-year cycle of left-centrist rule and proclaimed the onset of a right turn [14, p. 24]. His assumption of office

32 VOLUME 6, No. 2 (22), 2020 marked the sunset of the 13-year cycle of left-centrist rule and proclaimed the onset of a “right turn”. The new president sought to lead the country out of the economic crisis, but his measures to “revive” the economy were ineffective: a 20-year moratorium on increasing state spending (2016), a reform of labor legislation (2017), which curtailed the rights of workers and trade unions, the reforms of the pension system, they found such a negative response in society that the new government postponed its adoption in parliament for the period after the presidential election in 2018 [21]. In 2017, the judicial authorities, with the aim of impeachment, filed charges against Michel Temer for “passive corruption”, for obstructing justice and participating in “organized crime groups” [9]. At the same time, Lula da Silve was convicted and in April 2018 he was imprisoned for a term of 12 years. In 2017, Brazilian society was embraced by moods of uncertainty, as it was absent nationwide. All this led to social apathy in the state and the rejection in 2017– 2018 of all potential presidential candidates [19, p. 44]. Brazil has become one of the first places in terms of crime in the world. Thus, the coming to power of a populist politician Jair Bolsonaro is obvious: he promised to change the current situation, to solve problems that have ripened in society [17, p. 32]. Nevertheless, the full reform potential of Lula da Silva cannot be denied: what is more, his social programs were aimed not only at helping those below the poverty line. They were also designed to improve the social situation of all segments of the population, including skilled workers, people engaged in business and trade. Based on the words of the Brazilian political scientist B. Sallum, Lula da Silva played a positive role in modern Brazil [19, p. 165– 167]. Another Brazilian political scientist. E. Sader, known for his critical attitude towards the adherents of Lula, believes that 70% support of electorate of Lula da Silva in 2002, along with other left-wing politicians in Latin America, opens a new stage in the struggle against neoliberalism on the continent [4, p. 31]. Conclusion To sum it up, there were used historical and comparative methods, as well as results, the following conclusion was established that social expenses per capita in leftist governments since 2002 till 2012 rapidly grew despite the resolution of political, economic, in the programs of politicians of the “left” orientation. The preservation of the position of the left governments for 13 years speaks about the specifics of the Latin American left turn. However, this regime led to the largest political and socio-economic crisis in Brazil’s history, leading to a dramatic change in mood in the electorate. The reasons for the decline in the rule of left-wing governments were the following factors: the global economic crisis, which led to a sharp drop in oil prices and iron ore (the main source of financial revenues to the budget), middle class dissatisfaction, corruption scandals led by the ruling elite (the center-left Workers Party and its leadership, including the president). Dilma Rousseff (second the “leftish” president) has become one of the fundamental factors behind the decline of the era of left-wing rule in Brazil. On January 1, 2019, the right-wing politician of the pronounced populist orientation Jair Messias Bolsonaro assumed the presidency of Brazil [3]. Having its own specifics, Brazil reflects a number of general trends in world politics, among which there is a place for right-wing populism. It finds its manifestation in other regions: Western Europe and the USA. The victory of Jair Bolsonaro in the presidential election fits into the logic of the “rightshift” in the Latin American region. Highlighting the problems of corruption and the high crime rate “overshadowed” the state’s primary problems: poverty, widening the gap between rich and poor [1, p. 52]. The left opposition in the 2018 election was defeated, as a result of which it was split and weakened, since the main left party (Workers’ Party) no longer had a leader who could be compared with the people of Lula da Silva [17, p. 24]. The priority feature characterizing the new political elite was the revival of traditional trends in political practice.

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References 1. Brazil: a shift in priorities in the new political cycle. M.: ILA RAS, the Summit series, 2019. P. 5–37. 2. CEPAL. Panorama Social de América Latina 2013, anexoestadístico, la versiónelectrónicaen Excel, cuadros 32–33, 35–36, 39–40. URL: http://repositorio.cepal.org/bitstream/ handle/11362/35904/6/Cuadros_estadisticos_2013_es.xlsx (date of access: 02.04.2020). 3. Correio Braziliense 2007. Lula critica antecessores e diz que fez mais pelo Ensino. URL: https://www.correiobraziliense.com.br/app/noticia/politica/2009/05/28/interna_ politica,113916/lula-critica-antecessores-e-diz-que-fez-mais-pelo-ensino.shtml (date of access: 28.02.2020). 4. Delcourt l. Brésil – le coup d’État des ruralistes. Le regard du Cetri. Louvaine-la neuve, 29 juin 2017. URL: http://www.cetri.be/bresil-le-coup-d-etat-des?lang=fr (date of access: 01.03.2020). 5. FAO. Relatório da situação da fome no mundo, 2003. URL: http://www.fao.org/3/a-i3023e. pdf (date of access: 01.03.2020). 6. Folha de são-Paulo. Lula mantém aprovação de metade dos brasileiros há mais de um ano 22 de Junho de 2013. URL: http://datafolha.folha.uol.com.br/ opiniaopublica/2007/12/1222240-lula-mantem-aprovacao-de-metade-dos-brasileiros-ha- mais-de-um-ano.shtml (date of access: 03.10.2020). 7. Folha de S. Paulo. Avaliação do governo Lula se mantém estável; Taxa de reprovação entre os que viajam de avião é o dobro da média nacional. 06.08.2007. URL: http://datafolha.folha. uol.com.br/opiniaopublica/2007/08/1222245-avaliacao-do-governo-lula-se-mantem- estavel-taxa-de-reprovacao-entre-os-que-viajam-de-aviao-e-o-dobro-da-media-nacional. shtml (date of access: 01.03.2020). 8. Folha de S. Paulo. Lula atinge aprovacao recorde. 28.01.2008. URL: http://datafolha.folha. uol.com.br/opiniaopublica/2008/03/1222238-lula-atinge-aprovacao-recorde.shtml (date of access: 03.10.2020). 9. Ibge. Pesquisanacional por amostra de DomicíliosContínua. Divulgação trimestral. abril a Junho de 2017. Divulgadaem 17 de agosto de 2017. Tabela 27. Taxa de desocupação das pessoas de 14 anosoumais de idade. URL: https://ww2.ibge.gov.br/home/estatistica/ indicadores/trabalhoerendimento/pnad_continua/default.shtm (date of access: 11.04.2020). 10. Jeifets V.L., Jeifets L.S. “Right turn” in Latin America: chance or tendency? // Latin America. 2010. No. 6. P. 8–30. 11. Lula da Silva L.I. Les bases de l’eg` alite` // Mouvements. Paris. Septembre-dec` embre 2006. P. 48–57. 12. Martynov B.F., Ivanovsky Z.V., Okuneva L.S., Simonova L.N., Konstantinova N.S. Brazil “tropical giant” on the rise. M.: ILA RAS, 2011. 13. Nakatani P., Marquéz R.M. Lula: un gouvernement de gauche? // La Pensée. Paris, 2008. No. 355. 14. Okuneva L.S. Brazil: features of a democratic project. Pages of the latest political history of the Latin American giant: 1960s – 2006. M., 2008. P. 20–63. 15. Panorama Social de América Latina 2015. SalárioMínimo. URL: http://www.salariominimo. net.br/ (date of access: 10.04.2020). 16. Política nacional de Defesa (Brasil, 2012). URl: https://www.defesa.gov.br/arquivos/ estado_e_defesa/ enD-pnD_Optimized.pdf (date of access: 10.11.2019). 17. Porto M.P. Democratization and Election News Coverage in Brazil // Handbook of Election News Coverage Around the World. Routledge, 2008. P. 30–50. 18. Round table “Latin America: returning to the forefront of world politics” // World Economy and International Relations. 2007. No. 2. P. 90–94. 19. Sallum Jr.B. La especificidad del gobierno de Lula // Nueva Sociedad. 2008. No. 217. P. 32, 165–171. 20. Singer A. Quatro Notassobre as classes sociaisnosdezanos de lulismo. 2013. Classes? Que classes? São Paulo: FPA, 2013. P. 21–38. 21. That was the name of the round table in the journal Latin America, which became the first response in Russia to Lula’s victory // Latin America. 2002.

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REFERENCE TO ARTICLE Bek, V.V. & Rozental, D.M. (2020) Reasons for the Decline of the Rule of Left-Wing Governments in Brazil at the Turn of the XXI Century, Contemporary Problems of Social Work. Vol. 6. No. 2 (22). P. 27–35. DOI 10.17922/2412-5466-2020-6-2-27-35 (International bibliographic description).

CONTACT INFORMATION: Bek Vadim Vladislavovich Master Student Russian State Social University Wilhelm Pieck str., 4, build. 1 129226 Moscow, Russian Federation E-mail: [email protected] Rozental Dmitry Mikhailovich Candidate of Historical Sciences Deputy Director for Research at the Institute for Latin American Studies Russian Academy of Sciences Malaya Ordynka str., 21/16 115035 Moscow, Russian Federation E-mail: [email protected]

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Belokhvostkina D.S., Master Student, Russian State Social University, Moscow. E-mail: [email protected] ORCID ID: orcid.org/0000-0001-6487-9227 Martynova M.Yu., Doctor of Political Sciences, Professor of the Department of Political Science and International Relations, Russian State Social University, Moscow. E-mail: [email protected] Scopus Author ID: 56669480000 ORCID ID: orcid.org/0000-0002-7784-8240 UDC 316; 327 DOI 10.17922/2412-5466-2020-6-2-36-43 Visegrad Group As the Basis for the Integration of Eastern Europe into Western Structures

Receiving date: Preprint date: Taking to print date: 11.03.2020 29.05.2020 29.06.2020

Annotation: the most important stage of modern international development is integration processes. One of the conflicting regions of the worlds is Eastern Europe. Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia and Hungary united in the Visegrad group, the purpose of which was the transition to Western values and structures. The main aim of this article is to analyze the integration of Eastern Europe on the example of the Visegrad group. The article discusses the prerequisites for the unification of the Visegrad group, the role of these countries in the EU and NATO and the assistance of the participating States within the organization. The author comes to the conclusion that the Visegrad group is a controversial organization, but the main tasks of its creation were completed. Key words: Integration, European Union, NATO, Visegrad group, cooperation. JEL classification: А140.

Introduction The question of the integration processes of Eastern Europe into international communities found an echo from domestic and foreign researchers. On the whole, the integration of Eastern European countries into Europe and its consequences were considered by Kulikova N.V. [12]. The main research was the work of the head of the Center of the Visegrad Group countries at the Institute of Europe of the RAS – Shishelina L.N. [17]. Currently, there is an increasing belief that Europe cannot be truly united and unitary. This view finds a great response from the public, which has observed for a long time the European crisis between diverse members. Nowadays, the cooperation of the four countries can be defined as a clearly profiled initiative in Europe. The Visegrad group received public support as an associate of the integration processes and as a good example of multilateral cooperation. The Eastern European states throughout their existence had a controversial position on the map and in the world: they had special historical and cultural regional characteristics in their location. After the collapse of the Soviet Union and the Soviet bloc, these were the first socialist countries that decided to build a democratic regime and began to implement active reforms. The main goal was to join the North Atlantic Alliance and the European Union. Weakened states, 36 VOLUME 6, No. 2 (22), 2020 which decided to change their vector of development, founded the Visegrad Group in 1991. This association was to become a support for participants in the field of economic, political and social reforms. The main goal is to analyze the formation of the Visegrad group as an integration community. Based on this goal, the main tasks are: – to describe the prerequisites of establishment; – to analyze the role of countries in the EU and NATO; – to consider the relationship between countries within this organization. The relevance of this article lies in the fact that the question of a shift of forces in Eastern Europe as a whole is very important, and he calls for a solution to it not only theoretically, but also in research plans. Studying the experience of Eastern European states may be of interest to countries that also plan to integrate into Western organizations using the example of Eastern European countries. Material and methods The method of historical analysis made it possible to observe the phenomenon of the Visegrad cooperation, as well as the stages of formation and evolution of the organization as a subregional integration association. The comparative method made it possible to compare relations within the Visegrad countries, to analyze the role of countries within the union, and also explain the nature and causes of changes in these relations. For a full assessment of relations between the Visegrad countries, the European Union and NATO, official documents were analyzed (articles of association, joint statements of the B4 countries and published foreign policy concepts). Examples of such official documents include the Central European Free Trade Agreement, a Declaration of cooperation between the Czech and Slovak Republic, the Republic of Poland and the Republic of Hungary on the way to integration in Europe etc. Results Having analyzed historical facts, we can regard that the Visegrad group became an integral part for Eastern Europe during the joining to countries of the European Union. Currently, it looks like a kind of field for political statements. It is obvious that the Visegrad countries are assisting NATO and the EU in the dissemination of Western geopolitical interests. These include deepening integration processes, countering the influence of the Russian Federation on its western neighbors and attempts to destroy any integration of Russia with post-Soviet states. At the same time, discrepancies against the background of national interests with EU and NATO member states, as well as the opportunity to propose an action plan on internal relations in Western institutions, show how the Visegrad group is becoming a significant political player in Europe. The Eastern Partnership proposal of May 28, 2008 is an undeniable example of how Eastern European countries are gaining ever stronger positions on the world stage. However, we found that this organization is not sufficiently institutionalized. It did not become a separate political institution, but took the form of a common platform for the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary and Poland to voice their ideas. It can be concluded that the main objective of V4 has been fulfilled, countries after 20 years of cooperation have taken clear positions in organizations such as the EU and NATO. However, now, countries have begun to go their own way. Discussion The states of the Visegrad Group for a long time had strong economic, cultural and political ties. They converged the foundations of two civilizations: the Roman-Germanic Catholic and the Slavic-Ugric, this allows the region to unite the European continent and at the same time divide it. The cultural and economic orientations of these countries are inextricably linked. In addition, their views on incidents in European and global politics often coincide. These conditions have become fundamental to cooperation, especially after their joining to the EU [19].

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The first thoughts on building a new stability system in Eastern Europe came from like- minded Vaclav Havel. After Vaclav Havel took over as president of Czechoslovakia, he proposed organizing a meeting of the heads of Polish, Hungarian, Czechoslovak states and prime ministers in the spring of 1990. The meeting took place in Bratislava [17]. Having the difficult experience of Soviet life, Eastern European states were faced with the question of choosing their future. They chose the European road, the road of interaction, democracy and unification as their goal [19]. On February 15, 1991, the heads of Hungary, Poland and Czechoslovakia met in Visegrad to conclude an agreement on collective cooperation. Hungary, which chaired this meeting, proposed an algorithm for future cooperation between these states. The collective long-term plan of the Visegrad group was joining to the NATO. The North Atlantic Alliance was presented to the Visegrad countries as a mediator and consultant of political, ideological and military reforms. Against the background of these processes, cooperation between countries has reached a new level. In 1992, the Central European Free Trade Agreement was signed [3]. According to this agreement, a regional free trade area, liberalization of trade in things and services and simplification of contracting procedures have organized. Increased cooperation for Western integration has begun. The Alliance has had ongoing meetings that have become a platform for strengthening political relations. Eastern European countries have been invited to establish strong ties with NATO headquarters. However, the North Atlantic Alliance was in no hurry to expand in the direction of Eastern European countries. This can be seen in the analysis of the London Declaration of 1990 [13], which stated that the dialogue between the Eastern European States should concern issues of common security and it must comply with the orientations of the 1975 Helsinki Act. Accession to NATO took place in 1999, but Slovakia joined only in 2004. The goal of integration into NATO was to combat the terrorist threat, with a high crime rate and an increased flow of migrants. During their stay in the North Atlantic Alliance, countries actively participated in its hostilities. So, a military mission in Iraq was supported by Poland. In the future, from each state of the Visegrad group there were representatives of the army. Subsequently, after 2007, it was planned to create a Visegrad military group that would support operations in Iraq and Kosovo. In addition to participating in the NATO operation, after 2006, a program was presented on the deployment of missile defense systems in the territory of the Visegrad Group countries. A year later, the technical characteristics of missile interceptors and a radar base were published. In 2008, this program was officially adopted and the heads of government signed an agreement [14]. For Eastern Europe, missile defense was seen as a defense by NATO, a guarantor of security and a new level of integration development. In 2010, the development of basic strategic documents began. So, in Lisbon (2010) and Chicago (2012), the security concepts “Active participation, modern defense” [20] and “Defense containment review” [8] were signed. These documents determined the direction of development of the partnership on current security threats. If we talk about cooperation between NATO and the Visegrad Group since 1991, then it took place in a fairly neutral mode. In April 2012 in the Czech Republic, defense ministers of Eastern European countries adopted the declaration “Responsibility for a powerful NATO” [7], which spoke about the transformation of US policy priorities and the willingness of Visegrad states to participate in ensuring regional security. This document is fully consistent with the decision of the European Union to build defense capabilities and requested an impressive participation in these processes of NATO. The main objective of the Visegrad Group was to join NATO and the EU, followed by approval of the main goals and actions of these organizations [15]. Until 2014, there were no conflicts that would affect the countries of the East European region to a large extent, therefore integration took place at a simplified level.

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The accession to the EU began in 1991, when the Visegrad countries signed a declaration on joint efforts towards European integration. Budapest and Warsaw filed official petitions for joining the EU in 1994 followed by the Prague and Bratislava in 1995. For almost ten years, states have developed and implemented reforms that can meet the criteria that the European Commission has announced. First, the adoption of a democratic form of government and the protection of human rights. Secondly, it is to intensify the development of the economic sphere and the introduction of a market economy. In February 2003, the decision of the European Commission on the preparedness of the Visegrad group to join was announced [4]. And on April 14, 2003, the European Council approved the EU enlargement towards Eastern Europe [6]. For a long time, countries have proven their worth in the European region. In anticipation of EU accession, the union countries agreed in 2004, “Guidelines for the future Visegrad cooperation” [11]. Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia and Hungary spoke on significant issues that were raised in the European Union. The cooperation development program was adopted by the Commission in 2008 and entered into force in 2009 [16]. This partnership has developed economic and trade ties with the EU, the formation of free trade zones and the reform of the energy and transport policies of the European Union. Neighboring countries were offered financing and an updated visa regime, provided that the countries were ready to deal with migration processes. The states of the Visegrad Four are in solidarity with the expansion of the European Union, taking into account that Brussels will ensure the gradual adaptation of possible members to the conditions of the European Union. Countries supported the Eastern Partnership program proposed by Warsaw and Stockholm, which included Georgia, Ukraine, Azerbaijan, Moldova, Armenia and Belarus. After 2010, the role of the Visegrad Group in the EU began to grow. In the same year, she proposed an updated energy policy and advocated the creation of a European External Action Service. The Visegrad group expressed its concern to Brussels that a significant part of the European Foreign Ministry is made up of representatives of Western Europe [12]. This concern was based on the fears of Eastern European countries that they would not be allowed to lead the EU’s foreign policy. They received support from Austria, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Malta, Greece, Portugal, as well as from the Baltic countries. In early 2009, Slovakia was the first of B4 to abandon the national currency and introduced the euro into its turnover. Other Eastern European countries are in no hurry to follow her example. Polish, Hungarian and Czech governments do not yet comply with the inflation standards set forth in the Maastricht treaty. In March 2010, the Visegrad states expressed their views on the EU employment growth plan and after the UN summit in Copenhagen on climate change. “In January 2012, a meeting of the prime ministers of the B4 members took place, which agreed on positions regarding the new EU financial pact” [2]. In 2012, Eastern European countries expressed their dissatisfaction with the proposal by the Swiss leaders to create a quota for jobs for immigrants from EU countries [18]. In addition, informal meetings were certainly organized between the heads of government. Foreign Ministry representatives from four countries are responsible for the entire dialogue between the countries. From 2010 to 2014, there is a division between the Visegrad group in several areas [10]: “Slovakia works between the institutions of the European Union; fiscal policy is respected by Poland; EU enlargement and the European Neighborhood Policy are regulated by the Czech Republic, and the agenda for employment, cohesion and social policy is controlled by Hungary” [2]. The result of the integration was the alternate chairmanship of the Czech Republic (since January 2009), Hungary (since January 2011), Poland (since July 2011) and Slovakia (July–December 2016) in the EU. Eastern European countries are deeply rooted in the structures of the European Union. Despite their continued desire to return to Europe, they have shown that they are ready to express their opinion and defend their regional interests.

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In 1999, at a meeting in Bratislava, the Agreement on Visegrad Cooperation was adopted [5]. The main objective of this agreement was to work together on the path of integration into the EU. At the same time, this document approved issues in the fields of energy, ecology and culture. In 2000, the new Visegrad Group Management Institute was also created – the International Visegrad Fund [1]. “This fund was created to strengthen cooperation between the bodies of the Visegrad Group, as well as cooperation with other states” [2]. The main goal of this institute is to finance cultural, educational, tourism and research fields. For example, it provides financial support for student mobility programs between countries, grants for youth are developed, and scholarships are awarded. This agreement was one of the main documents for the East European region – it spoke of the countries’ intention to develop collective work even after achieving their main planned integration goal. At the same time, this agreement did not provide for the creation of intergovernmental mechanisms that could help coordinate the common policies of countries on any issues. The Visegrad group is not an institutionalized community. Each year, the chairperson is replaced, who during this time establishes a development plan. The community does not have a clear management structure, there is no headquarters and institutions, except for the Visegrad Fund. In accordance with declaration, interaction takes place only through official high-level meetings, and when they are not held, cooperation is regulated by the chairing country. In addition, informal meetings are held at least once to discuss agendas. To summarize, the Visegrad group is not an international organization, it is a kind of platform for discussion, and not an institution for solving specific problems. For example, Bratislava did not agree with the sovereignty of Kosovo when other Visegrad states accepted this independence. Warsaw and Prague reaffirmed their intentions to deploy missile defense on their land without consulting their neighbors. Also, Warsaw with the vigorous assistance of the European Union, made attempts to create eastern alliances in the region and associations mainly against Russia. In addition, Poland, together with the EU, tried to organize anti-Russian groups in the post-Soviet space. Therefore, in Ukraine, representatives of the Polish authorities attempted to establish a “Community of Democratic Choice” [9]. In addition, there was disagreement over the Lisbon Treaty. Initially, Hungary and Slovakia supported it in 2008 [21], however, the Czech government expressed its disagreement, citing violations of constitutional rights. The Czech Republic slowed down the decision, indicating a probable deviation. Despite the fact that these problems have lost their relevance, it still affected the relationship between the countries. After the collapse of the USSR, Hungary, Slovakia, the Czech Republic and Poland were able to find a new path for development. The formation of the Visegrad Group was the basis for Eastern European integration into Western structures. In addition to the fact that states embarked on the path of democracy, drew their attention to the protection of human rights, began transformation into an internal structure, their unification was the main step for joining the European Union and NATO. Conclusion In the issue, we can summarize that The Visegrad group successfully overcame all the integration processes towards NATO and the EU. Main reasons for the development of this organization, of course, are close cultural and historical ties. For a long time, the states were under the control of the USSR. When it broke up, the Eastern European states chose the democratic path of development. “Back to Europe” is the motto under which global reforms began. Speaking about the role of the Visegrad Group countries in the EU and NATO, we can see that the Visegrad Group is taking more and more stable positions. Examples of close cooperation and full integration include the participation of the Visegrad Group military forces in NATO operations, the deployment of NATO missile defense systems in the territory of the unification

40 VOLUME 6, No. 2 (22), 2020 countries, including Poland. Together, the countries fought against terrorism, migrants and illegal trade. NATO was seen by countries as a guarantor of security in the region. For NATO, the region of Eastern Europe has always been of particular importance, as a buffer zone in front of the borders of Russia. Cooperation with the European Union was more intense. Therefore, in 2010, B4 expressed its opinion on climate change after the United Nations summit in Copenhagen, as well as on issues of employment growth in the European Union. In 2011, the Visegrad states supported the EU regarding sanctions against Minsk, and in March submitted a statement on the Eastern Partnership. The result of integration can be called the presidency of Poland, as a leader, the Visegrad group in the EU Council. Ultimately, the Visegrad group completed all the tasks that confronted her. Namely, joining Western structures and strengthening their positions on the world stage. However, the relationship between states within the association is still controversial. Different levels of integration show that there is still room for dialogue. So, Poland and Hungary are fighting for a leading position in the region. However, it was Slovakia at the beginning of January 2009 that the first of the group introduced the euro into its turnover. Other countries are not yet ready to exchange their national currency for a single one. We can conclude that the Visegrad group is basically turning into a demonstration platform for the publication of thoughts and concepts, and not into a single regional institution. In the near future, this may face serious problems, above all, based on persistent disagreements between member states. This inequality can increase for objective and subjective reasons. Group states are already delimited by the level of their union with the European Union. At the moment, Slovakia as a member of the eurozone shows itself to be the most integrated of all; Poland was about to join the eurozone; and the Czech Republic and Hungary are not in a hurry with this. In the political sphere, the former consolidation, which arose once because of the convictions of the center-right governments of the Visegrad states, ceased to exist after the victory of representatives of left centrism in the elections in Slovakia. The positions of the Visegrad countries regarding the future of the EU and the eurozone are very different: Warsaw and Bratislava are going to develop a mechanism for strengthening integration, while Prague, with its conservative euroscepticism, is in no hurry to join the eurozone, and Budapest is trying to find a way out of the current crisis. Under these conditions, the place for effective close cooperation on these issues by the Visegrad Group is decreasing.

References 1. About Visegrad Fund // The official website of the Visegrad Group Foundation. URL: http:// visegradfund.org/about/ (date of access: 09.02.2020). 2. Belokhvostkina D.S. Modern trans-regional and integration processes in Eastern Europe on the example of Poland. Kazan, 2019. 3. Central European Free Trade Agreement // WorldTradeLaw.net. URL: http://www.worldtradelaw. net/document.php?id=fta/agreements/cefta.pdf (date of access: 08.02.2020). 4. Commission opinion of 19 February 2003 on the applications for accession to the European Union by the Czech Republic, the Republic of Estonia, the Republic of Cyprus, the Republic of Latvia, the Republic of Lithuania, the Republic of Hungary, the Republic of Malta, the Republic of Poland, the Republic of Slovenia and the Slovak Republic // Official Journal of the European Union. 2003. No. 46. P. 3–5. URL: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/ EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:52003PC0079&from=EN (date of access: 15.04.2020). 5. Contents of Visegrad Cooperation approved by the Prime Ministers’ Summit Bratislava on 14th May 1999 // The official website of the Visegrad group. URL: http://www.visegradgroup.eu/ cooperation/contents-of-visegrad-110412 (date of access: 09.02.2020). 6. Decision of the Council of the European Union of 14 April 2003 on the admission of the Czech Republic, the Republic of Estonia, the Republic of Cyprus, the Republic of Latvia, the Republic of Lithuania, the Republic of Hungary, the Republic of Malta, the Republic of Poland, the Republic of Slovenia and the Slovak Republic to the European Union // Official Journal of the

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European Union. 2003. No. 46. URL: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/ ?uri=CELEX:32003D0923(01)&from=EN (date of access: 15.04.2020). 7. Declaration of the Visegrad Group – Responsibility for a Strong NATO 18.04.2012 // The official website of the Visegrad Group. URL: http://www.visegradgroup.eu/documents/ official-statements/declaration-of-the (date of access: 11.04.2020). 8. Deterrence and Defence Posture Review. May 20. 2012 // The official website of the NATO. URL: https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/official_texts_87597.htm (date of access: 11.04.2020). 9. Drynochkin A. V. Consequences of the Entry into the EU. Eurointegration: Its Influence on Economic Development in Central and Eastern Europe. М.: IE RAS, 2014. P. 50–61. 10. Eremina N. How will the revolt of the Visegrad group in the European Union end // Eurasia expert. URL: http://eurasia.expert/chem-konchitsya-bunt-vyshegradskoy-gruppy-v-es// (date of access: 10.02.2020). 11. Guidelines on the Future Areas of Visegrad Cooperation // The official website of the Visegrad Group. URL: http://www.visegradgroup.eu (date of access: 14.04.2020). 12. Kulikova N.V. Eastern European countries on the way to the European Union. M.: Nauka, 2002. 13. London Declaration on а Transformed North Atlantic Alliance, issued by the Heads of State and Government Participating m the Meeting of the North Atlantic Council in London on 5th –6th July 1990 // The official website of the NATO. URL: https://www.nato.int/cps/en/ natohq/official_texts_23693.htm (date of access: 08.02.2020). 14. Missile defense in Poland: “sad but not dramatic” // RIA NEWS. URL: https://ria. ru/20080815/150414647.html (date of access: 11.04.2020). 15. Narodowa strategia integracji // prawo.pl. URL: https://www.prawo.pl/akty/ m-p-1997-34-322,16826818.html (date of access 10.02.2020). 16. Oktyabrev V. The countries of the Visegrád Group adopted a declaration on the future of Europe // Parliamentary newspaper. 02.03.2017. URL: https: //www.pnp.ru/ politics/2017/03/02/strany-vyshegradskoy-gruppy-prinyali-deklaraciyu-obudushhem- evropy.html (date of access: 10.02.2020). 17. Shishelina L.N. Visegrad Europe: where and where? Two decades along the path of reform in Hungary, Poland, Slovakia and the Czech Republic. М., 2010. 18. Shishelina L.N. Visegrad in the Elements of Global Transformations // Appendix to the journal of the Institute of Europe of the Russian Academy of Sciences “Modern Europe”. 2012. No. 4. 19. Simon M.E. Integration processes in the Visegrad group countries: the role of the base in Europe // World Economy and International Relations. 2014. No. 7. P. 18–27. 20. Strategic Concept “Active Engagement, Modern Defence”, 19.11.2010 // The official website of the NATO. URL: ttps://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/topics_82705.htm (date of access: 11.04.2020). 21. Treaty of Lisbon / The official website of the European Union. URL: https://eur-lex.europa. eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?qid=1589325118682&uri=CELEX:12007L/TXT (date of access: 10.02.2020).

REFERENCE TO ARTICLE Belokhvostkina, D.S. & Martynova, M.Yu. (2020) Visegrad Group As the Basis for the Integration of Eastern Europe into Western Structures, Contemporary Problems of Social Work. Vol. 6. No. 2 (22). P. 36–43. DOI 10.17922/2412-5466-2020-6-2-36-43 (International bibliographic description).

CONTACT INFORMATION: Belokhvostkina Darina Sergeevna Master Student Russian State Social University Wilhelm Pieck str., 4, build. 1 129226 Moscow, Russian Federation E-mail: [email protected] Martynova Marina Yurievna Doctor of Political Sciences

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Professor of the Department of Political Science and International Relations Russian State Social University Wilhelm Pieck str., 4, build. 1 129226 Moscow, Russian Federation E-mail: [email protected]

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Chernikova A.A., Junior Researcher of Institute of Socio-Political Research – Branch of the Federal Center of Theoretical and Applied Sociology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow; Postgraduate Student, Russian State Social University, Moscow. E-mail: [email protected] ORCID ID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8125-7566 UDC 316 DOI 10.17922/2412-5466-2020-6-2-44-50 Foreign Students’ Satisfaction of Russian Educational Environment in 2019

Receiving date: Preprint date: Taking to print date: 24.03.2020 29.05.2020 29.06.2020

Annotation: the article gives a review on foreign student’s satisfaction of Russian universities. A general assessment of the conformity of training, the current degree of satisfaction of students in socio-cultural adaptation, training requirements and difficulties in admission to training. A recommendation is given on organizational changes in universities. It will be useful to all employees of the international departments of universities, including professors and recruiting companies. Key words: educational mobility, socio-economic potential, youth, living activities, types of social interactions, student’s recruiting, digitalization, digital recruiting, international higher education, foreign students. JEL classification: А140.

Introduction We are living in the digital era. New technologies play a vital role in the process of recruiting foreign applicants since traditional ways do not work anymore. Today’s potential student is more tech-savvy than ever. This mean website and social media marketing (or SMM strategies) are all incredibly important when it comes to attracting students to the universities. Without a strong online presence, universities risk losing out in – let’s face it – an increasingly competitive sector of student recruitment. Especially higher education students started to move to other countries for better understanding of the education system and experiencing new knowledge. After 1970, more international student mobility has happened between Asia, Europe, America and Africa [4]. Therefore, the student mobility has been growing significantly in the last few decades. Today’s potential student is more tech-savvy than ever before. To make an impression, admissions offices need to keep pace. Only the right higher recruiting tools can help in that regard. Finding those tactics, of course, can be challenging. There are a lot of international students looking forward to study abroad that will bring your organization lot of benefits. In most leading exporting countries, the policy of attracting foreign students to study is supported by a national strategy aimed at facilitating access to education and promoting the state as an attractive place for foreign students. National strategies are often complemented by university strategies, and therefore universities are key players in attracting international students [3].

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Tasks and objectives of my research are following. 1. Getting feedback on the criteria and the process of choosing a university, the procedure for admission to study, accommodation, the quality of educational services, the level of service and the availability of educational infrastructure and campus. 2. Identification of the need to modernize living conditions and increase the accessibility of the educational environment. 3. Evaluation of service for foreign students and the conditions of their education. 4. Assessment of the system of socio-cultural adaptation of foreign students. Methods Information technology is becoming an increasingly important tool in recruiting international students. This is evidenced by both surveys of applicants and students, and studies of specialized organizations. In particular, there were a study conducted in late December 2015 and early 2016 by QS (Quacquarelli Symonds) World University Rankings – which was attended by about 200 university marketers, and as a result of which the report “The main trends in digital marketing in higher education in 2016” was published Digital Marketing Trends in Higher Education 2016) [2]. It turned out that more than 75% of educational institutions. Higher education institutions worldwide prioritize strategies student recruitment based on online recruiting and plan to increase their budgets allocated to the development of digital marketing, including social media and university mobile sites as well study of students’ opinions. Before we pass to survey results, I’d like to speak a bit about students’ migration. One of the first who tried to establish a general theoretical approach to the study of migration processes was the English and German scientist Ernst-Georg Ravenstein, who suggested certain patterns are inherent in migration processes, which he expressed through eleven migration laws [11]. The foundations of a sociological approach to the study of migration were laid in the work of W. Thomas and F. Znanetsky “The Polish Peasant in Europe and America” [16], where for the first time an attempt was made to analyze the consequences of migration processes in the analysis studying personal documents of migrants characterizing their adaptation in the new environment. In the sociological dictionary T.N. Yudina [18] under the migration potential is understood “either the entire Russian-speaking population living in the new foreign countries; or only titular nationalities for Russia; or those who are in these countries migrants of all years of resettlement from Russia (not their natives). In view of the increased sociologists’ interest the processes of industrialization and urbanization and their impact on social behavior, issues of human ecology are of particular relevance. The American sociologist Everett Lee proposed a different approach to explaining the causes of migratory movements [9], according to which “migration behavior is explained by the movement of people from undeveloped territories to economically strong regions under the influence of push-pull factors” on the scale of a city, region or the whole country [19]. To this purpose, a method of focus group interviews was used in combination with the on- line survey. The controlled interviews were carried out with groups of 10 to 15 students. The students were from Asia, the Middle East, Eastern Europe, Latin America). Research Method: In- depth interviews lasting up to 40 minutes. The total sample size is 70 interviews. In order to find out student’s satisfaction rate the following questions were asked. 1. The accessibility of the educational environment. 2. The criteria for choosing a Russian university. 3. The quality of educational services. 4. Accommodation. 5. Sociocultural adaptation. 6. Service maintenance. 7. The need for modernization.

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Results Satisfied students have always made for happy university managers. But the stakes are even higher now that measures of satisfaction are being used to evaluate universities. Objectives and hypotheses detailed theoretical analysis of the problems and based on the results of the research objective was formulated. The study aims to determine whether the criteria for measuring the satisfaction of students with the quality of universities. In recent years, the offer of studies by renowned schools has also been extended to international students [7]. In the time of progressing globalization, marketing of universities stressing student satisfaction is among the university management’s priorities. Thus, the research is concerned with an analysis of satisfaction measurement at selected universities in selected countries, focusing on the question as to whether a unified set of criteria for measuring student satisfaction can be applied in the selected countries. For the period 2017–2019 the general level of satisfaction of foreign students with the learning conditions has not changed, or increased slightly1. 1. Level of satisfaction with the admission procedure for training, the educational process, parameters of socio-cultural adaptation has not changed, or have changed slightly. 2. Satisfaction with service, as before, lags behind other aspects of training and extracurricular activities of foreign students. 3. Willingness to recommend training in Russia is most correlated with overall satisfaction in the direction of the “educational process” and with blocks of socio-cultural adaptation (“extracurricular work” and “after-sales service”), within which parameters such as “the content of the educational program in engineering disciplines”, “practical training”, “qualification of teachers” and “occupation by science, research”. 4. A general assessment of the conformity of training with expectations correlates with the reasons for choosing a university: the highest degree of compliance with expectations is characteristic of those who admitted to such abstracts as “they give a good education”, “there is no desired specialty in my country”, “I speak Russian well”, “I have a contract for employment in my country”. 5. The most important characteristics when applying for studies for international students are the following: a complete list of documents, ease of processing of documents, the ability to track your application at all stages of admission to study. At the same time, the least important thing for students is a meeting upon arrival (at the airport / train station), the availability of information on admission in their native language on Russian sites and the presence of a detailed city map. 6. Most of the respondents did not encounter difficulties in applying for training. However, one fifth of the students indicated that there were generally difficulties with admission. The main difficulties encountered by students are problems with documents: lengthy execution, a large number of documents. Also, a significant share of the problems can be attributed to the language barrier and insufficiently qualified, from the point of view of students, admissions committee staff that they encountered. Students’ current satisfaction with sociocultural adaptation is rated below average, which requires organizational changes at universities. The accessibility of the educational environment as a whole is estimated by foreign students as high. The main reason for this assessment is free education. Students feel comfortable in Russia, practically do not encounter conflict situations, note the benevolence of the population. Among the moments that were unexpected and upset the respondents, the bureaucracy, the language barrier, the need to pay for the hostel were mentioned. Basically, admission expectations coincided with reality, except for living conditions.

1 Research was made upon analyses of the company ROSATOM. 46 VOLUME 6, No. 2 (22), 2020

The criteria for choosing a Russian university were a high level of education, free education, prestige and a high international rating of Russian universities, recommendations of friends and interest in Russia. The reasons for refusal to study in other countries can be due to tuition fees and long admission periods. The main sources of information about Russian universities are recommendations of friends and relatives, a regular search on Google, communication on social networks and information from international cooperation centers and ministries. The quality of educational services is generally evaluated positively. Among the strengths of education in Russia are the quality of education, a high level of science, a good teaching staff, as well as a good standard of living in the country and the goodwill of the population. Weaknesses were the poor material base of some universities, the language barrier, lack of adaptation measures and uncomfortable weather conditions. Accommodation caused the largest number of negative comments from foreign students. Criticism concerns, first of all, living conditions in hostels. Although a number of respondents, on the contrary, noted good living conditions (better than they expected), but there are a minority of such students. Sociocultural adaptation. Students noted that universities in general and teachers in particular help in the learning process, although the lack of adaptation measures on the part of universities is still emphasized. Activities are rated rather positively. However, there is a shortage of them in English. A lot of difficulties are caused by the language barrier (students lack one year of study, there is little conversational “real” practice), however, according to them, teachers try to help with the development of the material (for example, issue written material in the student’s language). Service maintenance. Foreign students identified the three most important services – migration support, career planning and medical care. The need for modernization. Based on the interview, it can be concluded that such measures as arranging hostels, introducing the practice of living foreign students in Russian families or in the same hostel with Russian students (for more effective adaptation), accelerating arrival at the hostel, earlier sending out study invitations, strengthening language training of teachers, more frequent dissemination of information in English, the development of a curatorial system and psychological support.

Goodeducationsystem/Goodqualityeducation 46 Ilike/recommend 20 Everythingisok 19 Interestingculture/country 8 Goodopportunities/future 7 Likepeople/Goodattitude 6 Qualifiedteachers 6 Cheapeducation/budgetavailability 5 Goodeducationalenvironment 5 Friends/goodgroupappeared 4 Goodlivingconditions 3 Interestingeventsfromtheuniversity 3

Figure 1. Student’s satisfaction rate on investigated questions (%) So, as it has shown on figure 1, the greatest impact on the willingness to recommend training in Russia is provided by satisfaction with the educational process as a whole and in particular with satisfaction with such parameters as “the ratio of theoretical and practical knowledge”, “material equipment of classrooms / laboratory classes”, “prospects for future employment” and “practical training” . The least impact is extracurricular work. Foreign students choose

47 CONTEMPORARY PROBLEMS OF SOCIAL WORK to study in Russia, mainly because of the high level of education, the lack of a language barrier and good living conditions. 22% of foreign students encountered difficulties when entering a university, the key ones were: lengthy paperwork, a large number of documents, and the lack of organization of the selection committee, according to students. Foreign students’ rate 3.7 out of 5 points (average level) in accordance with the expectations of learning and real learning. As recommendations, students noted the need to create committees to support foreign students, advanced training of teachers, an increase in the share of practical classes and an increase in the emphasis on specialized disciplines. It should be noted that most of the parameters of the educational process are in the zone of “key advantages”. The greatest advantage can be considered the qualifications of teachers and the equipment of the library. Only one parameter got into the quadrant of critical deficiencies – “practice passing”. At the border of key advantages and key disadvantages is the parameter “prospects for future employment”, but with a slight increase in satisfaction with it, it can move into the zone of key advantages. The parameter “program in the humanities and natural sciences” stands out from the general mass – it has both low satisfaction and a low degree of importance. Discussion Within the framework of an integrative approach, a tendency towards transformation of the migration research methodology taking into account globalization is outlined. One of the processes accompanying globalization and social transformation is international migration. Migration tends to increase, the gap in the social and cultural characteristics of migrants widens, the importance of the migration network as a form of communication increases, and as a result, national borders are eroded and state control is weakened. in the sociological dimension, it is necessary to note the Siberian sociologists under the leadership of T.I. Zaslavskaya [10], in the opinion of which the formation of migration attitudes takes place under the influence of external living conditions of the individual, and taking into account personal experience and characteristics of the individual himself. L.l. Rybakovsky and O.D. Zakharova “Research on demographic behavior – a new stage in the development of demographic theory”, which presents factor and behavioral approaches to the study of the determinants of migration based on objective and subjective reasons for migration, respectively [13]. Also L.L. Rybakovsky justified the criteria for assessing the migration potential, and also calculated the residual migration potential in the countries of the new foreign countries [12]. According to V.I. Perevedentseva and T.I. Zaslavskaya among the factors that determine the transition from decision to real migration, it is necessary to distinguish objective and subjective (socio-psychological) factors of migration. She noted that under approximately the same external conditions, different individuals have different approaches to assessing the feasibility of migration [20].This choice depends on the personality characteristics, the totality of interests and values, attitudes and needs, suggesting the unequal importance of different sides and living conditions. Under the same conditions, “the same” personality traits of individuals lead to differentiation of decisions that can be considered as a subjective factor of migration. This method can be described as “subjective (or sociological)”, as the basis is data that allows you to obtain information about subjective (hidden) conditions and motives, attitudes and guidelines for migration, as well as identify assessments of living and working conditions in the region of residence [6]. The American researcher P. Grandstaff considered internal migration processes in the USSR, comes to the conclusion that the economic motives of migration are predominant, and therefore individuals prefer to move to regions where living conditions are most attractive [8]. Conclusion The competition of universities in the educational space has been on a continual increase. These institutions must react promptly to the ever-changing threats and opportunities

48 VOLUME 6, No. 2 (22), 2020 in education. University managements must be capable of adopting efficient measures to enhance their competitiveness. The quality of services provided has a key role in this process. Therefore, it is necessary to monitor and analyze student satisfaction with the services offered by the university [14; 15]. This study is concerned with issues related to measuring student satisfaction with the quality of Russian universities. Nearly 60% of those surveyed study at a university that meets or almost meets expectations. Only 10% said that training does not meet or rather does not meet expectations (that is, the proportion of students satisfied with the training is 6 times more than those who are not satisfied). At the same time, among the students considering other countries when choosing a university, only half said that the education meets their expectations, while among those who did not consider other countries, two-thirds of such students. Using analysis of variance, the null hypothesis that there are no significant differences between students of different nationalities in perceiving the importance of the criteria for measuring the satisfaction with the quality of services offered by a university was not rejected. Thus, the analysis of variance implies that the set of criteria is perceived in much the same manner in the countries in question. It is, therefore, possible to unify the application of the set of criteria in the countries to measure student satisfaction with the quality of universities. Further research will focus on creating a methodology for measuring student satisfaction with the quality of universities mainly in view of the dynamic development of and global increase in the competition between universities in tertiary education. In conformance with this, the outlooks of further research may also include the measuring of satisfaction with the quality of services offered by universities by other key target groups. Traditional marketing channels typically do not allow accurate tracking or analytics, which significantly reduces their relative value in the digital world. Mobile marketing campaigns enable universities to implement an entirely digital recruitment campaign that offers measurable success metrics: overall engagement, click-through and message open rates, event attendance, social engagement and more [1]. Recruiters continue to spend time and money traveling to meet prospect students rather than invest in digital channels, but it is impossible to identify all of their most qualified applicants this way. Mobile marketing circumvents this outdated process, allowing universities to reach target groups of students by highlighting program offerings that target specific demographic groups and preferences. But most importantly, mobile marketing allows universities to place all this information exactly where a student wants it to be: on their devices. It is digital theologies that make a lasting impression on prospective students and they can be the deciding factor when it comes to submitting an application [17]. Digital recruiting benefits include higher revenues, lower costs due to more streamlined and digitized processes, and superior applicants service with higher customer ratings and conversion rates. Moreover, as a result of this, international staff is now freed from performing machine processes. Thus, the digitalization increases the level of university recruitment satisfaction, as well as candidate’s motivation [5]. To sum up, digital technology dramatically accelerates standard recruitment processes and makes it possible to stay connected to students virtually. Education transforms very rapidly and universities should keep up with the time by using agile and digitalization to enhance foreign student rate.

References 1. Astin A.W., Antonio A.L. Assessment for excellence the philosophy and practice of assessment and evaluation in higher education. 2nd ed. Plymouth. United Kingdom: Rowman & Littlefi eld, 2012. 2. Central Intelligence Agency. The world factbook. URL: https://www.cia.gov/library/ publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2144.html (date of access: 15.02.2020).

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3. Chernikova A.A. Cross-Cultural Competences in the International Educational Space // Social Policy and Sociology. Vol. 18. 2019. No. 4 (133). P. 103–109. 4. Chernikova A.A. Student Mobility in the Member-Countries of Eurasian Economic Union // Contemporary Problems of Social Work. Vol. 5. 2019. No. 4 (20). P. 59–68. 5. Chernikova A.A. Virtual Ethnic Communities of Foreign Students of Russian Universities: article in the proceedings of the conference Russia in the Digital Age: Borders, Barriers and Solidarity: Mater. of the XXIV Sociological Readings of the Russian State Social University / Ed.: T.N. Yudina, I.V. Dolgorukova, I.V. Korolev, T.V. Fomicheva, E.A. Leedser. 2019. P. 502– 508. 6. Cubillo J.M., Sánches J., Cerviño J. International students’ decision-making process // International Journal of Educational Management. 2007, 20, 2: 101–105. 7. Global Flow of Tertiary-Level Students. URL: http://uis.unesco.org/ en/uis-student-flow (date of access: 15.02.2020). 8. Grandstaff P. Recent Soviet Experience and Western ‘Laws’ of Population Migration // International Migration Review. Vol. 9. 1975. No. 4. P. 479–497. 9. Lee E.S. A Theory of Migration // Demography. 1966. Vol. 3 (1). P. 47–57. 10. Migration of the rural population. M.: Statistics, 1970. 11. Ravenstein E.G. The Laws of Migration // Journal of the Statistical Society of London. Vol. 48. 1885. No. 2. P. 167–235. 12. Rybakovsky L.L. Migration potential: assessment criteria and current scales // Sociological studies. 2011. No. 4. P. 23–34. 13. Rybakovsky L.L., Zakharova O.D. The study of demographic behavior – a new stage in the development of demographic theory // Demographic behavior and the possibility of social impact on him under socialism: According to the mater. of the intern. scient.c-pract. conf. (Vulnes). M., 1986. 14. Senthil K.N., Arulraj A. Sqm-hei – determination of service quality measurement of higher education in India // Journal of Modelling in Management. 2011, 6, 1: 60–78. 15. The concept of educational services export of the Russian Federation for the period 2011– 2020 // Bulletin of international organizations. 2010. No. 1 (27). P. 96–106. 16. Thomas W., Znaniecki F. The polish peasant in Europe and America. N.Y., 1958. 17. Trends in Higher Education Marketing, Enrollment, and Technology. URL: https://www. ct.edu/files/pdfs/workgroup-report-marketing-trends.pdf (date of access: 18.03.2020). 18. Yudina T.N. Migration: a dictionary of basic terms. M.: Publishing house of the RSSU : Academic Project, 2007. 19. Zubkov V.V. Determinants of migratory representations of students of the region // Power and Management in the East of Russia. 2013. No. 4 (65). P. 198–206. 20. Zubok Yu.A., Chuprov V.I. Sociology of youth. Encyclopedic Dictionary. M.: Academia, 2008.

REFERENCE TO ARTICLE Chernikova, A.A. (2020) Foreign Students’ Satisfaction of Russian Educational Environment in 2019, Contemporary Problems of Social Work. Vol. 6. No. 2 (22). P. 44–50. DOI 10.17922/2412-5466-2020-6-2-44-50 (International bibliographic description).

CONTACT INFORMATION: Chernikova Anna Andreevna Junior Researcher Institute of Socio-Political Research Branch of the Federal Center of Theoretical and Applied Sociology Russian Academy of Sciences Fotievov str., 6/1 127083 Moscow, Russian Federation Postgraduate Student Russian State Social University Wilhelm Pieck str., 4, build. 1 129226 Moscow, Russian Federation E-mail: [email protected]

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Deshevykh M.S., Master Student, Russian State Social University, Moscow. E-mail: [email protected] ORCID ID: orcid.org/0000-0002-7857-9230 Yudaev V.V., Candidate of Political Sciences, Associate Professor of the Department of Political Science and International Relations, Russian State Social University, Moscow. E-mail: [email protected] ORCID ID: orcid.org/0000-0002-3389-1597 UDC 316; 32 DOI 10.17922/2412-5466-2020-6-2-51-57 SpaceX As the Challenge to National Security

Receiving date: Preprint date: Taking to print date: 27.03.2020 29.05.2020 29.06.2020

Annotation: today, the traditional nature of the activities of the national states and business structures in the space sector has been modified. Favorable legal conditions laid the foundation for increasing the role of private space agencies on the world stage. New business structures related to space issues. The American company SpaceX, in particular, the design of this company under the name “Starlink” provides access to high-performance Internet technologies in all territories through the use of satellite technology of 1200 satellites, which are of interest in the analysis of existing space programs. This Starlink program is a political research methodology that allows you to investigate the possible threat of state space programs. The results of this work can be taken as a basis for future developers. In the end, the author came to the conclusion that there is a threat of monopolization of the space sphere, which requires additional study and discussion at the level of government states. Key words: national security, the Russian Federation, the United States of America, SpaceX, Starlink, space policy. JEL classification: А140.

Introduction The American SpaceX Corporation (Space Exploration Technologies Corporation), founded by Elon Mask in 2002, today sets the vector for the development of the global space industry. Over the 18 years of its activity, the corporation has more than once been the initiator of breakthrough space technologies. These are technologies such as the Falcon 1 and 9 launch vehicles, the Dragon spaceship, already used for the technical needs of the International Space Station and planned in everyday life for the delivery of astronauts there. Of particular relevance is the Starlink project of SpaceX, aimed at creating a cheap satellite Internet communication channel and representing the greatest threat to national space projects, in particular Russian ones. According to the project program, the Internet will be provided bypassing national providers, as a result of which the regions will become completely dependent on the American satellite service.

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So, in this article there is the analysis the activities of SpaceX, as well as the threats associated with the implementation of the Starlink project. Methodology In methodological terms, the article applied a huge variety of general scientific, political science and other methods for analyzing global politics and purely economic structures (historical, descriptive, etc.). Taking into account the complexity and multidimensionality of the phenomenon of private space agencies on the world stage, to analyze the challenges arising from the activities of the American company SpaceX, the author first of all uses the method of complex data analysis, which allows you to connect many multivector events and reveal an objective significant relationship between them. In addition, methods of logical and statistical analysis were also applied in the research process. The basis of the study was the political science method case – study (case study). Results The author came to the conclusion that there is a threat of the following nature: the functions of the nation-state in the implementation of space programs can be replaced by private commercial structures. This is evidenced by the specific successes of SpaceX: launching private carrier rockets Falcon 1, Falcon 9; delivery of astronauts on their own private spacecraft Dragon to the International Space Station; the initiation and implementation of the idea of reusable space equipment, as well as the start of the production of spacecraft aimed at landing astronauts on the moon. All these corporate results already today compete with national space developments [10]. For clarity, the speed of development of a private company will present the main milestones in the development of SpaceX in time indicators below. June 2002: Elon Musk founded SpaceX. March 2006: Single-stage Falcon 1 launch vehicles were produced [4]. September 2008: The first successful launch of the Falcon 1 launch vehicle was completed [11]. June 2010: successfully launched the second corporate type of Falcon 9 launch vehicles. August, 2010: Dragon transport ship was developed with a fundamentally new possibility of returning to Earth. May 2014: Creation of the reusable manned spacecraft Dragon V2. April 2018: successful implementation of the TESS corporate telescope (the so-called “hunter” of new planets). March 8, 2019: a prototype of equipment aimed at landing on the moon was initiated and produced [9]. May 24, 2019: 60 first satellites of the Falcon 9 were launched into low Earth orbit. This is considered the first step towards the implementation of the StarLink project, the study of which was carried out below. October, 2019: The US Federal Communications Commission approved the deployment of a total of 300,000 additional Starlink satellites to operate in orbits of 238–580 km. December 4, 2019: CRS-19 supply mission with Dragon spacecraft to the ISS was created [13]. December 16, 2019: Japanese and Singaporean satellites JCSat18 / Kacific 1. January 7, 2020: launch of 60 Falcon 9 FT B1049-4 satellites (Starlink-2 mission) [12]. January 29, 2020: launch of 60 Falcon 9 FTB1051-3 satellites (Starlink-3 mission) [6]. February 2020: Company President Gwyneth Shotwell announced a plan to split the Starlink project into a public company separate from SpaceX. February 17, 2020: launch of 60 Falcon 9 FT B1056-4 satellites (Starlink-4 mission) [15; 17]. March 14, 2020: Launch of 60 new Falcon 9 FT B1049-5 satellites (Starlink-5 mission). March 20, 2020: The U.S. Armed Forces signed a SpaceX document with a validity period of 3 years (that is, up to 2023 inclusive), which agreed to test the Starlik system for transferring data between internal ground units.

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End of 2020: Another 60 StarLink satellites should go into orbit. It is expected: 12 000–42 000 satellites in low Earth orbit (302 satellites launched). So, briefly summarizing the chronology of the SpaceX activity presented above, it should be said that the private structure shows excellent results. First of all, this is the launch of the first private launch vehicles in the history of mankind, which compete with state ones. This also includes the transportation of astronauts to the ISS, the initiation and implementation of a project project to create a reusable manned spacecraft, as well as the development of prototypes of space equipment for landing on the moon. All this projects the possibility of losing the leading positions of states in the space sphere. The main vector of the study was the analysis of the StarLink corporate project, which consists in the formation of a wide network of free and high-speed Internet. This analysis revealed that such a project is not only a threat to the transformation of the balance of power in the world arena in terms of the ownership of a certain number of space developments, but, in the first place, Starlink can affect the issue of national security of states. The lack of the possibility of any control of user content by national structures, resulting from the results of the project, seems to the author a threat to the political and information security of states. Discussion Private space programs are booming. Sometimes this development is ahead of national space exploration [6]. The American company SpaceX is a prime example. Through an innovative space policy, the company not only determines the increase in the speed of development of the American space industry, but also sets the trend for the rest of the world, far ahead of it in terms of development [7]. This hypothesis is confirmed by the events of May 31, 2020, which occurred on the territory of the United States of America and affecting the interests of absolutely the entire world community. It is about the launch of the new American spacecraft Crew Dragon, which successfully docked to the International Space Station (ISS). On board Dragon, which was developed by the private space company SpaceX, were astronauts Douglas Harley and Robert Benken. The SpaceX ship began the launch process on Saturday May 30, 2020 from the launch site at Cape Canaveral, Florida. This was the first ever American manned launch from the United States. In 2011, reusable shuttle flights were discontinued, and the Atlantis shuttle in space was the last. The modern innovative launch, launched in May this year, symbolizes the beginning of a new era, not from the point of view of space exploration for NASA, which will now be forced to buy equipment from the private company SpaceX, but also in general from the point of view of the interaction of commercial structures and national states in space. The era ended when the state owned, and also directed the launch of spacecraft at the International Space Station. This example illustrates the implementation of launches by private corporations, in this case, the company Ilona Mask. In the spring of 2019, a similar ship made its first successful test flight to the station in an unmanned version. In addition, since 2011, the Russian Soyuz spacecraft has been delivering NASA American astronauts to the ISS, for which state representatives of the latter pay the Russian private agency. So, for example, in May of that year, NASA agreed with Roscosmos to buy one seat in the Soyuz spacecraft, which launched in October on the ISS (consisting of Russians Anatoly Ivanishin, Ivan Wagner and American Chris Cassidy). These examples, describing the latest developments in the space industry both in the United States of America and in the Russian Federation, demonstrate the close intertwining of national space structures (for example, NASA or Roscosmos) with private space agencies (especially SpaceX).

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The so-called specific weight of each of the actors is not quantified; in this regard, it is difficult to draw a line between responsibility and the spheres of influence of the state and business structures. And if earlier the implementation of space policy was the sole responsibility of a national state, today the international space agenda has been modified. National institutions are no longer the main regulatory center for space policy. More and more leverage begins to have private structures. So, for example, taking into account the activity of SpaceX, it should be emphasized that the company as soon as possible allowed to reduce the cost of implementing space programs by one third compared to national ones. SpaceX offers today are the most profitable on the market by price criteria, and in the future it is planned to reduce prices to $ 6 million. This is a challenge to government institutions, since the offer to launch ships at such an extremely low price is not available to them. In this regard, the question arises: “Who leads the development vector of the space industry – the state or business with more innovative resources?”. This question is relevant for some other reasons, except the above. First of all, it is a fact that recently, for the first time in history, the prospect of independent means of launching spacecraft from space from scratch was laid, without relying on the already developed scientific and technical base, as well as industrial tools. It is likely that some share of these is transferred from NASA to SpaceX and other private agencies, but the role of this transfer is minimal compared to the savings that SpaceX realizes in its launches. In addition, for the first time in history, a private company scheduled manned flights to Mars (end of 2020), which is a confirmation of the absolute pushback of the state in the formation, and even more so in the regulation of space innovations. The possession of information resources obtained during these flights is of fundamental importance in the alignment of forces of space actors on the world stage. In addition, in the context of international interaction, a new tendency of competition appears in such a traditional public sphere as space [19]. Who will possess the main package of space exploration is unknown, just as it is impossible to predict the consequences of such competition. In this regard, we are talking about challenging the positions of leading participants in the space industry. This challenge is primarily associated with the possession of business structures of space services that are cheap for consumers [3]. These are services such as Falcon 9, Falcon Heavy, and recently, the possibility of paying launch of astronauts of various states in the future on a private manned spacecraft Dragon Crew to the International Space Station has been added. This not only affects the alignment of forces of public and private space actors on the world stage, but also the economic component of the states involved in these projects. The head of Roscosmos Dmitry Rogozin after the launch of Crew Dragon announced his intention to cooperate between the states, Musk in his Twitter post confirmed this intention. It is also worth emphasizing that one seat in the Crew Dragon costs $ 90 million. Another challenge to national structures from private space agencies is related to the possibility of implementing a standard solution for space vehicle manufacturers [16]. The possession of cheap and effective means of launching devices focuses on satellites on a specific carrier. Such production is beneficial to manufacturers, since it determines their monopolization. This implies that even developing national or business space providers, providers need to create their own competitive offer in order not to at least lose their position in the space industry. Another challenge to government institutions is SpaceX’s ability to use reusable space rockets. In the future, such “reusability” does not affect either the quality of the services provided or their frequency. In addition, the labor costs for implementing SpaceX programs are equal to similar government programs, excluding only the possibility of reusability. Nevertheless, the threat may mature in the event of a potential change in the technical, economic, price indicators of the launch of reusable satellites.

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Another potentially dangerous development direction of SpaceX can be considered SpaceX projected into the future technological breakthrough. To date, the technological characteristics of SpaceX devices are not something technologically fundamentally new compared to existing national ones. An example is the technical characteristics of Russian RD-180 engines, which are largely superior to their foreign competitors Merlin. However, the economic efficiency of the company is achieved through the implementation of industrial innovation policies, which are considered breakthrough from the position of the space industry. Already today, all the company’s developments are not only not “isolated” from the state, but even go in cooperation with government agencies. Federal assistance, as well as tax breaks and credits, quotas for environmental pollution, grants from the states or local authorities is about $ 20 billion, and the latter received more than $ 5 billion under NASA and SpaceX bilateral contracts. Based on data from Los Angeles times [5], a high level of cooperation of the commercial company with state structures was established both at the federal level and at the level of local authorities. However, in the future, the author predicts the threat of crowding out the state from the world scene as the main regulatory center. To confirm or refute this proposition, a more detailed discussion of the Starlink project initiated by SpaceX in May 2019 is given below. The Starlink project is the company’s commercial program for creating a system of near-Earth satellites with the goal of creating a cheap satellite Internet communication channel. Last year, May 24, SpaceX took the first steps to implement this program. A more detailed discussion of the main features and threats of the program is given below. The goal of the project is to provide low-cost, high-performance Internet access to the entire Earth by launching 1,200 satellites into low Earth orbit. Chronologically, the start of the project is marked by the first successful launch of TINTIN prototypes [8]. By 2017, the company had compiled regulatory documents to launch about 12 thousand satellites into low Earth orbit around the mid-2020s [14]. In the spring of 2019, the first 60 satellites were launched [20]. In November 2019 – the second part was sent. In 2020, 4 satellite launches have already been made. Everything is successful. The most reasonable and most important part of the analysis of this project is the study of the winners and losers in the context of including Starlink, the advantages and possible options for implementing the project. Obviously, in the case we are talking about, the winner is SpaceX as a representative of the American space industry, while for states developing their own national space programs (including the Russian Federation), such an implementation is undesirable. A more complex issue is related to the benefits and pleasures of all, if any. Starlink’s advantage is the ability to access the Internet anywhere in the world, including the impenetrable Amazon jungle and the remote Siberian taiga. Connecting all countries into a single Starlink network is a major change in the vector of interstate interaction with a center in the United States of America. In addition, Starlink has the advantage of high speed and high quality Internet. Space data transmission to the Earth is a technological breakthrough in Internet communications. But a deeper analysis indicates that relatively many threats were determined by the implementation of Starlink. First of all, this is the risk of Kessler’s syndrome: it is dangerous to be in low Earth orbit with 12 000 Starlink satellites (now there are just over 300 satellites in orbit); in the event of even one collision of a satellite with debris, this can cause a chain reaction and, accordingly, the destruction of most satellites in orbit. The plan of the “environment” of the planet with so many satellites has no analogues in history; accordingly, the result of such a “call” and a collision of satellites near the Earth’s orbit is difficult to predict. There is a risk of a “domino effect”, as a result of which spinning fragments caused by a collision of satellites can completely or partially block a person’s access to space.

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In addition, the orbiting of 1200 Starlink satellites may cause interference with the operation of modern national telescopes on Earth. Earth telescopes will be “blocked” by more powerful radio emission from space. There is a threat to the operability of national terrestrial telescopes. Finally, by the end of 2020, the Starlink project plans to universally conclude Starlink agreements with local providers, which could lead to the complete monopolization of the space industry. For domestic and other government space projects, the Starlink program is a threat to national security, due to the fact that the regions can become completely dependent on a foreign satellite system. According to Russian experts, the formation of Russian satellite communications can only be carried out with countries that have a politically positive relationship with the Russian Federation. These are countries such as India, China and other states that “do not behave aggressively towards the Russian Federation”. In the fall of 2018, the Ministry of Telecom and Mass Communications of the Russian Federation issued a draft law “On Amendments to Article 71 of the Federal Law “On Telecommunications”” with some modifications that prohibit the import of all subscriber terminals except for already licensed telecom operators [18]. The prevention of threats to national security arising from the use of foreign satellite Internet access services in the Russian Federation was the purpose of this bill [2]. However, the Starlink project is characterized by direct Internet access, bypassing national providers. The possibility of any control of user content by national structures seems doubtful in this summary. The ability of the Runet to operate autonomously also becomes short-term in case of implementation of the Starlink project. Conclusions Thus, the potential implementation of the SpaceX project, aimed at providing low-cost, high- performance Internet access to the entire Earth through the launch of 1200 satellites into low Earth orbit, can dramatically affect the balance of forces on the world stage. The Starlink project is a serious problem not only for national space programs, but also for the national security of states. The issue of providing Russia with uncontrolled Internet access from American satellite communications by the end of 2020 requires discussion not only at the level of scientific research, but also among political Russian communities.

References 1. A Launcher with 60 Starlink system microsatellites launched from Cape Canaveral // TASS (January 29, 2020). URL: https://tass.ru/kosmos/7636585 (date of access: 29.01.2020). 2. Exclusive: Russia opposes U.S. OneWeb satellite service, cites security concerns // Reuters. URL: https://www.reuters.com/article/us-oneweb-russia-security-exclusive/exclusive- russia-opposes-us-oneweb-satellite-service-cites -security-concerns-idUSKCN1MY1P8 (date of access: 29.01.2020). 3. Financial Policy of Companies of the Rocket and Space Industry // Issues of economic sciences. 2015. No. 6 (76). P. 39–43. URL: https://lib.rucont.ru/efd/490269 (date of access: 21.01.2020). 4. Fuel leak apparently doomed Falcon 1. URL: https://spaceflightnow.com/falcon/ f1/060325leak.html (date of access: 17.04.2020). 5. Hirsch J. Elon Musk’s growing empire is fueled by $ 4.9 billion in government subsidies // Los Angeles Times. 30.05.2015. URL: http://www.latimes.com/business/la-fi-hy-musk- subsidies-20150531-story.html (date of access: 17.04.2020). 6. Ivanitskaya V., Tsvettsykh A. Commercialization of private space projects // Actual problems of aviation and astronautics. 2017. URL: https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/ kommertsializatsiya-chastnyh-kosmicheskih-proektov (date of access: 03.04.2020). 7. Korobushin D.V., Veiko A.V., Dadashyan A.E. Private space in the USA: Development Trends // Problems of Economics and Legal Practice. 2018. No. 3. URL: https://cyberleninka.ru/ article/n/chastnyy-kosmos-v-ssha-tendentsii-razvitiya (date of access: 14.05.2020).

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8. NASA has selected 11 companies for the production of prototypes of devices for landing on the moon // TASS. 17.05.2019. URL: https://tass.ru/kosmos/6440034 (date of access: 08.04.2020). 9. NASA lines up four additional CRS missions for Dragon and Cygnus. URL: https://www. nasaspaceflight.com/2015/03/nasa-crs-missions-dragon-cygnus/ (date of access: 26.04.2020). 10. Oxford Analytics. Satellite Internet Can Have Global Impact // Emerald Expert Briefings. URL: https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/OXAN-DB245994/full/html (date of access: 02.04.2020). 11. SpaceX launched a rocket with the first satellites for fast Internet // Vedomosti. 2018. URL: https://www.vedomosti.ru/technology/articles/2018/02/20/751596-spacex-zapustila (date of access: 15.04.2020). 12. SpaceX launched 60 Starlink satellites into orbit // RIA Novosti. 07.01.2020. URL: https:// ria.ru/20200107/1563158365.html (date of access: 02.05.2020). 13. SpaceX launches private Israeli moon mission, Indonesian satellite and Air Force test spacecraft // CNBC. 21.02.2019. URL: https://www.cnbc.com/2019/02/22/spacex- launches-israeli-moon-mission- indonesian-satellite-air-force-spacecraft.html (date of access: 14.04.2020). 14. SpaceX Wants to Launch 12 000 Satellites – Parabolic Arc (English). URL: http:// www.parabolicarc.com/2017/03/03/spacex-launch-12000-satellites/ (date of access: 10.04.2020). 15. Successful deployment of 60 Starlink satellites confirmed! URL: https://twitter.com/SpaceX/ status/1229426122720346113 (date of access: 17.02.2020). 16. The analysis of the pricing policy of SpaceX when using reusable rockets // Space tape. 2016. URL: http://kosmolenta.com/index.php/863-2016-04-26-resuability-economy (date of access: 16.04.2020). 17. The Falcon 9 rocket with the Starlink satellite group launched in Florida // RIA Novosti. 17.02.2020. URL: https://ria.ru/20200217/1564890047.html (date of access: 17.04.2020). 18. The FSB saw a threat in the OneWeb global Internet project (October 24, 2018). URL: https:// www.vedomosti.ru/politics/news/2018/10/24/784608-fsb-proekte-globalnogo-interneta (date of access: 24.02.2020). 19. Vance E. Elon Musk: Tesla, SpaceX and the road to the future = Elon Musk: Tesla, SpaceX and the search for a fantastic future. 3rd ed. M.: Olymp-Business, 2018. 401 p. 20. What to expect from the Internet Mask: SpaceX launched into orbit immediately 60 communications satellites // Forbes. 05.12.2019. URL: https://www.forbes.ru/ tehnologii/376129-chto-zhdat-ot-interneta-maska-spacex-vyvela-na-orbitu-srazu-60- sputnikov-svyazi (date of access: 19.02.2020).

REFERENCE TO ARTICLE Deshevykh, M.S. & Yudaev, V.V. (2020) SpaceX As the Challenge to National Security, Contemporary Problems of Social Work. Vol. 6. No. 2 (22). P. 51–57. DOI 10.17922/2412- 5466-2020-6-2-51-57 (International bibliographic description).

CONTACT INFORMATION: Deshevykh Maria Sergeevna Master Student Russian State Social University Wilhelm Pieck str., 4, build. 1 129226 Moscow, Russian Federation E-mail: [email protected] Yudaev Valery Vyacheslavovich Candidate of Political Sciences Associate Professor of the Department of Political Science and International Relations Russian State Social University Wilhelm Pieck str., 4, build. 1 129226 Moscow, Russian Federation E-mail: [email protected]

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Deshevykh N.S., Master Student, Russian State Social University, Moscow. E-mail: [email protected] ORCID ID: orcid.org/0000-0002-0501-8694 Yudaev V.V., Candidate of Political Sciences, Associate Professor of the Department of Political Science and International Relations, Russian State Social University, Moscow. E-mail: [email protected] ORCID ID: orcid.org/0000-0002-3389-1597 UDC 316; 327.57 DOI 10.17922/2412-5466-2020-6-2-58-64 Prospects of the Development of Artificial Intelligence in the World Arena

Receiving date: Preprint date: Taking to print date: 18.03.2020 29.05.2020 29.06.2020

Annotation: today, the development of the artificial intelligence system determines a number of processes of an international nature. Earlier technological developments formed the internal technological potential of the country and did not go beyond the framework of the national state, but today artificial intelligence forms a spectrum of trends on the world stage. This article analyzes the impact of artificial intelligence on international relations, examined the possible risks and threats that countries may face as a result of the generation of artificial intelligence technology. The objective of the study is to investigate the possible prospects for the development of artificial intelligence systems, as well as the impact of the application of artificial intelligence technology on the world stage. It was found that the upcoming era of robotics entails, along with military and economic risks, radical changes in the field of global political governance. First of all, this is due to the fact that the possession of artificial intelligence technologies will finally bridge the gap between developed countries and the third world, and also make it insurmountable. In conclusion, the author proposed measures to minimize threats to the use of artificial intelligence technology on the world stage. Key words: artificial intelligence, world stage, threats, arms race. JEL classification: А140.

Introduction At the present stage of the development of international relations, there has been a tendency to create a “strong” artificial intelligence capable of independently making informed management decisions. The AI system is starting to touch on issues of international competition. Artificial intelligence is a strategic technology that determines the international competitiveness of the state, future development and, of course, its national security and level of influence on the world stage. Methodology A systematic approach was used to determine the relationship between the development of the technical side of artificial intelligence and the issue of the potential future picture of the international political arena. The development of the artificial intelligence ceases a lot

58 VOLUME 6, No. 2 (22), 2020 of diverse cases, which may exist not only in the technological sphere, but also in economics, policy and society system. For a more detailed study of the questions posed during the study, the modeling method was used, which is used in the analysis of world politics and international relations. Using the modeling method, the main models of negative trends in international relations were identified. Results Artificial intelligence technologies create a new type of instability not only at the national, but also at the international level. This round of instability gives rise to the ability of the countries of the first world to act in such a way that in the process of struggle for the dominance of AI, they will not be among the losers at this stage of competition new to the world. Already today there is a negative risk of a global arms race between developed countries in the field of artificial intelligence. Also, unlike weapons of mass destruction (chemical and biological weapons), which are controlled by various conventions and agreements, the development of AI technologies in the military sphere, by contrast, is not yet controlled by international law [8]. The desire of each superpower to break out in the technological plan is too high for each state to really take into account humanitarian considerations. The creation of a technology of strong artificial intelligence carries with it many threats not only to humanity, but also to the world order, stability and security in the international arena, which are relevant today [18]. So, in the process of research, the author identified the following potential threats on the world stage. 1. The arms race of the countries of the first world. In this aspect, it can be noted that superpowers will begin to increase AI levels of autonomous weapons of destruction, as well as destruction. 2. Generation of deadly weapons, such as autonomous weapon systems. For example, this may be applicable in the international struggle between countries. 3. The AI system can consciously set goals, which may entail the autonomous formation of system goals, and ultimately this may entail the creation of goals that may contradict the goals of political elites [6]. Thus, in order to balance international innovation with basic human values, it is worth noting what steps need to be taken to achieve a more positive result. Measures such as: 1) improving access to data; 2) increased government investment in artificial intelligence. Discussion The formation of artificial intelligence technologies, not only autonomous, but also of a common and strong artificial intelligence system, entails not only minor threats to the artificial intelligence system, but also global threats to the whole world. Autonomous artificial intelligence refers to the ability to work for a long period of time without a person performing a regulatory function [16]. Without human intervention, he is able to quickly travel long distances, look for landing sites to recharge the battery, avoiding various obstacles. In turn, the general system of artificial intelligence, this technology has the impeccable ability to adapt to all kinds of new conditions. The uniqueness of this system lies in the fact that the technology is capable of acquiring knowledge and skills that were not implemented during creation [9]. First of all, it should be noted that not only a “strong” or superhuman level AI system (represents a high level of adaptability; the ability to learn the knowledge and abilities that a person cannot do) can pose a serious threat to humans. It is enough to have autonomous technology, which will be accompanied by voluminous information and a fairly high speed. On the basis of this, deadly weapons exist. For example, drones to achieve their own foreign policy goals [1]. It should be said that the AI system affects the adoption of foreign policy decisions. If artificial intelligence is created that will be capable of self-development, that is, scientists

59 CONTEMPORARY PROBLEMS OF SOCIAL WORK will create a universal type of artificial intelligence with diversified goals, then it is likely that one type of robotics will be used to seize power. If artificial intelligence is capable of self-improvement, then we can confidently say that it will surpass humanity a million times, thereby not remaining at the human level. It is worth noting another global problem that developed countries may face. The threat of nationalism arises due to the high degree of tension in the arms race. Fear of developed countries lagging behind in the arms race on the world stage creates the threat of AI nationalism. Already today you can observe a situation when leading countries instead of separating the state and business are moving towards AI - nationalization. Integration of private companies and state resources, as well as equalization of the pace of technological system implementation and the transformation of strategic goals to obtain global geopolitical, trade, economic and military public benefits. Given this situation and the totality of all the above threats and challenges, it can be assumed that if this continues, the world will change in the near future [3]. It can be assumed that the arms race between the great powers, which determines and directs the future development of AI, may become the main factor in international relations. As a result, a developed artificial intelligence technology may arise in the event of a confrontation between states, it can exclude one of the rivals as unnecessary [19]. Considering artificial intelligence technologies as a new actor in international relations, it should be said that artificial intelligence has the ability to radically affect the future picture of the balance of power in the world. In order to understand the conditionality of trends caused by the development of artificial intelligence, we consider historical events that could be of a similar nature in international relations. Having drawn an analogy with historical events, we will try to identify the cyclical nature of the historical process. The impact of robotics on the future picture of the balance of power today can lead to potentially dangerous consequences [4]. The first challenge reflects the potential departure from national identities in favor of globally network identities in international relations, as a result of which a peculiar global ownership structure may arise due to the presence / ownership of AI technologies by states or post-state structures. There is a threat to maintain the correct sovereignty of social and state structures, which are personified by transnational corporations, on the one hand, and informal institutions, on the other. It is believed that maintaining sovereignty in the sense that we represent it today is difficult to implement, as well as maintaining the sovereignty of the individual. Before the strong impact of global information structures [5]. The second challenge. The premise of the second challenge is the potential colonization of some national units by others. Continuing the futuristic concepts regarding the development of the first challenge, one should also suggest a possible increase in the confrontation between national and network integration laws. In connection with the growth of the capabilities of the latter, it seems more possible to strengthen the role of the network model or, in other words, the model of artificial intelligence [10]. The third challenge. In connection with the formation of a new post-national globalized culture, it is also possible to abandon the unambiguous social identification with large communities in favor of small ones. Today, this trend is clearly seen in the emergence of the phenomenon of regionalization (strengthening the role of regions) in response to globalization processes in international relations. The fourth challenge. Collaborative interaction, the absence of strict centrism in management will determine the need for people to create new global regulators, because the previous ones

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will become irrelevant. The lack of centralized control, which can already be observed today, for example, of the UN, will lead to the emergence of a new type of individual global cooperation. The firth challenge. In the framework of the new balance of forces, in the future there is a threat of pragmatization of the Defense Ministry. It is necessary to get away from the all-consuming national desire to take possession of all types of AI technologies to the value sources of the world community [2]. A similar character can be traced to the development of a multipolar system of international relations, within which there is no single decision- making center as a result of the development of new political actors (for example, the Asian region, China, India, Russia.) The sixth challenge. As a result, the formation of a new balance of forces should give rise to a desire for continuous training in the control and management of developing AI. Otherwise, AI will prevail over the world community [14]. The historical prerequisite for this trend may be the period of the Cold War, where there was a continuous improvement in the military potential of the two powers. So, based on the desired dynamics in the transformation of the international balance of power, the first positive prospect indicates: 1. Artificial intelligence technologies help prevent international violence and disasters. Consequently, the artificial intelligence system will carry out the activities of an ideal state, thereby implementing management processes [17]. 2. The introduction of AI projects into international politics can enable the international authorities to pose new challenges for obtaining serious political, economic and other efficiencies. In the international community, it is advisable to say that this system can minimize various global problems [11]. (According to research associate Julien Nosetti, artificial intelligence will “revolutionize international politics”, change the definition of power and conflict. Therefore, it is now necessary to develop global rules for managing AI, like the “multi-component control” that exists on the Internet.) 3. The introduction of artificial intelligence will allow to identify people who are able to withhold property abroad from declaring and capable of conducting corruption transactions. Also, the artificial intelligence system will verify the authenticity of facts in public speeches of political leaders and identify attempts to misinform the public by political figures. Already today we can say that such a task as the analysis of speech in political speeches is solved in real time [1]. Therefore, artificial intelligence as a global challenge to the system changes the balance of power in international relations, through the above trends. These trends require regulation by nation states. So, one of the regulators of these trends is the European Union. Currently, the EU is carrying out many activities related to artificial intelligence technologies. These include national strategies and programs, as well as coordination activities between Member States and the European Commission. Today, there are successfully implemented concepts for the development of the artificial intelligence system, including the legal sphere (draft regulatory acts have been developed). Today, the Horizon 2020 program is the basis for research in the technological development of the European Union. Today it is the largest program in the EU within the technological boom phase, which involves a time period from 2014 to 2020. This program consists of many areas, which include private legal cooperation on the basis of an agreement. For example, such areas may include factories of the future, environmentally friendly transport, etc. In addition, the analysis “Guidelines for the regulation of robotics” [15] was carried out, which was carried out from March 1, 2012 to September 2014. It examined ethical and legal issues that are advisory in introducing an artificial intelligence system on the world stage. On February 16, 2017, the European Union Parliament, on the basis of a document prepared by the Legal Committee, adopted the resolution “Civil Law Standards in the Field of Robotics”

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[6], which was based on a number of reports that were developed as part of the Robalow project [7]. Today, this civil law resolution is an attempt to develop an integrated approach to regulating artificial intelligence technologies. It consists of [7]: • recommendations for creating universal parameters for the formation of text sectors; • criteria for the issue of liability for damage caused by robotics; • ethical codes of manufacturers; • basic regulatory rules for categories of robotics; • proposal for the development of the status of “electronic personalities”. Thus, the EU is a participant that is active in the field of AI. The tasks related to stabilization in the field of artificial intelligence in the European Union are considered most widely. At the European Union level, a number of studies and projects have already been carried out on this issue. In addition, programs are already being successfully implemented from a legal point of view to solve this problem. Only due to the proper regulation of the use of AI by government agencies, including the European Union, is it possible to maximize positive trends and minimize the impact of negative ones [12]. In addition, a discussion of how to apply and regulate the artificial intelligence system was held by the European Union defense ministers. On January 31, 2019, for the first time, the ministers discussed the development prospects and the possibilities of regulating the artificial intelligence system in order to prevent the artificial intelligence system from getting out of control of the person in the future [20]. In addition, it is worth paying attention to information security. This problem is no less relevant today and is regularly discussed on the international agenda. In the process of improving artificial information technologies, the modern world is being transformed. Today it is already possible to observe a picture where the creation of a global information space takes place. With it, new potential opportunities for economic growth and policy modernization are being formed [13]. But despite all the advantages of the protentional opportunities, the international information space creates new threats to the world and creates a border dividing the international arena. Artificial information and technological technologies often have negative consequences for the world order. For example, information warfare and online warfare. As a result, new platforms are emerging that affect new forms of international conflict. One of the drawbacks is the fact that terrorist groups are adopting means of informational influence, which could entail catastrophic consequences [11]. Conclusion Thus, at the present stage of AI technology transforms the global system in general. In order to neutralize the influence of negative factors in the development of artificial intelligence systems, it is necessary to take the following measures that can counter the threats and challenges that states face as a result of using AI. 1. The international ban on “autonomous systems of deadly weapons”, as well as the development of global regulation for its implementation. 2. Increasing democracy in access to the AI system, as well as the formation of an open source code and the creation of incentive measures for opening codes using existing “closed” artificial intelligence technologies. 3. International regulation of open access to robotics algorithms. 4. Support from the state for work aimed at solving the problems demonstrated in the study, as well as at integrating various approaches and studying the principles and working methods of creating goal-setting technologies in order to obtain effective programming tools and manage intelligent systems. In turn, values, not rules, will become a programming tool, and goals, not actions, will be monitored.

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Only through the implementation of the above algorithms for the implementation and use of artificial intelligence technologies is a systematic, safe technological development possible at the interstate level. Today, the artificial intelligence system is transforming the world order. This creates instability and jeopardizes international security. Already today there are such challenges as the arms race of developed countries, the generation of deadly weapons, the massive exclusion of material production, which could lead to global crime and terrorist activity. AI system generation contributes to the emergence of global conflicts in the struggle for global leadership. As a result, a different scientific and technical level between states will have a profound effect on international relations between the powers. The absolute introduction of artificial intelligence also contributes to the threat of preserving the true sovereignty of states, state and social institutions. In general, the use of robotics in the regulation of international problems can lead to the formation of goals that contradict the motives of the political elite. Therefore, artificial intelligence is able to influence the adoption of foreign policy decisions. The main challenge is that if the AI system can improve, then we can confidently say that it will surpass humanity a million times, thereby not remaining at the human level.

References 1. Bolgov A.N., Fomina N.V. Artificial Intelligence in the Human-Computer Interaction // Actual Problems of Aviation and Cosmonautics. 2012. No. 8. 2. Bostrom N. Artificial intelligence. Stages Threats. Strategy / transl. with English, ed. S. Filin. M.: Mann, Ivanov and Ferber, 2016. 3. Brockman D. What do we think of machines that think. Leading world scientists about artificial intelligence. M.: Alpina non-fiction, 2017. 4. Bulychev I.I., Shutov R.V. On the essence of natural and artificial intelligence // Bulletin of TSU. 2002. No. 1. 5. Dubrovsky D.I. Consciousness, brain, artificial intelligence. Sat articles. M.: ID Strategy – Center, 2007. 6. EU defense ministers first discussed the use of artificial intelligence // News Agency TASS. 31.01.2019. URL: https://tass.ru/mezhdunarodnaya-panorama/6063330 (date of access: 03.06.2020). 7. Final Report Summary – ROBOLAW (Regulating Emerging Robotic Technologies in Europe: Robotics facing Law and Ethics) / European Commission // Community Research and Development Information Service. URL: https://cordis.europa.eu/result/rcn/161246_ en.html (date of access: 24.05.2020). 8. Karelin V.P. Intelligent technologies and artificial intelligence systems to support decision- making // Vestnik TIUiE. 2011. No. 2. URL: https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/intellektualnye- tehnologii-i-sistemy-iskusstvennogo-intellekta-dlya-podderzhki-prinyatiya-resheniy/viewer (date of access: 05.04.2020). 9. Kissinger G. Diplomacy / trans. from Eng. V. Verchenko. M.: AST, 2018. 10. Metro. Killer robots are fast becoming a reality – we must stop this from happening if we want to stop a global AI arms race // Metro. 2018. 11. Migurenko R.A. Human competencies and artificial intelligence // News of TPU. 2010. No. 6. 12. Neznamov A.V., Naumov V.B. Questions of the development of legislation on robotics in Russia and in the world // Legal Studies. 2017. No. 8. P. 14–25. URL: http://e-notabene. ru/lr/article_23292.html (date of access: 21.05.2020). 13. Pavlenko E.N. Self-organizing adaptive control systems with artificial intelligence // News of SFU. Technical science. 2013. No. 2 (139). 14. Regulating Emerging Robotic Technologies in Europe: Robotics facing Law and // RoboLaw. URL: http://www.robolaw.eu/RoboLaw_files/documents/robolaw_d6.2_guidelinesregulatin grobotics_20140922.pdf (date of access: 14.05.2020). 15. Robotics facing Law and Ethics / European Commission // Community Research and Development Information Service. URL: https://cordis.europa.eu/result/rcn/161246_ en.html (date of access: 03.05.2020).

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16. Tolstel O.V. Some applications of artificial intelligence technologies // Bulletin of the Baltic Federal University named after I. Kant. Series: Physical, Mathematical, and Technical Sciences. 2005. No. 1-2. 17. Trunev A.P., Lutsenko E.V. Earthquake prediction using astronomical data using an artificial intelligence system // Scientific Journal of KubSAU. 2009. No. 52. 18. Tsygichko V.N. Models in the system of making strategic military decisions in the USSR. M.: Imperium Press, 2005. 19. Turing A. Computing machines and mind // trans. from English K. Korolev. M.: AST, 2018. 20. Upcoming Issues of EU Law: Compilation of In-Depth Analyses (Workshop 24 September 2014) // European Parliament. URL: http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/ IDAN/2014/509987/IPOL_IDA(2014)509987(ANN01)_EN.pdf (date of access: 24.03.2020).

REFERENCE TO ARTICLE Deshevykh, N.S. & Yudaev, V.V. (2020) Prospects of the Development of Artificial Intelligence in the World Arena, Contemporary Problems of Social Work. Vol. 6. No. 2 (22). P. 58–64. DOI 10.17922/2412-5466-2020-6-2-58-64 (International bibliographic description).

CONTACT INFORMATION: Deshevykh Nadezhda Sergeevna Master Student Russian State Social University Wilhelm Pieck str., 4, build. 1 129226 Moscow, Russian Federation E-mail: [email protected] Yudaev Valery Vyacheslavovich Candidate of Political Sciences Associate Professor of the Department of Political Science and International Relations Russian State Social University Wilhelm Pieck str., 4, build. 1 129226 Moscow, Russian Federation E-mail: [email protected]

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Kurniawan Iwan Jaconiah, Postgraduate Student, Russian State Social University, Moscow. E-mail: [email protected] ORCID ID: orcid.org/0000-0003-4250-1674 UDC 316; 75 DOI 10.17922/2412-5466-2020-6-2-65-71 Intercultural Interaction: Indonesia and Soviet Society in the Sphere of Art Paintings in the Second Half of the XXth Century

Receiving date: Preprint date: Taking to print date: 26.03.2020 29.05.2020 29.06.2020

Annotation: the paper studies the problem of defining an intercultural interaction. The authors analyzed scientific works to identify and classify the Indonesian social realism art painting. In the second half of the XXth century, Indonesian artists had a close relationship with the Soviet Society in the sphere of fine art. The true influence can be found in the social-realism art movement between 1950–1965s in Indonesia during the first President Soekarno era. But the social-realism art movement was no longer because of the horizontal political conflict on September 30, 1965 as well-known as revolution. During the President Soeharto regime (1965–1999), all social realism fine art was destroyed. Socialist and communist ideology was banned in Indonesia. That’s why they represented socialism and communism style not growing freely until now. However, some paintings can be saved abroad by Russian scientists and art collectors. Since 2016, more than 30 Indonesian social-realism paintings were conserved, served, and shown into a historical exhibition in the State Museum of Moscow Oriental Art. These paintings became important in Indonesian social realism art history. Key words: social-realism, painting, masterpieces, fine art, culture, socialism, Indonesia, Russia. JEL classification: А140.

Introduction In Indonesian fine arts history, there was once a cultural organization called the Institute of People’s Culture (Lembaga Kebudayaan Rakyat/ Lekra). This was a group of left-wing artists but their existence had been banned and erased in history. Lekra was established by members of the Indonesian Communist Party, D.N. Aidit, Nyoto, M.S. Ashar, and A.S. Dharta on August 17, 1950. But Lekra was completely separate from the party [10]. After being officially formed, A.S. Dharma who was asked as the first Secretary-General then published an introduction or so-called preamble which contained the vision and mission of Lekra to embrace Indonesian youth and artists. In the first preamble spread by Bakri Siregar in Medan, Lekra asked young people and Indonesian artists to join in realizing a democratic Republic of Indonesia. Then, six years later, the second preamble was broadcast, this time carrying the vision and mission of socialist realism. In this preamble, Lekra increasingly urged that Indonesian artists intervene and close ranks with Indonesian people. The first and second preamble was able to strengthen the existence of Lekra, until finally the organization full of artists held the first national conference attended by Indonesian first President Soekarno in Surakarta, Central Java, in 1959. At that moment, Soekarno and PM of Soviet Union Nikita Khrushchev had a good relationship during their leadership [7; 12].

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The Lekra Movement gave birth to many artists who had very popular works in the community. Like, Pramoedya Ananta Toer (writer), Bachtiar Siagian (film director), Djoko Pekik (painter) and Amrus Natalsya (sculptor). However, this communist-socialist institution was removed from the map of the Indonesian art history because it was affiliated with the September 30, 1965 tragedy. After the tragedy, Lekra was forbidden and lost its identity. Artworks with the ideology of social realism are banned by the President Soeharto government. But some artists escaped, moved, and lived as stateless abroad. Through this scientific research, the author intends to examine in detail the existence of Indonesian social-realism art paintings which are now well preserved and maintained at the State Museum of Moscow Oriental Art. The first Indonesian social realism painting was shown to the Russian public in 2016. This scientific research has a hypothesis that “if Indonesian social-realism paintings are destroyed, Indonesia will lose their masterpieces during the period from 1950 to 1960s” [12]. Methodology Intercultural interaction refers to the behaviour (including, but not limited to, verbal and nonverbal communication) that occurs when members of different cultural groups engage in joint activity. Such a definition raises many questions, including how to distinguish different cultural groups and what interaction entails. Traditionally nationality or ethnicity has been taken as the criterion for distinguishing between cultural groups, but in fact, the situation is much more complex than this. We are all members of multiple different cultural groups (e.g., professional, organizational, religious), each of which can be said to have its own culture in terms of values, norms, and patterns of behaviour [4]. An artist makes a painting for show their expression, ideas, and emotions, with the creation of certain aesthetic qualities, in a two-dimensional visual language. The elements of this language – its shapes, lines, colours, tones, and textures – are used in various ways to produce sensations of volume, space, movement, and light on a flat surface. These elements are combined into expressive patterns to represent real or supernatural phenomena, to interpret a narrative theme, or to create wholly abstract visual relationships. The choices of the medium and the form, as well as the artist’s technique, combine to realize a unique visual image (Mercer & Gkonou: 2017) [11]. During the 19th century painters in Western societies began to lose their social position and secure patronage. That was also happen in Indonesia. Some artists countered the decline in patronage support by holding their exhibitions and charging an entrance fee. Others earned an income through touring exhibitions of their work. The need to appeal to a marketplace had replaced the similar (if less impersonal) demands of patronage, and its effect on the art itself was probably similar as well. Generally, artists can now reach an audience only through commercial galleries and public museums, although their work may be occasionally reproduced in art periodicals. They may also be assisted by financial awards or commissions from industry and the state. They have, however, gained the freedom to invent their visual language and to experiment with new forms and unconventional materials and techniques [11; 14]. According to Encyclopaedia Britannica, some painters have combined other media, such as sculpture, with painting to produce three-dimensional abstract designs. Other artists have attached real objects to the canvas in collage fashion or used electricity to operate coloured kinetic panels and boxes. Conceptual artists frequently express their ideas in the form of a proposal for an unrealizable project, while performance artists are an integral part of their compositions. The restless endeavour to extend the boundaries of expression in Western art produces continuous international stylistic changes. The often-bewildering succession of new movements in painting is further stimulated by the swift interchange of ideas using international art journals, traveling exhibitions, and art centres [13]. This research paper is concerning with Indonesian paintings in the State Museum of Moscow Oriental Art. These paintings have a good style in the social-realism era, between 1950–1960s

66 VOLUME 6, No. 2 (22), 2020 with the elements and principles of design in painting and with the various mediums, forms, imagery, subject matter, and symbolism employed or adopted or created by the painter. The author uses research methods: case study and interview to find the qualitative data and information about Indonesian social realism artworks. Here, case studies usually involve the detailed study of a particular case (a person or small group). Various methods of data collection and analysis are used but this typically includes observation and interviews and may involve consulting other people and personal or public records. Author interested in a particular phenomenon and select more individuals in the respective situation on whom to base on case study/studies. Otherwise, this research takes place in both countries, Indonesia and Russia using comparative research methods based on intercultural interaction: Indonesia and Soviet society in the sphere of art painting in the second half of the 20th century [17]. Results Dozens of Indonesian social realism paintings are underneath by Soekarno’s followers to Eastern Europe. Many works of art by Indonesian artists were successfully brought into Moscow between the 1950s and 1960s. The works were initially good, but they were not well maintained and not well cared for, some of them were damaged and had black spots due to the weather. For this reason, scientists and art collectors donate 50 paintings to The Moscow Oriental Museum. The paintings presented by Russian scientists Vilen Sikorsky and Natalya Chevtaykina. The art specialist in the museum made a preservation for some paintings. Some of them arrived in poor preservation, some-literally on the verge of death [16]. All the works were created in a critical period for the artistic life of Indonesia, which marked a new stage in the development of the fine arts of the country. Among them are paintings by such famous masters as A. Rustamaji (1932–1990), Basuki Resobowo (1916–1999), Djoko Pekik (b. 1938), Itji Tarmizi (1939–2001) and others. History of oil painting in Indonesia dates back to the second quarter of the XIX century, when during the Dutch colonial rule, local artists began to adopt the visual technique of European masters. Special attention was paid to landscape and portrait genres. In the 1930s and 1940s, as national consciousness and the desire for independence grew, the next generation of artists seeking new forms of artistic expression [16]. Those social realism paintings were restoration, carried out, and exhibited in the State Museum of Moscow Oriental Art for the first time in 2016. Artworks by some painters, including Pekik, Resobowo, Rustamaji, Tarmizi, Lilies Cecelia, Kunsoyono, and Nazir Bondan. All artworks can be seen at this museum. Explicitly the People’s Painter Group has the slogan “art for people” and the activities encourage the communal life and work of cooperative members. Democracy in the paintings is still warm with the turmoil of the lives of the people and the state as a result of the revolution of independence as well as the influence of the socialist view and dogma. Moreover, some paintings were originally to have empathy on people’s lives who are suffering, with the influence of social and political conditions. It gradually becomes an expression of the warrior ideology of socialism to fight for the poor people. With this thought, the People’s Painters work together or become a member Institute of People’s Cultural (Lembaga Kebudayaan Rakyat / Lekra), culture organization under the Indonesian Communist Party [8]. Views about the idea of democracy almost cannot provide the space for another thought. It is so because the arts have become the tools of political institutions practical. In line with President Soekarno’s concept; Nationalist, Religious, Communist (Nasakom) and the Manifesto of the Political (Manipol), then the socialist realism is an implementation of the idea of art that embraced the artists of the socialist [9]. With the ideology of the philosophy, realism paintings are considered to have the function more effective to build awareness and give encouragement to the proletarian. Lekra formulated the ideology of the aesthetic to direct forms of art-minded populist revolutionary. In his

67 CONTEMPORARY PROBLEMS OF SOCIAL WORK doctrine known as “One Five One” (151). The first doctrine (symbol: 1) means that politics as commander in chief. The second doctrine (symbol: 5) means widespread and rising (widely accepted in society and high in the quality of the ideological and artistic), good tradition and the present revolutionary, individual creativity and wisdom of the time, social realism, the romantic revolutionary. The last doctrine (symbol: 5) namely down to the bottom as a method of work. The painters with socialism and Marxism’s ideology, can be seen in some members of Indonesian Young Artists (Seniman Indonesia Muda) and The People’s Painter while at the Fighting Earth Community (Sanggar Bumi Tarung), all exponent is fighter’s socialism which is affiliated with Lekra. Therefore, the paradigm of democracy that developed the painter, can be seen from the original nature of empathy on the people in a neutral manner, and then developing empathy for the revolutionary people. But, the climax of the development paradigm of democracy is highly ideological, it is the eruption of the revolution tragedy of September 30, 1965. These events pose a large-scale national tragedy. With the dissolution of PKI, communist ideology was forbidden in Indonesia. The left-wing artists discriminate and they are weakened and silent [19; 20]. Discussion Professor Vilen Sikorsky and Natalya Chevtaykina donated some works of Indonesia social realism paintings, between 1950–1960, to State Museum of Moscow Oriental Art in 2008 and 2014. There are works of some Indonesian painters, among others; Pekik, Resobowo, Rustamadji, Tarmizi, Mursidi, Cecelia, Kunsoyono, and Bondan. Most of the paintings originally belonged to former Indonesia Ambassador to Sri Lanka, Harmain Rusdi, who has ever held an exhibition in Colombo in 1962. However, after the tragedy of 1965, He settled in the Soviet Union and presented his paintings collection to some Russian friends. One of the artworks by Djoko Pekik titled “Persecution Obsession” (Penganiayaan Obsesif), oil on canvas, 1965. This painting describes a man stares blankly. The clothes are black and red striped. Black knee-length pants. Around his waist, a sheath was tightly bound. He seemed in a hurry as if an unfortunate event had just taken place in the village. He stretched his left hand toward the rice field embankment. While staring at a woman, he looked on her face and was a little stunned. He was mingled and felt alarmed about the news of the man Hurry up, the woman picks up the basket. He pulled the knot of cloth so the basket was tidy and hurried away. Maybe to save themselves or secure all food, their daily necessities. The restoration of paintings had been done by I. Solovyev and I.F. Kuznetsov for five years, given the artwork that has been aged more than 50 years and a lot of the paint has been peeling off. Solovyev and Kuznetsov worked hard to make the painting revived and exhibited to the public in Moscow in 2016. Some paintings were damaged and broken because of unsaved well. Oftentimes, the colours of older paintings have a brown and yellow tint caused by an organic varnish that has yellowed over time. Such tints can become so opaque that no true colour or depth of background is visible, making the actual painting seem to have almost disappeared. When this happens to a painting, a restoration, conducted by a trained conservator, should be considered. Many people think conservators are the “magicians” of the art world. They are trained art historians, chemists and materials scientists, and they combine these areas of knowledge with the manual dexterity and colour sense of a skilled artist. A good painting restorer or conservator must be as talented as the original artist if his or her handiwork is not leaped out at the viewer as a clumsy repainting of the original art. Following a description of the painting restoration process that highlights the details a conservator must examine and the types of information he or she should be knowledgeable of when restoring a work of art [2]. Upon receiving a work that needs restoring, a conservator should examine the work, making note of the signature to identify the artist. Trained as an art historian, a conservator should

68 VOLUME 6, No. 2 (22), 2020 be aware of the style of that period, the painting technique, and the materials available to an artist of that time. This knowledge will help the conservator identify the pigments and fabrics that were popular and available to the artist and help him or her determine the best approach for the restoration [2; 6]. Conservators will often remove the frame and look under the “tacking” edge (a thin area hidden beneath the edge of the frame) to uncover pigments that are light and clear. This helps a conservator see the true colour scheme. A conservator will often continue examining a painting with the aid of an ultraviolet light, noting a greenish or bluish fluorescence on the surface of the painting. Trained in chemistry, the professional conservator knows that resinous, organic varnish, like shellac, creates such coloured luminosity when subjected to incident light or other electromagnetic radiation of shorter wavelength, especially violet and ultraviolet light. A conservator continues this complicated process, examining with a magnifying glass and a microscope, using different lights, making notes and taking photographs at each stage to carefully document every part of the restoration. An oil painting is composed of multiple layers of pigments suspended in a medium (oil and turpentine). Regardless of its subject, a painting is simply a created illusion, striving to depict three-dimensional reality on a two-dimensional surface. All of pictorial art history is simply a studied investigation of ways to create depth, air, and space. And, as with any illusion, these methods are extraordinarily fragile and subtle. It is with these that the artist claims virtuoso skill [1; 2]. This is not magic but a meticulous chemical process performed by a trained and steady hand accompanied by a highly educated and experienced eye. A conservator’s training and care ensure that the solvent does not go too far, either removing the original pigment or chemically burning the surface. There is no margin for error since any loss of pigment is irrevocable. Slowly, the work continues until all the varnish is removed. The three-dimensional illusion not only remains intact but comes alive. A conservator, trained in material science, also can address a painting’s structural problems. Conservators will often remove the painting from its stretcher and cover the front with a protective “facing” composed of wet paper and emulsion. This protects the surface while he or she uses a surgeon’s scalpel to carefully remove years of dirt and grime from the back of the canvas. There are about 33 of 50 original works of Indonesian painters who restored the State Museum of Moscow Oriental Art. Experts do the restoration, good colour, shape and object. Initially, almost all painting-the painting was damaged and wet because it is exposed to water. But conservationists managed to save 30 works of modern art paintings to it. Indonesian Modern Art Paintings Exhibition was held in the State Museum of Moscow Oriental Art. The exhibition named ‘New life of Indonesian Art’, which is dedicated to the celebration of the ASEAN-Russia year of culture. The restoration of paintings done by I. Solovyev and I.F. Kuznetsov for five years, given the artwork that has been aged more than 50 years and a lot of the paint has been peeling off. Thanks to the hard work of both, the painting was successfully revived and exhibited to the public in 2016. Sikorsky explains some of the paintings originally belonged to former Indonesian Ambassador to Sri Lanka Harmain Rusdi who has ever held an exhibition in Colombo in 1962. After the events of 1965, He settled in the Soviet Union and presented his paintings to his Russian friends. Meanwhile, others distributed at the student service association of Indonesian origin living in Moscow, who after the tragedy of the bloody 1965 in Indonesia, spread nowhere [5; 18]. In 1964–65, Sikorsky and worked in the House of Soviet Culture in Jakarta and Surabaya. While he was the general director of the House of Soviet Culture, Sikorsky cultivated friendships with many Indonesian artists, who gave him some of their paintings. During the Indonesian revolution in 1965, Sikorsky and Chevtaykina left that country and saved some unique paintings of artists, such as Rustamadji, Pekik, and Tarmizi, from getting destroyed. In 2016, Sikorsky

69 CONTEMPORARY PROBLEMS OF SOCIAL WORK and Chevtaykina donated their art collection to the State Museum of Moscow Oriental Art. The museum has restored 12 of the 33 paintings. According to Galina Sorokina, curator of the exhibition, most of the Indonesian painters of the 1950s belonged to the Social Realism Art School in Moscow. Expressing the social dimension in their artworks, Indonesian artists described the lives of rural people and all challenges they had to face. Now, a collection of paintings of Indonesia year between 1950–1960s, all of which are stylized social realism into the collection at State Museum of Moscow Oriental Art. The prohibition against artists winged left in Indonesia is still valid until today. In this scientific research, the author finds that all of the art paintings that are shown in the museum can be seen that Indonesia has lost its social realism art painting during the second half of the XX century. Now it has become a more valuable collection at the State Museum of Moscow Oriental Art because it contains the value and culture of the Indonesian social realism style [3; 15; 16]. Conclusion Intercultural interaction between Indonesia and Soviet Society in the sphere of fine arts in the second half of the XX century became a golden age. Indonesian first President Soekarno and PM Nikita Khrushchev have a good relationship during their leadership. Interaction not only in high government level, but also in culture approach in the level of two countries artists. Indonesian social realism art movement was influenced by Soviet propaganda in 1950-an. In almost 50 years, Indonesia’s social realism paintings were saved by Russian scientists and collectors in Moscow. Now, those paintings have been temporarily collected in the State Museum of Moscow Oriental Art. That is an important sign that Indonesia and Russia have a new era for cultural understanding in the sphere of fine arts. Those artworks were “the lost social realism paintings” in Indonesian art history. Thanks to my supervisor in Russian State Social University, Prof Alexander Vladlenovich Kamenetz and orientalist Prof Vilen Sikorsky for support and give me advice for doing this research. Also, people who help me for doing this article for the better relationship between Indonesia and Russian in the sphere of fine art.

References 1. Alzheimer Europe. Research Methods. URL: https://www.alzheimer-europe.org (date of access: 08.04.2020). 2. Art Care. Painting Conservation, Step by Step. URL: http://www.art-care.com (date of access: 08.04.2020). 3. Barker C. Cultural Studies: Theory and Practice // SAGE Publications. URL: https://books. google.ru (date of access: 08.04.2020). 4. Borovsky A. After Avangarde: From Symbolism to Realism. M.: Group Company RIPOL, 2020. 5. Chadwick W. Women, Art, and Society // Academia.edu. 1997. URL: https://www.academia. edu (date of access: 08.04.2020). 6. Grincheva N. Global Trends in Museum Diplomacy. academia.edu. https://www.academia.edu (date of access: 08.04.2020). 7. Gurevich P. Culturology: A Textbook for High Schools. M.: Project, 2004. 8. Hindley D. Social Commitment in Literature and the Arts: The Indonesian “Institute of People’s Culture” 1950–1965 // Asian Stud. 1988; 47: 421–422. 9. Ismail T. Prahara Budaya: Kilas Balik Ofensif Lekra (Cultural Tempest: Lekra’s Offensive Flashback). Bandung: Mizan, 1995. 10. Kahin A. Historical dictionary of Indonesia // Choice Rev Online. 2004; 42 (04): 42. 11. Mercer S. Teaching with Heart and Soul. 2017. URL: https://repository.essex.ac.uk (date of access: 08.04.2020). 12. Mustafa A. Lekra, Large and Deleted Artist from His Own History. URL: https://www. cnnindonesia.com (date of access: 04.05.2020). 13. Owen P. Painting: History, Elements, Techniques, Types & Facts // Britannica. URL: https:// www.britannica.com (date of access: 08.04.2020). 14. Paul W. Western Art and the Wider World. New Jersey: Wiley-Blackwell, 2013. 15. Sikorsky V. Literature and Culture of Indonesia. 1st ed. M.: Ekon-Inform, 2014.

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16. Solovyova I., Sorokina G. New Life of Indonesia Paintings. 2016. URL: www.museum.ru (date of access: 08.04.2020). 17. Soussloff C. The Absolute Artist : The Historiography of a Concept. L. : University of Minnesota Press, 1997. 18. Strelavina D. Moscow Museum Displays Restored 1950s Indonesian Paintings // RBTH. URL: https://www.rbth.com (date of access: 08.04.2020). 19. Sychev F.Y. Indonesia and Muslim World on XX Century. M.: Rusaki, 2003. 20. Yudiono K.S. Pengantar Sejarah Sastra Indonesia (Introduction to the History of Indonesian Literature). Jakarta: Grasindo, 2010.

REFERENCE TO ARTICLE Kurniawan Iwan Jaconiah (2020) Intercultural Interaction: Indonesia and Soviet Society in the Sphere of Art Paintings in the Second Half of the XXth Century, Contemporary Problems of Social Work. Vol. 6. No. 2 (22). P. 65–71. DOI 10.17922/2412-5466-2020-6-2-65-71 (International bibliographic description).

CONTACT INFORMATION: Kurniawan Iwan Jaconiah Postgraduate Student Russian State Social University Wilhelm Pieck str., 4, build. 1 129226 Moscow, Russian Federation E-mail: [email protected]

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Leontyeva T.V., Postgraduate Student, Russian State Social University, Moscow. E-mail: [email protected] ORCID ID: orcid.org/0000-0002-1257-2896 UDC 316.4 DOI 10.17922/2412-5466-2020-6-2-72-78 Perception of the Visual Image of the Family in Animation By Children of Different Ages1

Receiving date: Preprint date: Taking to print date: 12.03.2020 29.05.2020 29.06.2020

Annotation: the article presents the results of a sociological study of the perception of the visual image of the family in animated films in children of different ages using the method of in-depth expert interviews. In infancy from birth to a year, the visual image of the family is perceived as a set of color spots. At the age of 1 year to 3 years, the child already understands where in the animated films the visual image of mom, dad, brother or sister is, however, how family relationships are built, how family roles are distributed, children at this age cannot understand. From 3 to 7 years, the visual image of the family is perceived as complete, that is, which of the characters are relatives, how relationships are built within the family, how family roles are distributed, is it a positive or negative family image. At the age of 7 to 12 years, thanks to the almost unlimited possibilities of transmitting visual images in animations, the child receives a certain amount of sensations and emotions, from the existing images he receives ideas that become part of his imagination. At the age of 12 to 15 years, the image of family and family relations in children has already developed, here the child can already consciously select those behaviors that are close to his previous experience and his own ideas. In adolescence from 15 to 18 years, children already perceive and understand what visual images of the family are not constructive. Key words: animated film, animation, family image, family, visual image, children. JEL classification: А140.

Introduction The family, as the basic institution of reproduction of human generations, their primary socialization, has a great influence on the formation of each individual, but today the broadcast of ideas about the family, its composition, and intra-family relationships is carried out not only by the parent family, but also is constructed through the influence of the media, and in particular animated films. Research A.V. Sharikova and Yu.V. Aigistova (questionnaire survey of N = 1500 mothers, 2013) showed that the vast majority (95%) of children under the age of two begin to watch animated films. New technologies for creating cartoons, such as computer animation, movies in 3D and 4D format make this product colorful and realistic, but the perception of too bright and often changing frames can negatively affect not only the psychological but also the physiological development of the child. The cartoon character is a significant figure for children, with whom they identify themselves, copy behavior and manners, but children are, according to S. Kara- Murza, the most unprotected group of recipients of information, because they can not view critically animated content or refuse to view dubious programs [6]. Creators of modern cartoons tend to expand their consumer audience, so family cartoons designed for the age of both a small

1 The reported study was funded by RFBR, project number 19–311–90036. 72 VOLUME 6, No. 2 (22), 2020 child and an adult are becoming common. This attempt to interest a multi-age audience leads to the replacement of children’s culture products with products of mass “adult culture”. The role of television in the life of Russian children was studied by many scientists, such as A. Kogatko [8] and A.Yu. Drozdova [3], V.S. Sobkin, I.V. Schekotikhina [16], T.V. Yakovleva [24], Yu.N. Usov, Ch.A. Shakeeva [17], L.S. Shkol’nik. The analysis of animated films was done by L. Gritsay [5], O.V. Kazachenko, E.A. Kartushina [7], E.V. Kuznetsova [9], A. Burukhina [12], O.A. Nemova [13], E.A. Saykin [15], S.P. Storozheva, U.A. Mokronosova [20], N.V. Suvorova [21], A.V. Sharikov, V.P. Chudinova [18], V.N. Shatskova, L.I. Abbasova, N.I. Aleshkin [1], S. Asenin, N.V. Kuzina. In applied research P.M. Yampolskaya, A. Galkina [4], O.L. Lebed, V.A. Mishchenko [11], G.R. Fatkulina, scientifically based indicators of the influence of the media on the formation of a certain family image are revealed. However, in modern Russian sociological science there are not enough sociological narrowly specialized works and studies devoted to the study of the perception of the visual image of a family in animation by children of different ages. Methodology The study of the perception of the visual image of the family in animation by children of different ages was conducted in November – December 2019 using the method of in-depth expert interviews. 30 experts were interviewed who work in centers of psychological and pedagogical assistance, work with different age groups of children at least 5 years old, use the possibilities of animated films in their professional activities and are familiar with the content of modern cartoons. The method of expert in-depth interview allowed the authors of the study to get opinions from experts, subjective information that can not be obtained using a questionnaire. This method helped to identify the most important aspects of the problem under study, and most importantly, to get practical recommendations on the content of animated content for children of different ages through the use of knowledge and experience of experts. The topic guide of the expert interview included an introduction, introductory questions, and questions about the perception of the visual image of the family in animation by children of different ages. In conclusion, the experts gave recommendations on what content of the animation (by duration, by content) can be shown to children of different ages to form a positive image of the family. Results The standard cinematic series depicts reality, while animation provides a reflection of virtual reality (often it cannot be recreated in ordinary life). As a result, the image formed in the animation carries a secondary essence with respect to reality, since it is interpreted by the author. Animation is a mechanism for creating video material, within which artificial reality is formed (facts, events, phenomena). The image of a family in an animated film is not a natural form of fixing reality for the eye. A cartoon film, as a document, rather serves as a representation of the mental image of family values. According to the results of expert interviews, it was revealed that in infancy from birth to one year, the visual image of the family, and any other images in the cartoon, is perceived by the child as a set of color spots. A child at this age does not yet understand what a family is as such. According to the recommendations of the World Health Organization, children under three years old should not be able to watch animated films, because, due to their age characteristics, they cannot fully perceive information from the TV screen. Children who spent a lot of time behind this type of leisure had lags in social, psychological, and physical development. This is confirmed by a number of studies conducted by K. Kening, D. Lemish, E.O. Smirnova, M.V. Sokolova and others [19]. The marking of some cartoons that are intended for children from 0+ is absolutely unacceptable. At the age of 1 year to 3 years, the child already understands where in the animated films the visual image of mom, dad, brother or sister. However, how family relationships are built, how

73 CONTEMPORARY PROBLEMS OF SOCIAL WORK family roles are distributed, children at this age cannot understand. At the age of 3–4 years, the child does not yet realize and does not understand the difference between reality and fiction. The visual image of the family will be better perceived if the main characters are presented in the form of animals. It is important that cartoons designed for this age show the child how parents love children and are ready to support them in any situation, even when the child is to blame for something, and explain to him how to act in a given situation in order to continue nothing bad happened. At the age of 3 to 7 years, children already choose which animated films they would like to use for viewing. The visual image of the family is perceived as complete, that is, which of the characters are relatives, how relationships are built within the family, how family roles are distributed, whether it is a positive image of the family or a negative one. Ten years ago, watching a cartoon took place exclusively on the TV screen and the ability to control the time of this type of leisure could be strictly regulated. Today, the spread of the Internet And convenient gadgets allows you to organize viewing of cartoons at any time and in any place. At the age of 3 to 7 years, children can put all the visual images that they see in cartoons in their own present or future behavior models, so parents’ control of what the child is watching should increase. In addition, children under the influence of animated films come up with appropriate negative and aggressive games. At the primary school age of 7 to 12 years, children like to watch cartoons in which people are the main characters. By this age, the child already has a formed image of the family, based on his parent, the cartoons can make some adjustments, while if the parents did not give some social norms to the child, he can clarify these norms through the cartoon. Thanks to the almost limitless possibilities of transmitting visual images, the child receives a certain amount of sensations and emotions when watching cartoons, which he can not always experience in everyday life. From the established images, he receives representations that become part of his imagination. Age from 12 to 15 years differs in that the child enters the teenage period, when he strongly demonstrates himself as an adult, so the consumption of cartoons at this age is reduced. The child’s self – determination becomes the focus of attention, so teenagers are more interested in looking at live, real people than at cartoon characters. On the other hand, experts note that children 12–15 years old are easily influenced by people significant to them, they are very sensitive. Cartoons and TV shows are popular among children at this age, where children themselves become heroes, for example, they conduct adult investigations because a teenager wants to prove to himself and others that I can [8]. Therefore, cartoons can have an effect if they can hold the attention of the child. The perception of the visual image of the family in the animation is unlikely to have an impact on the child’s attitudes regarding the formation of his family image, but joint viewing of cartoons and the subsequent discussion is significant for the child. The image of family and family relationships in children of this age has already developed, so what the child sees on the screen is unlikely to have an impact on his current behavior, but it can lay the foundations for some future relationships. But, unlike the previous age stages, here the child can consciously select those behaviors that are close to his previous experience and his own ideas. At the young age of 15 to 18, children hardly watch animated films, they are more focused on watching videos, youth TV series and communicating with friends. At a young age, children already understand what visual images of the family are non-constructive [12]. Note that cartoons are very close in their cognitive abilities to fairy tales and games, because they are colorful and imaginative. Many modern researchers of this genre of the film industry note that cartoons are able to develop speech in children, teach them how to analyze events, identify causal relationships, and also count, be able to distinguish colors and geometric shapes.

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The main advantage of animated films is that they are able to develop creative imagination and imagination in children, because the visual images in cartoons also cause them emotional excitement, which activates them. The cartoon character shows children how to and should behave in various situations: communicating with adults, communicating in the family, communicating with peers, and rules of behavior in crisis situations. But watching cartoons can be dangerous for children, if you do not take into account their features of the perception of visual images at different ages. So too bright colors, a quick change of picture, loud sounds can oversaturated the psyche of the child and adversely affect its further development, both physical and emotional. Experts in the field of developmental psychology advise avoiding cartoons in which the characters show increased aggression towards each other, fight, harm themselves and surrounding people, animals and objects, because young children do not perceive cartoons as fiction and a work of art [17]. They perceive what is happening on the screen literally and after watching such cartoons they can show aggression and cruelty in real life. For children under the age of 6, cartoons should be avoided in the storylines of which there is no clear line between good and evil, where good characters can do bad things. Discussion In articles E.O. Smirnova and M.V. Sokolova marked the characteristics of animated works for children of different ages, which stipulate that in the cartoon for younger preschool age positive and negative characters should be clearly defined, the plot should develop linearly and sequentially [19]. For older preschool children, the clarity of ethical guidelines should also be present in the cartoon plot, characters should demonstrate different options for interacting with others and constructively resolve conflict situations. Children of primary school age can perceive more complex visual images that do not imply an unambiguous positive or negative assessment. For adolescents, visual images may have ambiguity in moral assessments of actions and characters; complex character transformations are possible throughout the animated film. Children who from a young age spent a lot of time watching animated films that did not match the child’s age characteristics, as research in this area shows, in addition to visual impairment, movement deficiency can lead to inability to concentrate on one lesson, lack of interest, hyperactivity distraction, lag in speech development. Children, accustomed to watching television for a long time, quickly switch between classes, strive for a change of impressions, and they perceive diverse impressions superficially and fragmentarily, without analyzing and not connecting with each other. Many teachers note a decrease in their imagination and creative activity. Children lose their ability and desire to do something with themselves. They do not know how to invent new games, compose stories and fantasize, creating their own childhood world. They are bored to draw, sculpt, glue, build, sing, read and even communicate with each other. Even meeting with friends, they tend to watch cartoons together or play computer games. Own independent activity is blocked. One of the reasons for screen addiction is the presence of a TV as the backdrop of home life. Another reason is to use a tablet to educate, comfort, and entertain a bored child. Overcoming screen addiction requires parents time and effort. But the younger the child, the easier and more effective it is to wean him from the habit of spending most of his time watching cartoons. For a small child, it is easier to restrict access to the screen and exclude free use of the TV. This is necessary so that the TV becomes a source of bright and useful impressions, and not a constant background of the child’s life. In day mode, you need to set aside a specific time for watching TV – no more than an hour a day. For the first time it is better to watch long films or cartoons with your child, helping him understand what is happening, comment on and explain obscure places. And after viewing it is useful to discuss what he saw. Ask to tell what the film was about, or even play some scene

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from it. It is important that an independent game, which requires a significant and mental, and physical activity of the child, becomes for him more fun than passive consumption of footage. A number of studies emphasize that thinking continues to form in adolescence and adulthood, therefore, as an adult, when watching animated films, you can get sensations that differ from the impressions received in childhood. The creators of modern cartoons take this into account to expand their audience, introducing certain themes into the plot that are visible and understandable only to adults, in connection with this, childhood and the stages of a person’s life are seriously modified, the first place is the experience of children’s happiness. The term “kidult” was first used by the American scientist Andrew Calcutt in 1998 in his work “Delayed Development: Pop Culture and Erosion of Growing Up”. He suggested that modern society is actively showing its unwillingness to grow up. Adults watch animated films, play games and toys for children, wear clothes not of their age, with a children’s print and style. The theme of growing up in movies over the past decade has been almost completely replaced by the motif of «falling into childhood» [19]. Numerous cartoons are shot directly for an adult audience, moreover, dozens of animated series for adults are created. Kidalt blur the line between the virtual and the real world, and countless different accessories with cartoon characters along with children are bought by people in their third and fourth decades. People in middle age need that sensory experience that reminds them of a happier, more innocent time – childhood. The reasons for the emergence of this lifestyle lie in the development of modern civilization, where there are high stressful stresses, the rhythm of modern life, increased requirements for the development of human potential, which requires individual development of a person, in isolation from the family. Of course, the modern young generation is as diverse as the whole of modern society, but there are certain prerequisites for prolonging childhood, the desire to «not look old» has been replaced today by a fully conscious cultivation of immaturity. Conclusions Thus, it was revealed that in infancy from birth to one year, the visual image of the family, and indeed any other images in the cartoon, is perceived by the child as a set of color spots. At the age of 1 year to 3 years, the child already understands where in the animated films the visual image of mom, dad, brother or sister is, however, how family relationships are built, how family roles are distributed, children at this age cannot understand. From 3 to 7 years, the visual image of the family is perceived as complete, that is, which of the characters are relatives, how relationships are built within the family, how family roles are distributed, is it a positive or negative family image. At the age of 7 to 12 years, thanks to the almost unlimited possibilities of transmitting visual images in animations, the child receives a certain amount of sensations and emotions, from the existing images he receives ideas that become part of his imagination. At the age of 12 to 15 years, the image of family and family relations in children has already developed, here the child can already consciously select those behaviors that are close to his previous experience and his own ideas. In adolescence from 15 to 18 years, children already perceive and understand what visual images of the family are not constructive. It was revealed that the most vulnerable, from the point of view of perception of certain visual images of the family in animated films for a child, is from 3–4 years to 9–10 years old. It is at this age that, with a number of other factors, the influence of the image of the family that the cartoon creates can be significant. All experts agreed that in cartoons it is necessary to show the family as the main life value, although the role of parents and their visual image may vary for each age, but the basic trust between the child and the parent, supporting the family function should be shown more often.

References 1. Aleshkin N.I. The effect of animated films of aggressive content on the behavior of schoolchildren // Siberian Psychological Journal. 2002. No. 16. P. 56–61.

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2. Cousin N.V. To the question of the methods of transmission and transformation of artistic tradition in animated films for children // Bulletin of science and practice. 2016. No. 9. P. 219–226. 3. Drozdova A.Yu. Aggressive television: a socio-psychological analysis of the phenomenon // SOCIS. 1999. No. 8. P. 62–67. 4. Galkina A. Various aspects of the study of family images in the media and advertising messages // Bulletin of Moscow University. Ser. 18. Sociology and political science. 2000. No. 4. P. 94–105. 5. Gritsay L.A. The phenomena of family and family education in domestic media texts (on the example of animation) // MediaAlmanac. 2013. No. 3 (56). P. 56–63. 6. Kara-Murza S.G. Manipulation of consciousness. M .: Eksmo, 2000. 864 p. 7. Kazachenko O.V., Kartushina E.A. Verbal and non-verbal means of explicating the value of the image “mother and motherhood” in animated films // Bulletin of the Volgograd State Pedagogical University. 2018. No. 1 (124). P. 108–115. 8. Kogatko A.G. Television for children: theory, history, perspective model of functioning: autoref. dis. ... cand. filol. sciences. M., 2007. 24 p. 9. Kuznetsova E.V. Modern foreign and domestic animated films as a factor in the formation of children’s consciousness // Russian science and education today: problems and prospects. 2017. No. 2 (15). P. 32–34. 10. Leontyeva T.V Animated cartoon as a tool for forming family models in children of different ages // Contemporary Problems of Social Work. Vol. 5. 2019. No. 4 (20). P. 80–86. 11. Mishchenko V.A. Substantive foundations of the image of the Russian family and their representation in the media // Theories and problems of political research. 2014. No. 1-2. P. 56–63. 12. Nemova O.A. Family education in a consumer society / O.A. Nemova, T.V. Wedding // Sociology. Journal of the Russian Sociological Association. 2012. No. 3. P. 35–42. 13. Nemova O.A., Burukhina A.F. Cartoon films as a means of forming family spiritual and moral values // Bulletin of Moscow University. Series 18: Sociology and Political Science. 2014. No. 1. P. 152–173. 14. Okhlopkova I.I. The effect of animated films on the aggressive behavior of older preschool children // International Student Scientific Bulletin. 2016. No. 6. URL: https: www.eduherald. ru/ru/article/view?Id=16767. 15. Saykin E.A. Kryukova V.V., Novoselova V.G. Social roles: animation and imitation in virtual interaction // Social ontology of Russia. Novosibirsk: NSTU, 2011. P. 194–202. 16. Schekotikhina I.V. The influence of modern television on the formation of moral values of younger students // Herzen readings. Elementary education. 2017. Vol. 8. No. 1. P. 79–83. 17. Shakeeva Ch.A. Socio-psychological aspects of the influence of modern cinema on the value orientations of modern youth: abstract of diss. psychol of sciences. L., 1983. 18. Sharikov A.V., Chudinova V.P. Children’s television. The opinion of a sociologist // Children and Culture. M.: KomKniga, 2007. P. 58–85. 19. Smirnova E.O., Sokolova M.V. Educational films for kids: the development engine or its brake? // Modern preschool education. 2009. No. 2. 20. Storozheva S.P., Mokronosova U.A. The formation of family values: assessment of the possibilities of animation // Society, Politics, Finance. 2018. P. 53–58. 21. Suvorova N.V. Animation as a way of influencing the formation of a child’s sociocultural identity // Young scientist. 2014. No. 8. P. 740–742. 22. Swan O.L. Familistic analysis of television series / O.L. Lebed, Yu. Perchenko // Moscow University Herald. Ser. 18. Sociology and Political Science. 2003. No. 4. P. 88–93. 23. Tanatova D.K., Korolev I.V., Nevskaya M.V., Tairova L.R. The role of animated characters in the socialization of children in the Russian Federation // International journal of engineering and technology (UAE). 2018. No. 4.38. P. 551–555. 24. Yakovleva T.V. The relationship of aggressiveness with watching feature films in older teens // Uchen. app. University of Lesgaft. 2010. No. 6 (64). P. 123–127. 25. Zritneva E.I. Sociology of the family. M.: Vladis, 2006. 150 p.

REFERENCE TO ARTICLE Leontyeva, T.V. (2020) Perception of the Visual Image of the Family in Animation By Children of Different Ages, Contemporary Problems of Social Work. Vol. 6. No. 2 (22). P. 72–78. DOI 10.17922/2412-5466-2020-6-2-72-78 (International bibliographic description).

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CONTACT INFORMATION: Leontyeva Taisiya Viktorovna Postgraduate Student Russian State Social University Wilhelm Pieck str., 4, build. 1 129226 Moscow, Russian Federation E-mail: [email protected]

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Standhope Anamoa-Pokoo, Postgraduate Student, Russian State Social University, Moscow. E-mail: [email protected] ORCID ID: orcid.org/0000-0003-3822-7086 Delali Margaret Badasu, Professor, PhD in Geography and Resource Development, Centre for Migration Studies, University of Ghana, Legon-Accra, Ghana, West Africa. E-mail: [email protected] ORCID ID: orcid.org/0000-0001-6481-9582 Urzha O.A., Doctor of Sociological Sciences, Professor, Honoured Worker of Higher Education, Professor of the Department of Management and Administration, Russian State Social University, Moscow. E-mail: [email protected] Scopus Author ID: 56610196900 ORCID ID: orcid.org/0000-0001-9166-8433 UDC 316; 314.7 DOI 10.17922/2412-5466-2020-6-2-79-87 Assessing the Assets and Welfare Conditions of the Left-Behind Migrant Households in the Ekumfi District of Ghana

Receiving date: Preprint date: Taking to print date: 23.03.2020 29.05.2020 29.06.2020

Annotation: the study assessed the assets and welfare conditions of the left-behind migrant households in the Ekumfi District of Ghana during the absence of remittance receipts. The Asset-Based Welfare Paradigm informed the study. Using the multi-stage sampling procedure, 377 left-behind migrant household heads were sampled and administered with survey questionnaires. Descriptive statistical methods and Principal Component Analysis (PCA) were used for data analyses. This was supplemented with in-depth interviews from eight key informants. The results showed that apart from food, economic and financial indices, the other existing stocks of assets did not enhance the welfare conditions of the left-behind migrant households. The study concluded that generally left-behind migrant households had depriving assets and welfare conditions during the absence of remittance receipts. Additionally, government’s social intervention and development programmes enhanced the assets and welfare conditions of the left-behind migrant households. The study therefore recommended that the Government of Ghana should extend the provision of social support services beyond free healthcare and education and include basic asset indices such as housing, water, sanitation, economic, financial, food, gender equity and access to social organisation to cushion the welfare conditions of the left-behind migrant households during the absence of remittance receipts. Key words: Assets, Welfare Conditions, Left-behind Migrant Households, Remittances. JEL classification: А140.

Introduction The use of asset-based approach in welfare and poverty analysis is budding in development discourse [6; 17]. There are many approaches to measuring household welfare but the use of asset-

79 CONTEMPORARY PROBLEMS OF SOCIAL WORK based indices is considered theoretically and practically superior alternative measure of welfare to conventional income and consumption approaches [10; 17]. While literature acknowledges the strength and weaknesses associated with the different indicators of measuring household welfare, the debate about the appropriate use of indicators for measuring households’ welfare still remains relevant in development research [3; 17]. Generally, migration is considered as one of the key welfare diversification approaches for households [5; 6; 14]. In Ghana, 31.5 percent of the youthful population lives in urban centres outside their place of birth [7]. This figure manifests the patterns, regional disparities and differential rural-urban poverty that exist between Ghana’s six out-migration regions (Central, Eastern, Volta, Northern, Upper East and Upper West) and the four net in-migration regions (Greater Accra, Brong-Ahafo, Ashanti and Western regions) [12]. However, understanding these disparities is accompanied with complex selectivity issues in identifying and selecting households involved in migration for surveys [13]. There are identified migration data gaps in Ghana’s 2010 Population and Housing Census (PHC). The Ghana’s 2010 PHC provided data analysis on general household facilities [12]. However, data analysis on the migrant household facilities that informs policy decisions on the assets and welfare conditions of the left-behind migrant households during the absence of remittance receipts is grossly missing in the 2010 PHC. This means that data limitations and methodological issues about the assessment of assets and welfare conditions of the left-behind migrant households remain a challenge in Ghana. Studies on assessing the assets and welfare conditions of the migrant households are mostly limited to the northern part of Ghana [8; 19]. Paucity of research evidence, however, exists on assessing the assets and welfare conditions of the left-behind migrant households in the southern part of Ghana during the absence of remittance receipts. For example, in the Ekumfi District of Ghana, such studies are rarely investigated. Given the peculiarities of these research gaps, it is worthy to assess the assets and welfare conditions (Housing, Education, Water, Sanitation, Economic, Financial, Food, Health, Gender Equity and Social Organisation) of the left-behind migrant households in the Ekumfi District. The Asset-Based Welfare (ABW) paradigm propounded by Thomas Paine in the eighteenth century [11] informed the study. The ABW paradigm explains how stocks of assets enhance the welfare conditions of the left-behind migrant households [2; 18]. However, the ABW paradigm is criticised for failing to recognise inequality and imbalance in asset building that exist in various households; how unorganized sectors of the economy and inadequate state effectiveness affect households’ ownership of asset [16; 18]. Methodology The Ekumfi District is one of the twenty administrative districts in the Central Region of Ghana (See Figure 1) with a total population of 52 231, representing 24 102 males (46%) and 28 129 females (54%). About 90 percent (89.4%) of the population dwell in rural areas. Farming, fishing and salt mining are the largest economic activities in the District [12]. Aside these endowed natural resources; the Ekumfi District is named among the worst developed Districts in Ghana due to high levels of developmental challenges. In 2014, the District performed poorly on national development indicators such as education, health, water, sanitation, security and governance [20]. The Ekumfi District is therefore selected as the study area because it is economically deprived with infrastructure, employment opportunities and has high out- migration which could create vulnerable socio-economic positions for most households. The study used mixed methods research design to combine quantitative and qualitative research techniques to explain and explore identifiable issues as well as make predictions at different levels of the study [4]. Also, probability and non-probability sampling techniques were used to select respondents. Data for the study were drawn from a sample size of migrant households that had not received remittances at least five years preceding the time of the

80 VOLUME 6, No. 2 (22), 2020 survey. The benchmark for using ‘preceding five years’ is in line with some national surveys conducted to assess the welfare analysis of Ghanaians. The study used the multi-stage sampling procedure for the survey of households. Using a reconnaissance survey, first-hand information was obtained from selected key informants in the Ekumfi District (chiefs, opinion leaders and assemblymen/women) about the communities with high out-migration at least five years preceding the time of the survey [12]. Eventually, eight out-migration communities (Otuam, Narkwa, Essarkyir, Eyisam, Asaafa, Ekrawfo, Ekumpoano and Immuna) were identified and randomly selected as the sampling frame for the study. The next step involved two-stage stratified sample design and screening/inclusion criteria survey carried out to ascertain the distribution, spread and concentration of households that had migrants in the destination areas but received no remittances. The last stage involved the purposive selection of the left-behind migrant household heads that do not receive remittances, to be the assumed target population for each community. Then, Krejcie and Morgan’s formula for sample size determination facilitated the selection of respondents from the assumed target population for each community [15]. Notably, 377 respondents were identified for quantitative analysis as shown in Table 1 and supported with qualitative analysis from eight key informants (chiefs, opinion leaders and assemblymen/women). Thus, the total sample size for the study was 385 household heads.

Table 1 Assumed Target Population and Sample Size Selected Communities Assumed target population Sample size (Based on Screener/inclusion criteria survey Otuam 100 80 Narkwa 100 80 Essarkyir 65 56 Eyisam 65 56 Asaafa 45 40 Ekrawfo 40 36 Ekumpoano 20 19 Immuna 10 10 Total 445 377 Source: Field Survey, (2016).

In the data analysis, recorded interviews were transcribed and processed manually by the researchers to bring out the key themes for easy interpretation [4]. In addition, the data obtained through questionnaires were edited, coded and analysed based on Filmer and Scott’s basic asset indices form: Ai = b1i.a1i + b2.a2i +………bk.aki………………(1). Where Ai is the asset index of household “i”, a1i, a2i,………., aki, are k indicators of asset ownership variables and b1, b2,………, bk, are weights to be used in aggregating the asset indicators into an index [9]. The Hierarchical Cluster Analysis was used to categorize the value of asset indices across the communities of the study area. Each indicator is equal to 1 if the household owns this specific asset and 0 if the household do not own the asset. The weight of each asset was determined by the Ordinal Principal Component Analysis (PCA) using SPSS statistical tool [9]. The recorded assets with the highest weight (known as the linear index or efficient component) were regarded as having “higher” or “better” contribution to household welfare conditions. The efficient components of the asset variable were used for estimating the welfare conditions of left-behind migrant households. However, the study acknowledges the methodological limitations of PCA 81 CONTEMPORARY PROBLEMS OF SOCIAL WORK in categorizing households by wealth groups or generating theoretically meaningful weights. Therefore, Table 2 showed the variables used to estimate the variations in the value of asset indices and welfare conditions of left-behind migrant households.

Table 2 Variables used in the Computation of the Asset Indices Asset Indices Variables Housing  HH head owned dwelling unit  Migrant HH rent decent and furnished housing unit Education  Highest level of formal education of HH head  Proportion of HH in primary, secondary and tertiary schools  Proportion of HH that have completed primary, secondary and tertiary schools Water  Primary source of domestic water supply for the household  HH boils, filters or chemically treat drinking water Sanitation  Place for HH disposal of sewage/garbage  HH owned waste disposal materials/equipment Economic  HH head had access to well-paid job  HH owned transportation equipment.  Household owned equipment (e.g. Television, mobile phone, computer)  Farmland/livestock owned by HH Head Financial  Monthly income of HH  Proportion of income saved by HH Food  Number of square meals consumed by HH per day  Percentage of income spent on food by HH  HH got food from own production  HH bought food and paid in cash/kind or on credit  HH got food through aid Health  Free or paid access to healthcare by HH members  Last time a member of HH fell sick/visited hospital for treatment Gender equity  Participation of female members in making HH/community decisions  Issues female HH members encounter in making HH/community decisions Social organ-  Membership of community associations by HH members isation  HH have access to institutions  HH hold leadership positions Source: Field Survey, (2016). HH-Household

Results Socio-demographic Characteristics of the Left-behind Migrant Household Heads The socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents included variables such as gender, age, marital status, level of education, employment status and migrant household size. Table 3 showed that more than 70 percent of the migrant household heads were females and over 60 percent of them were above the ages of 50 years. Also, the majority (64.8%) of the migrant household heads were married or cohabitating but had obtained no formal education (42.8%) and were self-employed without employees or with employee (67.7%). Close to 73 percent of the migrant household heads lived with a unit size of 5-9 members. Estimated Assets and Welfare Conditions of the Left-behind Migrant Households Table 4 showed the estimated asset indices scores by highlighting the strength or the weakness of the assets and revealing the communities in the study area where welfare conditions were increasing or decreasing. In interpreting the values of the asset indices, the higher the value

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Table 3 Gender, Age, Marital Status, Level of Education, Employment Status of the Left-behind Migrant Household Heads and Migrant Household size Characteristics Frequency Percent (%) N=377 Gender Male 111 29 Female 266 71 Age 30-–39 60 16 40–49 86 22.8 50–59 123 32.6 60–69 108 28.6 Marital status Never married 11 2.9 Cohabitating/Informal consensual union 30 8.0 Married 214 56.8 Separated 23 6.1 Divorced 50 13.2 Widowed 49 13.0 Level of education No formal education 161 42.8 Primary 95 25.1 JHS/JSS 88 23.3 SHS/SSS/Vocational/Technical 24 6.4 Post Sec. certificate 9 2.4 Employment status Employee 60 15.9 Self-employed without employee 225 59.7 Self-employed with employee 30 8.0 Causal worker 18 4.8 Others 44 11.6 Migrant Household size Below 5 57 15.1 5–9 274 72.5 10–15 46 12.2 Source: Field Survey, (2016). Table 4 Estimated Assets and Welfare Conditions of the Left-Behind Migrant Households Asset Status in- Otua Nark Essar Eyis Asa Ekra Eku Imm Total dices Housing 0.26 0.70 0.75 0.39 0.15 0.25 0.40 0.10 3 Education 1.20 0.90 1.40 1.00 0.70 1.20 0.80 0.80 8 Water 0.43 0.37 1.30 0.80 0.27 0.50 0.20 0.13 4 Sanitation 0.65 0.50 2.00 1.00 0.40 0.80 0.40 0.25 6 Economic 2.00 1.70 1.80 3.00 1.98 1.50 1.96 1.06 15 Financial 1.80 1.10 2.02 2.00 1.30 1.50 1.00 1.37 12 Food 4.00 6.00 4.60 5.25 3.15 4.20 3.60 4.20 35 Health 0.55 0.40 0.83 0.50 1.20 0.80 0.48 0.24 5 Gender equity 0.45 1.20 1.80 1.60 0.30 3.30 0.55 0.80 10 Social organisation 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.50 0.04 0.7 0.07 0.09 2 Aggregate 11.44 13.07 16.80 16.04 9.49 14.75 9.46 9.04 100 Asset index Source: Field Survey, (2016).

83 CONTEMPORARY PROBLEMS OF SOCIAL WORK of the asset indices, the greater it enhances the welfare conditions of the left-behind migrant households. Housing index: Table 4 showed that Essarkyir had the highest value of 0.75 and Immuna had the least value of 0.10 in the study area. This means that the left-behind migrant households in Essarkyir owned dwelling units, resided in better and furnished housing units than the other selected communities. Since Essarkyir was chosen as the District capital for the Ekumfi District, I have witnessed that many renovated houses. Also, there is the trend of massive constructions of decent housing in this community (Male, 70 years old, Opinion leader). Education index: In Table 4, issues relating to the educational index of the left-behind migrant households revealed that Essarkyir had 1.40 as the highest value while Ekumpoano and Immuna had 0.80 each respectively. The reasons for educational low index revealed that; Truancy is very high in our communities. Children prefer going to the seashore, provide helping hand to the fishermen and earn money for their daily basic needs. I must admit that basic education is free for all and the Government of Ghana has done well to provide us the educational facilities for learning. The elders of these communities are trying to rectify the high rates of truancy in schools, but, they must be firm in enforcing the rules (Male, 68 years old, Assemblyman). However, the high figures recorded in Essarkyir gave the indication that; left-behind migrant households had far advanced educational status. Most of them had completed primary, secondary and tertiary schools than the other study communities (Male, 70 years old, Opinion leader). Water Index: Immuna had the lowest water index across the sampled communities with a value of 0.13 while Essarkyir had the highest water index of 1.30 as indicated in Table 4. Immuna got the lowest value for water index because, as the time of this study the Ekumfi water expansion project had not been extended to most part of the coastal communities of the study area (Female, 62 years old, Opinion leader). On the other hand, Essarkyir which had the highest score of the water index is an indication of the fact that the Ekumfi District water project was situated in this community and migrant households left-behind had access to constant flow of portable pipe borne water (Male, 70 years old, Opinion leader). Sanitation Index: Table 4 showed that the left-behind migrant households in Essarkyir had the highest values of 2.0 with Immuna recording the least value of 0.25. This means that the left-behind migrant households in Essarkyir had proper standards of sanitation in disposing sewage, refuse and garbage (Male, 70 years old, Opinion leader) than Immuna that had traditional and improper methods of disposing sewage, refuse and garbage Accordingly, the household responses in Immuna were mostly characterised with no waste disposal equipment in household vis- -vis massive open defecation at the beaches (Female, 62 years old, Opinion leader). Economic Index: The economic index in Table 4 indicated that Eyisam had the highest value of 3.00. Eyisam is geographically positioned between Mankessim and Essuehyia (the two key and vibrant economic towns) as well as situated in the centre of Ekumfi District. This attracted the marketing of more agricultural and fishing produce in the area. It has also been situated for pineapple factory in the District (Male, 50 years old, Assemblyman). On the other hand, the low economic index recorded in Immuna was due to the fact that the community predominantly depended on seasonal fishing activities (especially on bumper seasons). Again, household resorted to using unsophisticated methods of fishing and due to the attributed higher cost involved in modern fishing methods and lack of financial credit for artisanal fishermen (Female, 62 years old, Op inion leader). Financial Index: It can be seen in Table 4 that the financial index ranged from the largest value of 2.03 in Essarkyir to the lowest value of 1.00 in Ekumpoano. Generally, the high levels of non-existing jobs in the District were attributed to the low proportion income and savings by households in Ekumpoano. This also reflected the disparate abilities of the left-behind migrant household’s income and or savings for future needs (Male, 68 years old, Assemblyman). Food Index: Eyisam had the highest food index value of 5.25 in the sampled communities. On the other hand, Asaafa had the least food index value of 3.15 as indicated in Table 4. Food

84 VOLUME 6, No. 2 (22), 2020 index was the most critical of all the indices studied and its characteristics above were not surprising. The contributory factor to this high food index was that, the left-behind migrant households were mostly peasant farmers and agriculture was the major economic activates in the District. However, agriculture was not reliable economic venture because household used simple farm tools, depended on rain-fed agriculture. Moreover, the high rate of net out-migration by young men from the District deprived many left-behind migrant households of their active labour force (Male, 50 years old, Assemblyman). Health index: The result on the health index in Table 4 revealed that Essarkyir had 0.83 health index as compared to 0.24 in Immuna. The disparity on the health index was attributed to high cost of malaria and cholera cases reported in the coastal part of the District as compared to the forest belt of the District. Also, through government’s social intervention programmes such as the National Health Insurance Scheme, seeking healthcare was free but access to the nearby and well- equipped health centres were big challenges (Female, 62 years old, Opinion leader). Gender Equity Index: The gender equity index as noted in Table 4, showed the degree women’s of participation in household decision-making process. In the study area, Asaafa had the lowest gender equity index of 0.30 as against the highest index value of 3.30 recorded in Ekrawfo. This was due to the fact that Ekrawfo had elected woman as an assembly member. Again, the appreciable number of educated population in Ekrawfo understood women inclusion in traditional and local governances. Thus, women participated in households’ decisions because they dominant the population of families left behind in the study area. This became more feasible in gender- friendly community such as Ekrawfo (Female, 35 years old, Assemblywoman). Access to Social organisations: Essarkyir had the highest index of 0.50 while Ekumpoano had the least value of 0.07. The results showed that the left-behind migrant households in Essarkyir utilized the potential of social organisations more than left-behind migrant households in other as indicated in Table 4. The reason for the disparity in social organisation amounted to the facts that social organisation positions and decision are held and accorded to people with high social status in terms of wealth and educational attainment (Male, 68 years old, Assemblyman). Discussions Based on the findings in Table 3, the left-behind migrant households were mostly headed by married women above the ages of 50 years who had attained no basic formal education, but were self-employed and lived with more than five members within the households. This implies that more men out-migrated from the Ekumfi District and female-headed households have become an important component in the structure and decision making processes of the left-behind migrant households [12]. In Table 4, the aggregate asset index (100) divided by the total number of asset status indices (10) gave an average asset index score of 10. This served as the base line measurement for welfare conditions. When an asset index score is above the average asset index score of 10, then that asset index is considered to enhance welfare conditions. Based on the data distribution, food (35), economic (15) and financial (12) activities enhanced the welfare conditions of the left- behind migrant households. Among these three asset indices, food became the major booster of welfare conditions of the left-behind migrant households. Perhaps, households’ spent labour resources and higher percentage of income on food. However, food enhanced the welfare of the left-behind migrant households by only 35 percent. This basically explains and reaffirms why the Ekumfi District is described as economically poor with infrastructure and declared among the most deprived Districts in Ghana [20]. Also, assessing the overall asset indices for each of the eight communities, the results in Table 4 showed that the aggregate welfare conditions (16.80) of the left-behind migrant households in Essarkyir were higher than the migrant households in the other study communities. Most importantly, Essarkyir is the District capital of the Ekumfi District with higher access to social, cultural and economic activities than to other towns of the District. Generally, it could easily

85 CONTEMPORARY PROBLEMS OF SOCIAL WORK be said that the left-behind migrant households located in areas where there is provision and easy access to government’s socio-economic support (free healthcare and basic education) and development programme’ had enhanced assets and welfare conditions than left-behind migrant households that were unable to accessed such programmes. Thus, linking the findings of the study to the ABW paradigm, some of the assets owned by the left-behind migrant households to a larger extent, were regarded as essential indicators for enhancing welfare conditions. Conclusions and Recommendation The study concluded that apart from food, economic and financial indices, the other existing stocks of assets did not enhance the welfare conditions of the left-behind migrant households. To a larger extent, the left-behind migrant households had depriving assets and welfare conditions during the absence of remittance receipts. In addition, government’s social intervention and development programmes enhanced the assets and welfare conditions of the left-behind migrant households. The study therefore recommended that the Government of Ghana should extend the provision of social support services beyond free healthcare and education and include basic asset indices such as housing, water, sanitation, economic, financial, food, gender equity and access to social organisation. This will cushion the welfare conditions of the left-behind migrant households during the absence of remittance receipts.

References 1. Anamoa-Pokoo S. Social expenditures of migrant households in the Ekumfi District // University of Cape Coast Institutional Repository. 2016. P. 1–172. URL: http://hdl.handle. net/123456789/3230 (date of access: 08.02.2020). 2. Arrondel L., Muriel R., Savignac F. Wealth and income in the Euro area: heterogeneity in households’ behaviours? // ECB Working Paper Series No. 1709. Frankfurt: European Central Bank, 2014. P. 1–48. 3. Azzarri C., Carletto G., Davis B., Zezza A. Monitoring poverty without consumption data: An application using the Albania Panel Survey // Eastern European Economics. 2006. No. 44 (1). P. 59–82. 4. Creswell J.W. Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2003. 5. De Brauw A., Giles J. Migrant labour markets and the welfare of rural households in the developing world: Evidence from China // The World Bank Economic Review. 2018. No. 32 (1). P. 1–18. 6. Dey S., Haloi R. Assets, rural livelihood strategies and welfare outcomes: A case study from South Assam, India // The Indian Journal of Labour Economics. 2019. No. 62. P. 595–620. URL: https://doi.org/10.1007/s41027-019-00192-7 (date of access: 18.03.2020). 7. Duplantier A., Ksoll C., Lehrer K., Seitz W. The internal migration decisions of youth in Ghana // UNU-WIDER, Accra October 5 2017. URL: https://www.wider.unu.edu/sites/default/files/ Events/PDF/Slides/MigrationConf-slidesDuplantier.pdf (date of access: 15.03.2020). 8. Egger E., Litchfield, J. Following in their footsteps: an analysis of the impact of successive migration on rural household welfare in Ghana // IZA Journal of Development and Migration. Vol. 9. 2019. No. 1. URL: https://doi.org/10.1186/s40176-018-0136-4 (date of access: 02.01.2020). 9. Filmer D., Pritchett L. The effect of household wealth on educational attainment: Evidence from 35 countries // Population and Development Review. 1999. No. 25 (1). P. 85–120. URL: www.jstor.org/stable/172373 (date of access: 09.02.2020). 10. Filmer D., Scott, K. Assessing asset indices // Policy Research Working Paper No. 4605. World Bank, Washington, DC., 2008. URL: https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/ handle/10986/6764 (date of access: 09.02.2020). 11. Gamble A., Prabhakar K. Asset and poverty // Theoria. 2005. No. 52 (107). P. 1–18. 12. Ghana Statistical Service [GSS]. 2010 Population and Housing Census: District Analytical Report, Ekumfi District, Accra: GSS, Ghana, 2014. 13. Gibson J., McKenzie D., Stillman S. The impacts of international migration on remaining household members: Omnibus results from a migration lottery program // Centre for Research and Analysis of Migration. Discussion Paper Series. 2009. CDP No. 20/09. P. 1–42.

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14. International Organisation for Migration [IOM]. UN Migration. World Migration Report. 2020. 1211 Geneva 19. Switzerland. URL: www.iom.int (date of access: 09.04.2020). 15. Krejcie R.V., Morgan D.W. Determining sample size for research activities // Educational and Psychological Measurement. 1970. No. 30. P. 607–610. 16. Lennartz C., Ronald R. Asset-based welfare and social investment: Competing, compatible, or complementary social policy strategies for the new welfare state // Housing, Theory and Society. 2017. No. 34 (2). P. 201–220. URL: https://doi.org/10.1080/14036096.2016.12204 22 (date of access: 20.03.2020). 17. Moratti M., Natali L. Measuring household welfare: Short versus long consumption modules // Working Paper. 2012. No. 04. UNICEF Office of Research, Florence. 18. Moser C., Dani A.A. Assets, livelihoods, and social policy // World Bank Publications. Washington, DC, 2008. P. 3–42. 19. Tanle A. Assessing livelihood status of migrants from Northern Ghana resident in the Obuasi Municipality // GeoJournal. 2014. No. 79. P. 577–590. 20. United Nations Children’s Fund [UNICEF]. Ghana’s District League Table 2014: Strengthening Social Accountability for National Development // Centre for Democratic Development (CDD) Ghana, 2014.

REFERENCE TO ARTICLE Standhope Anamoa-Pokoo, Delali Margaret Badasu & Urzha, O.A. (2020) Assessing the Assets and Welfare Conditions of the Left-Behind Migrant Households in the Ekumfi District of Ghana, Contemporary Problems of Social Work. Vol. 6. No. 2 (22). P. 79–87. DOI 10.17922/2412-5466- 2020-6-2-79-87 (International bibliographic description).

CONTACT INFORMATION: Standhope Anamoa-Pokoo Postgraduate Student Russian State Social University Wilhelm Pieck str., 4, build. 1 129226 Moscow, Russian Federation E-mail: [email protected] Delali Margaret Badasu Professor, PhD in Geography and Resource Development Centre for Migration Studies University of Ghana Post Office Box LG 59 International House Building, 3rd Floor Legon-Accra, Ghana, West Africa E-mail: [email protected] Urzha Olga Alexandrovna Doctor of Sociological Sciences Professor, Honoured Worker of Higher Education Professor of the Department of Management and Administration Russian State Social University Wilhelm Pieck str., 4, build. 1 129226 Moscow, Russian Federation E-mail: [email protected]

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Stoyanova D.D., Executive Secretary, “United Russia”, Moscow; Postgraduate Student, Russian State Social University, Moscow. E-mail: [email protected] ORCID ID: orcid.org/0000-0000-1234-5678 Urzha O.A., Doctor of Sociological Sciences, Professor, Honoured Worker of Higher Education, Professor of the Department of Management and Administration, Russian State Social University, Moscow. E-mail: [email protected] Scopus Author ID: 56610196900 ORCID ID: orcid.org/0000-0001-9166-8433 UDC 316; 329 DOI 10.17922/2412-5466-2020-6-2-88-95 The Role of the Leading Party in Solving Social Policy Issues

Receiving date: Preprint date: Taking to print date: 20.03.2020 29.05.2020 29.06.2020

Annotation: the subject of our work is the social policy of the United Russia party. The purpose of the research is to study the role of the leading United Russia party in solving social policy issues in the Russian Federation. The research methods used were institutional and system methods, methods of political and legal analysis, analysis of statistical materials, and study of documents. The result of the work is an analysis of the directions of social policy of the United Russia party and the results of its implementation in certain areas (“United country – accessible environment”, “Strong family”, “Older generation”). The scope of application of the research results extends to the possibility of their use in the development of conceptual documents of the party, the formation of reports on its activities, the creation of an election program for the next elections to the State Duma of the Russian Federation. The novelty of the research is determined by the fact that until now, the analysis of the social policy of the United Russia party has not been carried out over the past few years. As a result of the research, conclusions were made about the role of the party in the implementation of social programs of the government of the Russian Federation. Key words: party, social policy, United Russia, program, pensions, employment, family, disabled people. JEL classification: А140.

Introduction Russian political party the United Russia was organized in 2001 and since then it has occupied a strong place in the political party system of our country, having received the name of the “party of power”. In the elections to the State Duma of the Russian Federation in 2003, 2007, 2011, 2016 the party invariably won the majority of seats in parliament. Throughout the entire period of its activity, the party adhered to conservative and centrist positions, the principles of sovereign democracy and supported the socio-economic and political course of the President of the Russian Federation V.V. Putin’s. A special place in the party’s activities is occupied by its social policy, which has had and is having a significant impact on the life of Russian society, which emphasizes the relevance of this study.

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In the scientific literature to this day, various aspects of the activities of the United Russia party have been considered: organizational (O.B. Batraeva [1]; Yu.G. Korgunyuk [5]); ideological (V.E. Goncharov [3]; P. Espi; V.A. Lebedev and V.V. Kireev [9]; V.N. Shilov [22]); political (I.I. Nazarov [8]; V.I. Timoshenko [16]; O.V. Trofimova [17]). The general issues of the party system in Russia and the place of the United Russia party in it were considered in the works of a number of authors (IB Borisov and S.E. Zaslavsky [2]; F.I. Dolgikh and S.E. Zaslavsky [4]; Yu.G. Korgunyuk [6]; A.V. Kynev and A.E. Lyubarev [7]; O.D. Safonova [15]; A.A. Shugaev [23] and others). At the same time, the party’s social policy has not yet been the subject of special studies, which determines the scientific relevance of our work. The purpose of the study is to examining the role of the leading United Russia party in addressing social policy issues. The subject of the study is the social policy of the political party “United Russia”. The objectives of the study is to analyze the social policy of the election program of the United Russia party and the results of its implementation in 2017–2018. The hypothesis of the study is the social policy of the United Russia party, which includes a wide range of social assistance to various social groups carried out by federal and regional executive authorities. Methods The study used the institutional method, the system method, the method of political and legal analysis, the analysis of statistical materials, the studying of documents. Results A comparative analysis of the programs of Russian political parties, carried out by V.L. Shapovalov based on an analysis of the documents of 14 parties that participated in the State Duma elections in 2016, showed that, compared to other parties, United Russia pays particular attention to the implementation of a socially conservative policy in compliance with the norms of the current Constitution of the Russian Federation [21]. In the election program of the United Russia party, a whole chapter is reserved for social policy [14]. Noting that Russia is a social state, and human rights and freedoms are of the highest value in Russia, the essence of the party’s social policy is defined as providing the state with all its social obligations to society and providing tangible, effective and worthy assistance to citizens. The party recognizes the basic directions of social policy such as an increase in incomes, an increase in life expectancy, the preservation of demographic growth, and investment in human development. In the program, the social policy of the party includes the implementation of the following tasks. 1. Preservation and growth of the welfare of citizens of the Russian Federation. The program notes an increase in average pension since 2000 from 894 rubles up to 13,200 rubles; providing pensioners with low incomes with supplementary pension payments. In the following, the party offers: – maintain and ensure wage increases in accordance with the pace of economic growth. First of all, this applies to employees of budgetary organizations up to the average in the region: school teachers and kindergarten workers, cultural workers, teachers of secondary professional educational organizations, universities; doctors, social workers, nurses and nurses; – maintain and improve the living standards of pensioners: restore the indexation of pensions from 2017; to index the pension since 2016; reach an average pension of up to 40% of wages; – reduce inequality in the incomes of Russian citizens: an increase of 20% in the minimum wage (already completed since 2016); phased increase until 2020 of the minimum wage to the cost of living; the establishment of dependence on performance indicators of salaries of top managers of companies with state participation; the introduction of restrictions on the ratio

89 CONTEMPORARY PROBLEMS OF SOCIAL WORK of the average salary of managers, accountants and deputy heads of unitary enterprises and state and municipal institutions; – reduce poverty in the Russian Federation: development and implementation of targeted programs for the provision of social assistance to the population; indexation of social benefits; implementation of state social assistance programs on the basis of social control. 2. Ensuring decent work and conditions of professional self-realization for all citizens of Russia. The program emphasizes the importance of controlling factors causing a sharp increase in unemployment; the formation of a qualification system that will ensure the need of the economy for qualified professional personnel. In the following, the party offers: – to develop measures aimed at finding employment for the first time on the labor market for youth; – implement measures to prevent delays in the payment of wages; – to assist in the employment of citizens who are least able-bodied on the labor market (people with disabilities, parents with young children, pensioners) by pooling the resources of employment and social welfare services; – maintenance of labor mobility of the population, including through the development of transport infrastructure (ensuring intra-regional transportation on bus routes and electric trains at affordable tariffs for citizens); affordable segment of rental housing of different quality, legalization of the market for renting housing, the creation of various forms of labor migration (shift method, etc.). 3. Increase in indicators of saving and increase of the people. The program notes that with the direct participation of the party, a demographic program was implemented, which allowed to break the tendency of the annual decline in the country’s population. From 2008 to 2014, the population of Russia grew from 142.7 to 146.3 million people. The United Russia faction in the State Duma of the Russian Federation supported the president’s proposals to introduce measures to support families, implement a program for issuing state certificates for maternity capital (about 6.7 million families had been paid by this time); increasing monthly childcare benefits. In the following, the party offers: – to continue measures to support families in the form of maternity capital, to increase the monthly cash payment to families at the birth of third and subsequent children, in accordance with the criteria of needs parents’ and targeting; – during 3 years liquidate debt to large families to provide them with land, including by providing them with other living quarters; – increase the availability of social services for families with children, including through the support of non-profit organizations that support families; – ensure the development of a system of children’s health activities, primarily for children in difficult situations; – increase the life expectancy of citizens and increase support for older people, by creating conditions for the active longevity of older people (implementation of the “Elder Generation” project); ensuring the availability and quality of social services in the field of social services for senior citizens; the development of various forms of social services performed at home; development of a system of protecting the health of older people (ensuring the availability of preventive, palliative, geriatric services); implementation of measures aimed at the production of services and goods for senior citizens (teaching computer literacy of the older generation, etc.). 4. Ensuring equal opportunities and improving the quality of life of the entire population of the country. The party’s program notes the success of the state program “Accessible Environment” since 2011.

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As a result of the project, over the first five years in 75 constituent entities of the Russian Federation, 50.7% of the 38,000 objects became accessible to people with disabilities. The conditions for inclusive education were created for children with disabilities (in 2015, up to 9,000 institutions). In the following, the party offers: – ensure the further implementation of the Accessible Environment program; – develop measures to assist people with disabilities in finding employment and career guidance; – expand the possibilities of providing rehabilitation, medical and social services by non- profit organizations and individual entrepreneurs, organizations of social entrepreneurship. 5. Ensuring public initiative and civic engagement as the basis of social development of society. This area of work involves the support of social movements, socially-oriented nonprofit organizations, volunteer organizations that deal with the problems of such groups as orphans, people with disabilities, single pensioners, people who find themselves in difficult situations and families with many children. In the future, the party assumes: – provide phased access to budget funds for non-profit organizations involved in solving social problems that provide social services to the population; – help to increase the potential of nonprofit organizations involved in the provision of social services to the population; – start the implementation of the mechanism of state and municipal orders for the provision of social services; – implement a group of financial and property measures to support socially oriented nonprofit organizations; – provide support to innovation centers, resource and volunteer centers and other socially oriented organizations; – assist nonprofit organizations implementing social projects in rural areas. Consider the directions and results of the implementation of the party’s election program for 2017–2018. As an example, we will analyze three federal party projects of «United Russia»: «One Country – An Accessible Environment», «A Strong Family», «The Elder Generation». The implementation of each project involves work in several areas. So, the goals of the “Elder Generation” project are to help improve the quality of life of older people, to develop various modern forms of medical and social services for this social group; strengthening intergenerational ties [10]. The project is being implemented in the following areas: 1. The first area is the development of infrastructure for the elderly, who need constant third-party care. In particular, in 81 constituent entities of the Russian Federation, reconstruction and construction of 16 objects of social service institutions in the first half of 2018 were launched; queues in stationary institutions was liquidated in 32 regions of the country; 500 million rubles were allocated from the federal budget for the construction and reconstruction of infrastructure facilities in 2017 and 1.5 billion rubles in 2018, and from the regional 3 billion rubles. for 2017–2018. The republics of North Ossetia-Alania, Crimea, Mordovia, Kalmykia, Sakha (Yakutia), and the Chuvash Republic took part in the implementation of the project; Samara, Voronezh, Kostroma, Tambov, Vladimir, Penza regions and Kamchatka, Perm, Altai Krai [18]. 2. The second direction is the development and implementation of programs to improve the quality of life and systemic support for older people. In this area, with the support of the party, an institute of foster families was created for single elderly people in 58 regions of the Russian Federation.

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3. The third area is the development of proposals aimed at creating a system of long-term care for older people. The implementation of this area includes measures to create and develop a geriatric service (opening special rooms, departments in polyclinics and stationary medical facilities, regional geriatric centers); in 6 regions of the Russian Federation (Volgograd, Pskov, Kostroma, Novgorod, Ryazan, Tula regions), measures are being taken to create a system of long- term care for the elderly (medical and social services at home, in a stationary and semi-stationary form with the help of nurses and foster care, family care for the elderly); 15 regions have been put into practice (the Republic of Bashkortostan, Astrakhan, Belgorod, Volgograd, Voronezh, Kaluga, Kostroma, Samara, Pskov, Tula, Ryazan, Novgorod regions, Perm and Krasnodar Region) pilot project «Territory of care» (providing long-term care to elderly people); Geriatric personnel are being trained (over 7 thousand people underwent retraining and thematic improvement) at 28 departments of medical schools; additional paramedic rates were introduced for territorial medical stations with a predominance of elderly people. On April 18–20, 2018, the Fifth All-Russian Congress of Gerontologists and Geriatrics was held in Moscow, at which a decision was made on the methodological support of a three-level geriatric service in the constituent entities of the Russian Federation; measures to approve the professional standard “geriatrician”, etc. The party’s systematic measures for active longevity include the holding in the regions of the Russian Federation of sports, sports and cultural and leisure activities, programs for the development of social tourism, training of older people in financial, legal and computer literacy. 4. The fourth area is supporting the development of the volunteer movement “Young to the elderly, elderly to the young” and “Silver volunteering”. In this area, two projects are being implemented: “Students for the older generation” (more than 2 million people took part) and “Silver volunteering” (implemented in 76 constituent entities of the Russian Federation). A competition of social projects “Social Innovations” was organized, in which 468 projects from 65 regions of Russia were considered in three categories: “Volunteers of the Third Age: Wise Support”, “Club Work for Elderly People in Social Service Organizations of the Population”, “Mass Media – Active Support life position of the older generation. « Volunteer forces held the campaigns “Going to the Veteran”, “Blossoming May”, “Cozy House”, dedicated to the celebration of Victory Day in 2018. In 38 hospitals of war veterans, volunteers are active staff assistants. Let us now consider the results of the implementation of the “Strong Family” project [11]. The project aims to support and – strengthen the institution of the family, through assistance and cooperation to families with adoptive children; development of mechanisms for economic, legal, organizational mechanisms to support families in need; assisting orphans in orphanages; involvement of non-profit organizations in solving family problems, etc. The following four areas of work were identified within the project: 1. Monitoring the legal field of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation and assisting in the implementation in the regions of the demographic proposals of the President of the Russian Federation About 12 monitoring and research of the current situation were initiated, as a result of which the faction submitted about 50 proposals to improve the legislative base in this area to relevant departments and ministries, 2 normative acts were adopted, 7 out of 11 social conflict situations were resolved, 4,013 thematic meetings were held with 36,273 families in the constituent entities of the Russian Federation and with 24,430 families, 3,129 meetings were held in the framework of family reception open in the regions [20]. 2. Work on the development of decisions aimed at eliminating the queue for the allocation of land for large families, providing them with alternative support measures. Representatives of the party constantly monitor the situation in the regions of Russia, according to which, in particular, it was revealed that information on new measures to support families with children is not posted on the websites of regional authorities in 80% of cases (monitoring was conducted in 85 constituent entities of the Russian Federation). As part of the project, the

92 VOLUME 6, No. 2 (22), 2020 party proposed to make a single grace period for mortgage lending with a rate of 6%; extend the terms of registration of preferential mortgages; fix a period of 1 month, during which, after the birth of a third child to families, banks restore the preferential mortgage rate; expand the program for families with two or more children with a preferential mortgage of 6%. As a result of the work of the party’s project team with the Ministry of Labor and Social Protection, proposals were developed to assign responsibilities to regions to create roadmaps to eliminate the queue for the allocation of land; adoption of uniform federal requirements for their provision to large families; development of programs for the adoption of alternative measures to help large families to solve the housing problem. 3. Implementation of the project «School of literate parents», aimed at supporting families. The project involves the provision of comprehensive legal, preventive assistance to dysfunctional families, the prevention of child suicide, etc. Party representatives held about 884 meetings with 11,843 families with parents from large families. The party initiated the implementation of the program «Profession – Mom Family Kindergarten». About 40 proposals were prepared to change the legislative framework governing the activities of family groups of preschool education. Monitoring is also carried out according to the results of the implementation of the action plan “Decade of Childhood”, “National Action Strategy for Women”, etc. 4. Support to ensure children’s rights to health and recreation. This direction involves an increase in the number of stationary recreation organizations for children and monitoring in 85 constituent entities of the Russian Federation to determine the level of safety and quality of the provision of services for organizing recreation for children. The working group of the project proposed to make the subject of life safety mandatory for each class, to recommend an increase in the number of practical classes for schoolchildren in order to increase the level of knowledge, skills and abilities of students in the field of proper behavior in emergency situations. As a result of monitoring of 300 institutions for orphans, organizations were identified in the Chelyabinsk, Sverdlovsk region and the Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous district that are at risk. The implementation of another project, “Unified Country – an Accessible Environment”, is aimed at maximally involving people with disabilities in the life of modern Russian society, creating comfortable living conditions for them [12]. For 2017–2018 as part of the project, several activities were carried out. 1. Festival of Social Internet Resources “World of Equal Opportunities”, which considered applications for 2000 projects from 48 regions of Russia, published 90 publications in the media and other information platforms [13]. 2. Seminar «Ensuring accessibility of social infrastructure for people with disabilities and other people with limited mobility.» The seminar trained 34 regional coordinators from 24 constituent entities of the Russian Federation on the issues of creating an accessible environment for people with disabilities in the regions; providing them with equal access to the exercise of their voting rights; education, employment of people with disabilities; their access to Internet resources. 3. Sporting events: children’s ski race “Health Track” (1500 participants from 9 cities); thematic meetings with students, high school students with domestic Paralympic athletes in the framework of the “Lessons of Kindness” campaign (65,000 students, 715 lessons in 34 regions) [19]. 4. Preparation of information materials about the features and problems of a disease. 5. Development of the Internet project “Accessibility Map”. 6. Improving the procedures for medical and social examination of persons with disabilities. 7. Legislative initiatives aimed at amending Art. 33. Federal Law «On the Social Protection of Persons with Disabilities in the Russian Federation» with the goal of preventing refusals to create small and medium-sized enterprises by all-Russian public associations of disabled people. The project working group monitors and controls the effectiveness of the implementation of measures to adapt living quarters for disabled people; the implementation of mechanisms

93 CONTEMPORARY PROBLEMS OF SOCIAL WORK for the employment of persons with disabilities, the issuance of a personal car sign «Disabled». In the future, it is planned to develop and introduce additional preferences (for state purchases, fulfillment of state orders, etc.) for small and medium-sized enterprises created by people with disabilities or in which more than 50% of employees are people with disabilities. Discussion of results In general, summarizing the features of the implementation of the social policy of the United Russia party, it should be noted that the following activities are carried out in each of the areas and projects: – organization and conduct of control and monitoring of the social situation in the regions of Russia; – initiating the adoption of legislative initiatives aimed at solving social issues of society; – organization of interagency cooperation, which allows to efficiently and quickly resolve social issues at the federal and regional levels; – involvement of educational, commercial, non-profit, public organizations in solving social problems of society; – the organization of thematic meetings, training programs and events for target groups of projects (disabled people, the elderly, large families, etc.); – attracting volunteers and organizing volunteer groups, conducting charity events and actions and other activities aimed at providing targeted social assistance; – replication of successful social practices and providing broad information support for project implementation. It can be noted that the social policy of the United Russia party is closely related to the activities of federal and regional executive bodies (due to the fact that many of their representatives are members of the party); orientation on the provision of targeted assistance to the population, taking into account the individual needs of citizens in obtaining certain types of social services. Conclusion Thus, we can note the confirmation of the research hypothesis that the social policy of the United Russia party includes a wide range of social assistance to various social groups carried out by federal and regional executive authorities. Indeed, at present, the activities of the United Russia party can be called socially oriented, aimed at providing targeted assistance to the population. It can be noted that many social initiatives of party leaders have a significant impact on the very structure of social support for the population. At the same time, as the measures of control and monitoring in the regions conducted by the party’s representatives show, there are violations and problems in the implementation of existing legislative social norms that need to be addressed.

References 1. Batraeva O.B. Organizational changes in the party “United Russia” // Bulletin of the Volga Institute of Management. 2012. P. 89–94. 2. Borisov I.B., Zaslavsky S.E. Parties in future elections. New legislation: Monograph. M.: Europe, 2013. 344 p. 3. Dolgikh F.I., Zaslavsky S.E. Participation of political parties in the presidential election in 2018 // Electoral law and practice. 2018. No. 2. P. 19–23. 4. Espy P. The United Russia Party and the problem of ideology // Pro Nunc. Modern political processes. 2006. P.106–109. 5. Federal party project “Older Generation”. Report for the first half of 2018. M.: United Russia, 2019. 18 p. 6. Federal party project “Strong family”. Report for the first half of 2018. M.: United Russia, 2019. 23 p. 7. Goncharov V.E. The ideological branding of “United Russia” // Political Expertise: POLITEX. Vol. 6. 2010. No. 1. P. 68–82.

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8. Korgunyuk Yu.G. The party system of modern Russia: the main vector of development // Actual problems of Europe. 2018. No. (2). P. 202–224. 9. Korgunyuk Yu.G. The socio-demographic composition of the governing bodies of “United Russia” // Journal of Political Philosophy and Sociology of Politics “Politia. Analysis. Chronicle Forecast”. 2012. No. 1 (64). P. 76–105. 10. Kynev A.V., Lyubarev A.E. Parties and elections in modern Russia: evolution and devolution. M.: New Literary Review, 2011.786 p. 11. Lebedev V.A., Kireev V.V. Sovereign democracy and “United Russia” // Bulletin of the Chelyabinsk State University. Vol. 20. 2009. No. 21. P. 5–9. 12. Nazarov I.I. The phenomenon of “United Russia” // ProNunc. Modern political processes. 2004. P. 40–42. 13. Passport of the federal party project “One Country – An Accessible Environment”. M.: United Russia, 2016. 2 p. 14. Passport of the federal party project “Strong Family”. M.: United Russia, 2016. 2 p. 15. Safonova O.D. Social components of party election programs “State Duma of the VI convocation, 2011” // Political Expertise: POLITEX. 2013. P. 128–143. 16. Shapovalov V.L. Social well-being of citizens in the programs of Russian political parties // Bulletin of the Financial University. Humanistic sciences. 2019. No. 2. P. 58–69. 17. Shilov V.N. The party “United Russia” and the ideology of conservatism // Scientific reports of Belgorod State University. Series: history. Political science. 2010. Issue 13. P. 210–218. 18. Shugaev A.A. Prospects and new challenges of party building in Russia // Bulletin of the Saratov State Law Academy. 2016. No. 1 (108). P. 29–32. 19. The election program of the All-Russian political party “United Russia” in the election of deputies of the State Duma of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation of the VII convocation “Everyone’s success is Russia’s success!”. M.: United Russia, 2016. 96 p. 20. The federal party project “One country – an accessible environment”. Report for the first half of 2018. M.: United Russia, 2019. 11 p. 21. The project “One Country – Accessible Environment”. Results of the IX Festival of Social Internet Resources “The World of Equal Opportunities”. M.: United Russia, 2018. 16 p. 22. Timoshenko V.I. “United Russia” – “Right Center” Party // Sociology of Power. 2006. P. 93–96. 23. Trofimova O.V. “United Russia” on Russian federalism: status and prospects // News of Saratov University. Vol. 8. 2008. Series Sociology. Political science. Issue 2. P. 116–119.

REFERENCE TO ARTICLE Stoyanova, D.D. & Urzha, O.A. (2020) The Role of the Leading Party in Solving Social Policy Issues, Contemporary Problems of Social Work. Vol. 6. No. 2 (22). P. 88–95. DOI 10.17922/2412- 5466-2020-6-2-88-95 (International bibliographic description).

CONTACT INFORMATION: Stoyanova Dina Dmitrievna Executive Secretary, “United Russia” Samotechnaya str., 3 127473 Moscow, Russian Federation Postgraduate Student Russian State Social University Wilhelm Pieck str., 4, build. 1 129226 Moscow, Russian Federation E-mail: [email protected] Urzha Olga Alexandrovna Doctor of Sociological Sciences Professor, Honoured Worker of Higher Education Professor of the Department of Management and Administration Russian State Social University Wilhelm Pieck str., 4, build. 1 129226 Moscow, Russian Federation E-mail: [email protected]

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Ivanov D.A., Master Student, Russian State Social University, Moscow. E-mail: [email protected] ORCID ID: orcid.org/0000-0001-6904-3728 Abakumov N.V., Master Student, Russian State Social University, Moscow. E-mail: [email protected] ORCID ID: orcid.org/0000-0003-4282-4916 Meskhiya A.T., Master Student, Russian State Social University, Moscow. E-mail: [email protected] ORCID ID: orcid.org/0000-0002-6808-5288 Veretekhina S.V., Candidate of Economic Sciences, Dr.Sc. (Tech), Member of the New Economic Association, Associate Professor of the Department of Information Systems, Networks and Security, Deputy Dean for Science, Russian State Social University, Moscow. E-mail: [email protected] Scopus Author ID: 57195919302 ORCID ID: orcid.org/0000-0003-3014-5027 UDC 159.9; 007 DOI 10.17922/2412-5466-2020-6-2-96-103 Development of Testing Environment for Analyzing the Psycho-Physiological State of a Person Using Neural Networks and Computer Vision

Receiving date: Preprint date: Taking to print date: 19.03.2020 29.05.2020 29.06.2020

Annotation: this article talks about automating the testing processes of a person’s psycho-physiological states by creating a testing environment using data processing from cameras and microphones to automate the process of assessing the patient’s psycho-physiological state using available methodologies. It describes various approaches to the development of computer vision and information processing modules using neural networks, as well as an analysis of the positive and negative qualities of this approach and their solutions. Key words: analysis data, computer vision, speech recognition, neural networks, determination of the

96 VOLUME 6, No. 2 (22), 2020 psycho-physiological state, self-learning systems, process automation. JEL classification: А130, А230.

Introduction The current level of development of information processing improves many areas of information technology, and one of the most important areas is the analysis of surrounding data. The use of neural networks, as well as the development of computer vision, carries out in many areas. Typical areas of artificial intelligence and neural networks are [1]:  pattern recognition;  speech recognition;  speech synthesis;  font recognition;  managing complex processes;  forecasts for complex systems;  early warning systems;  time series analysis;  machine translation;  modeling of complex systems;  biometric systems;  economic systems; etc. Image processing in order to obtain information whether it is the definition of an object, or its characteristics, designates a vector for the development of systems in which, in the future, automation of a person’s working activity is possible [8]. In principle, automation should be understood as all measures in which the management and regulation tasks initially performed by people are transferred to machines. While machinization takes only the stages of machine production, and mechanization takes only the energy supplied by the machines, artificial systems take over the automation of even control and regulatory tasks. Based on this, such systems should be programmed so that they can make decisions based on the set parameters and extract from them adequate responses to the actions [2]. There are various types of automation. Thus, the support of human labor by automata is called partial automation, whereas with full automation, work processes are completely transferred to the responsibility of machines. The percentage of artificial systems in a company, enterprise, or company indicates the so-called level of automation. When a company gradually develops from a method of working without automata to fully automated work, the individual stages are called automation stages [6]. Outside of manufacturing plants, automation plays a big role in terms of customer convenience. It’s just convenient when the supermarket doors open on their own, and you don’t need to become active and don’t need a Concierge. Using algorithms allows machines to recognize and study user behavior and user interests and, consequently, give better results in search queries. This article considers the automation of processes in the field of psychophysiological testing, so we are going to move to this area. The study of human mental states occurs due to various interactions with the student, methodologies compile according to which other people are further studied, with the ultimate goal of correctly determining the mental state and developing the methodology. This branch exists from the definition of psychology, or you can go deeper and say that this analytical action occurred even with the advent of philosophy. Automation of processes for determining the mental state of a person is also a rather extensive topic, because it can affect both emotional and physical qualities. This article will examine psychophysical analyzes and the implementation of these analyzes using computer technology.

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Methodology There are certain algorithms in which specific instructions are given to the patient. These may be questions that need to be answered and called, depending on the patient’s actions, processing of voice data, as well as processing of visual, visible data. Using the strict guidelines of the algorithms, it is possible to recreate such processing using neural networks, because for this it is enough to simply carry out the same actions with different patients and say that it’s bad, i.e. wrong for the system, and what is correct and correct from the point of view of the teacher, i.e. the doctor who is filling the system. However, this is not true in terms of the development of neural networks systems. What does the system consider correct? She is given a certain set of data (images, or other data, for example, sound files / streams), based on them, long-term training will be looking for what needs to be solved. If you do not set the conditions directly using the code, the training will be taking too long [3]. Let us divide the processing so far into two components – an image and a sound. During the experiment, analysis will also be required with the help of gamification of tests, user reactions, correct actions, etc. However, we will discuss the human factor through analysis of the visible and the audible. Both modules, which will be involved in the development and further application, use neural networks in their work. Let’s figure out some information about them. Artificial neural networks are inspired by the human brain and can be used for machine learning and artificial intelligence. These networks allow us to solve various problems using a familiar tool – a personal computer. An artificial neural network to some extent simulates the construction of a biological brain. The network consists of an abstracted model of interconnected neurons, whose special location and connection allow solving applied problems from various fields, such as statistics, engineering, or Economics, using, again, a computer [7]. The neural network is the subject of research in neuroinformatics and a sub-branch of artificial intelligence. Neural networks must be trained before they can begin to solve assigned tasks and problems. In principle, you can distinguish between input neurons, hidden neurons, and output neurons. Input neurons absorb information in the form of patterns or signals from the outside world. Hidden neurons are located between input and output neurons and form internal information patterns. Output neurons transmit information and signals to the outside world as a result. Different neurons are connected through so-called edges or synapses. Thus, the output of one neuron can become the input of the next neuron. Depending on the strength and value of the joint, the edge has a certain weight. The stronger the weight, the more influence a neuron can have on another neuron through a connection (synapse) [21]. So, we have indicated a little bit what neural networks are. Now let’s move on to the test environment modules. We are going to start with computer vision. It is most convenient to analyze a person by building a three-dimensional model. Nevertheless, for such an implementation, appropriate equipment is required, which, however, would have the simplest implementation of processes for determining human actions, because everything is done within the framework of one methodology with precise instructions for actions. Building a three-dimensional model, in the case of actions where repetition of actions is required from the patient, which were shown in the algorithms, nothing more than scanning and triggering events with the correct repetitions is required, however, it is worth remembering that it is the data that do not cause events correct repetition – trembling, mirror confusion, weakness, etc. Exactly these data are analyzed first of all by the doctor. In accordance with the methodology, which in turn is built as a set of algorithms, it is similar to tests – it builds a certain known symptom. If we do not have the ability to use scanning, but there is only a conventional camera, then you will need to somehow get data from it for processing. This study begins usually with skeletal methods. The contours of the silhouette are used, angles, protrusions, hollows, certain points

98 VOLUME 6, No. 2 (22), 2020 are found. But all this is extremely cumbersome if you need to take into account, for example, your hands, while also covering facial expressions, etc. [11]. Recreate what is implemented is not worth it. There is an open library with computer vision and image processing algorithms – OpenCV. It is only necessary to configure it to produce the correct data for testing. The principle of operation of the streaming image processing module in the framework of the issued psychological tests consists of the following items [10]. 1. Get an image before a task announcement to patient. 2. The announcement of the task about repeated actions that will be shown on the screen. 3. Comparing the actions: what is required and what is currently we have. 4. Testing is completed after the specified time. Each of the stages requires explanation. Initially, the pose that the system will consider standard, i.e. not defective, is required. At this stage, you can get images, also warning the person in advance to take a normal stand. The second stage assumes that the person repeats what is shown, usually it is not unchangeable poses, but only actions on the part of the hands, while taking into account the mirror actions, as well as the accuracy of hits. The system should, based on the standard posture that was obtained earlier, identify all the elements of the body, and then fix the position of the hands, coordinating with the database of tasks for this test [9]. This module only covers certain tasks within the testing framework. The analysis should also be performed outside of the required tasks. During the conversation, certain problems may be detected that the module does not allow searching for these problems. At the same time, this is additional information, it is not required within the algorithm that is embedded in the test itself, but it can affect the main assessment during analysis by a specialist [15; 16]. Another module of the testing environment is aimed at working with sound, with the speech of the test subject. It, like the previous module, is based on working with the Protocol of experimental psychological research. This Protocol uses a variety of tests. For example, The Head samples, reciprocal coordination, repetition of disjunctive phonemes, repetition of oppositional phonemes, and many others [4]. Points are awarded for each task, according to the wording of the Protocol itself. The task of the second module, which works with sound, is to determine the correct pronunciation of phonemes, syllables, etc. This module works on the basis of the Kohonen neural network [12]. Audio is recorded via a shared cyclic buffer. There are 16 such buffers in the total cycle. This is the most optimal quantity that allows you to achieve the desired and correct results within the optimal resource consumption [13]. The obtained data are processed using wavelet transform Daubechies 10th order, which also proved its effectiveness [17]. In the next few paragraphs, it is necessary to give a comparative overview of various psychophysiological testing environments. For the development of this technology, a number of tasks are being built for which the testing environment should solve problems more effectively than previous counterpart’s similar ones. For comparison, we will take the comprehensive tools of the psychologist Praktika-MSU [18–20], since it is based on the principle of patient-doctor interaction only within the framework of patient interaction with the standard computer / device peripherals, without using native interaction as it would be in a doctor-patient session. Such testing environments may contain tasks that are remote from psychophysiological testing. We must understand that any testing environment uses different methodologies that are carefully researched so that they can then be integrated into the testing environment for general use. Hence, it is important to have editor of tests inside the psychophysiological environment, but it is important to remember that the testing environment using neural modules is much less adaptive than classical testing using task suites with computer / device manipulators. As a solution to such problems, we use re-training of neural modules for the tasks that the test developer has built for himself. Having neural modules responsible for processing

99 CONTEMPORARY PROBLEMS OF SOCIAL WORK movements and pronunciation changes the format of creating the test. The difficulty is that you can’t just issue commands to determine some details of the patient’s movements or evaluate the pronunciation of certain words by the patient. Neural modules have the characteristics of a person-learning through the received data. This is the main difficulty of creating a test using these modules, the test developer must personally give conditions on the examples of other patients: in which cases, how the system should respond to the actions of testers; hence, the task of training neural networks on the principle of Teacher-Student. Previously, in testing environments, the functionality was expanded by additional devices, of course, there is a similar situation inside this development, but we must understand that manipulators and sensors are also developing, and access to them accordingly, too. In such cases, it is not possible to do anything other than open the possibility to write extensions for the testing environment. However, this problem is also present in previous testing environments. Well, the main thing of course is the comparison-the experience of expanding and speeding up tests due to templates. As mentioned above-previous testing environments are based on manipulations with the device and instructions on the screen, without expressing any physical or conversational activity with the computer. When studying such testing environments, it is revealed that such testing environments use their simplicity due to templates for various types of testing (not necessarily psychophysiological), and therefore makes them more versatile tools. In this case, it is necessary to allow testing developers not only to be based on neural network modules, but also to use old technologies of patient interaction with the testing environment. Because of this the test environment must be a functional use of a patient device which not only gave anthropomorphic actions as the doctor and man, but also gave the mechanical team, which also would have expanded the functionality of the test environment due to the accumulated previous algorithms. Together with extensions for the testing environment (whether it is integrating new neural modules, or connecting and using alternative scanners and manipulators), this testing environment offers maximum capabilities with existing technologies. Now it is time for such an extremely important detail of technical development as the requirements for the operation of the system. As with any testing environment, this one also has certain requirements for optimal use of the environment. In contrast to other implementations of testing environments for the psychophysiological state of a person, the requirements were drawn up in accordance with the features that it offers with minimal financial expenditure. Firstly, the characteristics of the system. Because of the principle of additional, primarily, work of testing environment, this environment requires not only a terminal for interacting with the patient, but also a server part, a device that would output current testing data. This is necessary so that you can correct data from neural networks in case of calculation failures. With frequent operation, this problem will tend to zero, due to the peculiarities of training the neural network depends on a situation. The terminal (also known as the client) is not much different from the terminals of earlier versions of testing environments. it can be equipped with a touch screen, or it can be a regular computer with minimal components for interacting with it. But due to neural modules for processing visual data and voice, you need to have a camera and microphone. According to the scanning requirements, the color rendering and contrast of objects are important, hence the requirements for room illumination are set. Objects must be visible to the camera. As additional requirements, you can set the use of two cameras or infrared sensors, but they are only additional measures, and only eliminate the shortcomings when scanning a person due to more data. With a microphone, higher data transfer only complicates the processing of audio data, because of this the minimum transmission has to be set to 192 KB\s. Compression is not recommended because the interaction between the client and the server occurs in a local environment and creating

100 VOLUME 6, No. 2 (22), 2020 a load on the server for processing compressed data can reduce the efficiency of processing this data in neural modules. The main computational focus is on the server component, since it receives data from the client and processes data to output certain calculations. The load is distributed equally between the processor and the video card. The video card processes visual data if the data from the neural module determines the patient’s movement and actions inside the visible camera. For sound, this process is mostly responsible for the processor, for proper resource allocation. Secondly, in view of the use of the camera, it is important to set a zone to cover the process of the patient’s actions in the instructions. Characteristics tend to cover the angle of view and distance from the patient. 2.5 meters is enough, but have a sufficient angle of coverage of the visible, under special use scenarios. In the end, it all comes down to using two computers, one outside the testing booth (the doctor’s computer) and one inside, where the testing itself takes place. The location of modules and data coverage is regulated by the installation of this environment, and if the configuration fails, you can correct the data by running a maintenance check in the testing environment. Results As a result of designing and developing the testing environment, we got the interaction client and a built-in module for processing phonemes and pronunciation, and a built-in module for building a three-dimensional human model. The client is a graphical testing tool with intuitive logic for interacting its elements. There are also detailed instructions for working in this client. The phoneme and pronunciation processing module accepts audio data (the speech of the test subject), processes this speech in several stages, and transmits the received data to the head module – the testing client. The module for building a three-dimensional human model projects a 3D skeleton based on a cloud of 2D camera points. Then, during the test, it fixes each position according to the test used. The result is passed to the main module – the testing client. Discussion Any work must be recorded, this is one of the main requirements for the system. The reason lies in the shortcomings of the system of definitions of certain decisions. The solution of this problem is a correction based on the principle of training with a teacher. if you inform the system about incorrect data during analysis, if you process this data through viewing the video stream of the session with the tester, you can correct the behavior, but it is important to remember that the specialist can also make mistakes in data analysis if he only views video data. In the first stages of using, this environment is primarily an auxiliary tool. it cannot initially set the correct values, only if, of course, it has not passed a certain stage of verification [5], [14]. It is important to understand that computer vision is highly dependent on the setting of the environment. If you use cameras with 3D scanning capability, you need to configure the room so that the report does not contain unnecessary data about foreign objects. This is more important for analysis within a 2D scan using a conventional camera. Conclusions As a result, we get high-precision psychological testing, which does not require the use of a large number of human resources, such as, for example, the work of a highly qualified psychologist directly with the test subject. This allows you to significantly save the time of psychological specialists, and direct their time to a detailed study of the cause-and-effect relationships of certain psychological problems, and their resolutions. Also, this savings will allow you to allocate more time to develop even more accurate and extensive psychological tests.

References 1. Alesheva L.N. Intellectual training systems // Bulletin of the University. 2018. No. 1. P. 149– 155.

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2. Automation of production: textbook for SPO / under the General edit. of O.S. Kolosov. M.: Yurayt, 2018. 291 p. (Series: Professional education). 3. Biological neuron. URL: https://studopedia.org/13-122716.html (date of access: 07.06.2020). 4. Chesebiev I.A. Computer recognition and speech generation-Sport and culture-2000, 2008. URL: http://speech-text.narod.ru/chap2.html (date of access: 08.06.2020). 5. Comparison of tasks and examples of used neural networks. URL: http://neuronus.com/ theory/245-sopostavlenie-zadach-i-primerov-ispolzovaniya-nejronnykh-setej.html (date of access: 07.06.2020). 6. Fundamentals of automation of technological processes and production: textbook: in 2 t. / G.B. Evgenev et al.; edit. by G.B. Yevgenev. M.: Bauman Moscow state technical University publishing house, 2015. 7. Fuzzy sets and neural networks / G.E. Yakhyaeva. M.: Internet University of information technologies-Intuit.ru, 2008. (Series «Fundamentals of information technologies»). 8. Goodfellow Ya., Benji I., Kurvill A. Deep Learning. M.: DMK-Press, 2017. 652 p. 9. Javier G. Razuri, David Sundgren, Rahim Rahmani, Antonio Moran Cardenas // 12th Mexican International Conference on Artificial Intelligence – 2013 – Automatic emotion recognition through facial expression analysis in merged images based on an Artificial Neural Network. 10. Jully A., Pal S. The Keras Library is a deep learning tool. Implementation of neural networks using Theano and TensorFlow = Deep learning with Karan libraries. DMK-Press, 2017. 294 p. 11. Kaiming He, Xiangyu Zhang, Shaoqing Ren Jian Sun – Deep Residual Learning for Image Recognition, 2016. 12. Leonovich A.A. Modern speech recognition technologies. URL: http://www.dialog-21.ru/ media/2458/leonovich-a.pdf (date of access: 11.06.2020). 13. Loktionov N.P. Review of speech recognition systems // Youth scientific forum: Technical and mathematical Sciences: Electr. Sb. St. po Mat. XLIII Intern. stud. scientific.-pract. Conf. No. 3 (43). URL: https://nauchforum.ru/studconf/tech/xliii/18095 (date of access: 11.06.2020). 14. Miller S. Mind: How to Build a Neural Network (Part One). URL: http://stevenmiller888.github. io/mind-how-to-build-a-neural-network/ (date of access: 07.06.2020). 15. Recognition of emotions in images. URL: https://azure.microsoft.com/ru-ru/services/ cognitive-services/emotion/ (date of access: 08.06.2020). 16. Stegmann M.B. Analysis and Segmentation of Face Images using Point Annotations and Linear Subspace Techniques. Technical report IMM-REP-2002-22, Informatics and Mathematical Modelling, Technical University of Denmark, 2002. 17. Tampel I.A., Karpov A.A. Automatic speech recognition – ITMO University. SPb., 2016. P. 42– 46. 18. The builder of multi-scale psychodiagnostic questionnaires “Testmaker”. URL: http:// psychosoft.ru/testmake.htm (date of access: 11.06.2020). 19. The builder of the questionnaires for the control of knowledge “Maskmaker”. URL: http:// psychosoft.ru/askmake.htm (date of access: 11.06.2020). 20. The workplace of the psychologist “Practice-MSU”. URL: http://psychosoft.ru/praktika.htm (accessed 11.06.2020). 21. Writing your neural network: step-by-step guide. URL: https://proglib.io/p/neural-nets- guide/ (date of access: 10.06.2020).

REFERENCE TO ARTICLE Ivanov, D.A., Abakumov, N.V., Meskhiya, A.T. & Veretekhina, S.V. (2020) Development of Testing Environment for Analyzing the Psycho-Physiological State of a Person Using Neural Networks and Computer Vision, Contemporary Problems of Social Work. Vol. 6. No. 2 (22). P. 96–103. DOI 10.17922/2412-5466-2020-6-2-96-103 (International bibliographic description).

CONTACT INFORMATION: Ivanov Dmitry Alekseevich Master Student Russian State Social University Wilhelm Pieck str., 4, build. 1 129226 Moscow, Russian Federation E-mail: [email protected]

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Abakumov Nikolay Vladimirovich Master Student Russian State Social University Wilhelm Pieck str., 4, build. 1 129226 Moscow, Russian Federation E-mail: [email protected] Meskhiya Anna Tamazovna Master Student Russian State Social University Wilhelm Pieck str., 4, build. 1 129226 Moscow, Russian Federation E-mail: [email protected] Veretekhina Svetlana Valerievna Candidate of Economic Sciences Dr.Sc. (Tech), Member of the New Economic Association Associate Professor of the Department of Information Systems, Networks and Security Deputy Dean for Science Russian State Social University Wilhelm Pieck str., 4, build. 1 129226 Moscow, Russian Federation E-mail: [email protected]

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Petrova E.A., Doctor of Psychological Sciences, Professor, Dean of the Faculty of Psychology, Head of the Department of Social, General and Clinical Psychology, Russian State Social University, Moscow. E-mail: [email protected] Scopus Author ID: 56435599100 ORCID ID: orcid.org/0000-0002-3835-1178 Sisoshvili M.S., Postgraduate Student, Russian State Social University, Moscow. E-mail: [email protected] ORCID ID: orcid.org/0000-0002-2747-4527 UDC 159.9; 316.6 DOI 10.17922/2412-5466-2020-6-2-104-111 Psychological Observation Skills in the Daily Work of Transport Police Officers

Receiving date: Preprint date: Taking to print date: 17.03.2020 29.05.2020 29.06.2020

Annotation: this paper presents the results of an empirical study of the psychological observation skills of transport police officers in order to assess their competence level. For the study, the authors developed a questionnaire of 78 questions. Responses collected from 555 police patrol officers are presented, problem areas that cause the greatest difficulties in the work of transport police officers are identified. We conclude that it is necessary to develop psychological observation skills in transport police officers using video and audio training material. Key words: psychological observation skills, police, non-verbal behavior, public safety. JEL classification: А130, А230.

Introduction Observation skills level characterizes the ability to notice the maximum number of details at a glance and the ability to notice significant signs in objects and phenomena that may be of interest or value to a person [15]. Observation is one of the most important professional qualities expected from the representatives of many professions [20]. The purpose of the observation is to identify and detect certain behavioral acts, which include interactions between individuals and between the individual and her environment. Observation assumes that a classification is undertaken of the detected phenomena will be carried out on the basis of certain criteria that are related to the relevant areas of activity [2; 3]. In the process of interpersonal interaction, police officers often communicate with other individuals in the passenger flow, and the subject of their observation includes external visible signs, behavioral characteristics, clothing, kinesics, appearance, and personality traits [7; 17; 19]. The Russian psychologist N.N. Lange was the one who coined the term “psychological observation” in his publication titled Accurate Psychological Observations of the Condition of a Person Intoxicated with Hash (1893). In that work, he examined the psychological condition of a person intoxicated by a narcotic substance and noted that perception arises in a person,

104 VOLUME 6, No. 2 (22), 2020 or any other living organism, only when physical and other stimuli directly affect one’s senses (receptors) [12]. Soviet scientists, among them A.N. Alekseev, A.A. Ershov, S.G. Gellerstein, R.A. Maksimova, V.V. Ryazhskikh, V.E. Semenov, developed methods of psychological observation mainly for applied research in the field of interpersonal relationships between workforce members. Pioneers of psychological observation methods also include K.D. Ushinsky, A.S. Makarenko, V.A. Sukhomlinsky, and others [5; 6]. As part of numerous studies of observation skills, Soviet psychologists made conclusions that observing as a mental process becomes natural for an individual and is transformed into stable personality traits – observation skills. Psychological observation skills develop throughout life as a result of the constant interaction of the individual with the environment and other people, and this development is continuous. Psychological observation skills are one of the tools of self-adjustment in human activity and behavior [1; 14; 16]. The model of the functioning and development of psychological observation skills proposed by I. Kulkova consisted in the need to pay attention to the conditions in which psychological observation skills function (mental cognitive processes, personality traits and qualities), to the structure of knowledge (peculiarities of interpersonal interaction and communication), including the factors that are crucial for the development of observation skills [9]. Psychological observation skills have always been one of the research priorities for the humanities; social psychology has also paid attention to this problem, but is more focused on the problem of social skills [8; 10]. M.I. Bobneva viewed social skills as a complex multi-level structure, whose formation was determined by the process of interpersonal communication, under a strong influence of socially significant qualities and personality traits, trust, willingness to cooperate, social activity, responsibility, etc. [4]. Psychological observation skills manifest themselves in situations of interpersonal interaction, when interpreting and predicting their behavior and taking into account interpersonal relationships [11; 13]. L.A. Regush described the peculiarities of psychological observation skills potentially applicable in the work of transport police officers. She claimed that by observing the appearance and behavior of a person one can identify the latter’s internal mental state and condition. Police officers should in first place analyze a person’s condition in order to predict possible consequences. There is a need to distinguish and differentiate those signs, through which a person interacts with the environment. Regush was convinced that absolute and relative sensitivity needed to be developed. The direction of observation is often correlated with professional interest and depends on the tasks that the police officer has identified for herself. Professional tasks determine the attributes that will be observed. Professional knowledge forms the basis for the differentiation of attributes. When observing a person, it is necessary to take into account the specifics of the latter’s professional environment, for example professions involving interaction and communication with other people require observation in a natural environment, and not in an isolated space [16–18]. The question arises of the development level of psychological observation skills among transport police officers and the need to strengthen their general psychological observation skills in order to ensure more reliable identification of persons posing a threat to the public. Another important problem is finding approaches to developing psychological observation skills in police officers, as well as consolidating their competencies in this area. Currently, no training programs and methods exist that could improve psychological observation skills.

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In this regard, the need arises for the development and implementation of training programs, methods, simulators, guidelines, handbooks that would improve the psychological observation skills in police officers. Methods To identify the level of the psychological observation skills and professionalism of the transport police, we developed a questionnaire, which included 78 questions, 38 of which were multiple choice questions and 40 were open-ended questions requiring a detailed answer from the police officer. The questionnaire was developed with the help of professional psychologists specializing in non-verbal communication. The first part of the questionnaire consisted of questions concerning job title, length of service, level of education, working conditions, the general level of the statutory framework and the need for briefings. The second part of the questionnaire was aimed at assessing the visual, behavioral, psychological characteristics of potentially dangerous individuals, including alcohol and drug addicts, mentally challenged individuals, people prone to suicide, informal youth groups (football fans, etc.), extremist youth organizations (skinheads, etc.), as well as train hoppers. The second part of the questionnaire consisted mainly of open-ended questions asking to give reasons for the answer, this was done in order to improve the understanding of the level of psychological observation skills in transport police officers. For open-ended questions, the method of content analysis was used, which included 9 response groups: no answer, kinesics, clothing, appearance, verbal component, behavior, reaction to the police, smell, emotions. Based on the response, one of the response groups was formed. The survey was conducted from February to May 2018. The survey involved 555 police patrol officers in 6 regions. 13% of the respondents had served in the police less than one year, 18% from one to three years, 15% from three to five years, 26% from five to ten years, and 28% longer than ten years. When processing the responses, it was found that the surveyed transport police officers had the following education background: 9% post-secondary specialized law degree, 14% post- secondary general law degree, 17% other post-secondary degree, 60% vocational secondary education. Results Based on the data obtained by processing the responses, we found that the majority of traffic police officers (65%) consider optimal the state of the regulatory framework governing identification and detention of passengers prone to commit various crimes. But at the same time, concerning improvements to the regulatory framework, the surveyed transport police officers (63%) felt that the existing regulatory framework needed to be improved. When asked about the areas of the human body that they pay attention to in first place, the police officers identified face and facial features as the most important part of the body, followed by clothes and luggage. The least attention is paid to an individual’s physique, legs and arms. In this matter, they rely mainly on their intuition (27%), only 22% use the information that they have from open sources, namely the media and the Internet. Another common answer was “orders” (up to 19% of respondents). The key behavioral features of individuals intoxicated by drugs were “appearance” (26%), police officers also highlighted “dilated pupils”, “sweating”, “redness of the skin”, “blanching of the skin”, “red eyes”, and “behavior” (25%), the most common answers included “excitement”, “hyperactivity”, “biting nails”, “disorientation”, “panic”, “aggression”. When asked about the behavioral peculiarities of individuals intoxicated by alcohol, traffic police officers answered as follows: the most frequent answer was “kinesics” (29% of respondents), other most common answers included “shaky gait”, “stumbling”, “unsteady

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posture”, “impaired coordination of movement”, “aimless movement”. A high percentage of responses focused on smells (23%) – “smell of alcohol”, “smell of vomit”. Verbal component was less common; 22% of respondents indicated it referring to “swearing”, “incoherent speech”, “mumbling”, “talking loudly, shouting”. 35% of the respondents failed to answer the question “Describe the behavior of members of informal youth groups (football fans, etc.)”. 24% answered “behavior”, where “aggressive behavior”, “hostile behavior”, “lack of self-consciousness”, “inappropriate behavior” were particularly common. Much attention was also paid to the appearance of informal youths, namely their clothes (23%): “tracksuit”, “scarves”, “sports symbols”, “club emblems”. The data collected in the responses to a question about the behavior patterns of members of extremist youth groups (skinheads, etc.) indicate that 43% of the surveyed transport police officers find it difficult or are unable to give an answer to this question. 25% of respondents identify behavior as the most significant attribute, where the most common answers included “hostility to persons of non-Slavic appearance”, “aggressive behavior”, “cocky attitude”, “lack of respect.” 24% of respondents mentioned clothes, other answers included “extremist symbols”, “tattoos”, “tracksuit”, “leather clothes”, “military boots”, “shaved heads”, “lack of facial hair”. When asked to describe the behavioral features of a mental challenged individual, 37% of respondents were unable to give an answer. The most frequent of the responses was “behavior” (37%). Respondents indicated “depression”, “inappropriate behavior”, “panic state”, “aggressive behavior”. 45% of the surveyed transport police officers found it difficult to answer the question about the peculiarities of the behavior observed in people prone to suicide. 31% answered “behavior” and highlighted the following: “detachment”, “lethargy”, “apathy”, “lack of interest in life”, “depression”. More than half (64%) of the police officers were unable to describe the peculiarities of the behavior of train hoppers. The majority of those who answered this question highlighted the following behavioral features: “act in groups”, “climb on rolling stock”, “film on camera/mobile”, “engage in vandalism”. When asked to list the external signs (indicators) typical of individuals intoxicated by drugs, the traffic police in 29% of cases answered “appearance”, namely, “dilated pupils”, “sweating”, “redness of the skin”, “blanching of the skin”, “red eyes”. 22% of respondents paid the most attention to behavior, the most frequent answers were “excited state”, “hyperactivity”, “biting nails”, “disorientation”, “panic”, “aggressive behavior”. When listing the external signs (indicators) typical of individuals intoxicated by alcohol, almost a third of respondents (32%) answered “kinesics”, namely: “stumbles”, “shaky gait”, “impaired coordination of movement”, “aimless movement”, “unsteady posture”. 19% of respondents highlighted smell – “smell of vomit”, “smell of alcohol”. 17% of respondents referred to speech, namely “swearing”, “indistinct speech”, “mumbling”, “talking loudly, shouting”. When asked about external signs (indicators) typical of members of informal youth groups (fans, etc.), almost half of respondents (47%) were unable to give an answer. 29% of respondents referred to garments, where the most frequent answers were: “tracksuit”, “sports symbols”, “scarves”, “emblems of football clubs”. When asked to list the external signs (indicators) typical of members of extremist youth groups (skinheads, etc.), more than half of the surveyed police officers (57%) failed to give an answer. The respondents paid most attention to the garments and gave following answers: “tattoos”, “extremist symbols”, “leather clothes”, “tracksuit”, “shaved heads”, “military boots”, “lack of facial hair”. When asked about the external signs (indicators) of individuals with mental disorders, half of respondents (50%) failed to answer the question. The most frequent answer given in 27% of cases highlighted “depressive behavior”, “panic”, “inappropriate behavior”, “aggression”.

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Less than half of respondents were able to indicate external signs (indicators) characteristic of persons prone to suicide, the majority failed to give an answer (61%). The most frequent response was related to behavior; it was given by 18% of the police officers – “detachment from others”, “lack of interest in life”, “apathetic behavior”, “lethargic behavior”, “unwillingness to interact with other people”. When asked to list the external signs (indicators) characterizing train hoppers, 74% of the police officers failed to give an answer, but those who answered paid most attention to the behavior – “act in groups”, “climb on rolling stock”, “film on camera/mobile”, “engage in vandalism”. More than 55% of the transport police officers experienced difficulties in communicating with people intoxicated by drugs, among those who answered the question the most frequent answer was “behavior” (23%), the respondents indicated “inappropriate behavior”, “aggressive behavior”. Slightly more than 17% stressed the verbal component in their answers: “they don’t cooperate”, “they don’t understand what they are told”, “they are unable to express themselves”. When asked to describe the challenges involved in communicating with people intoxicated by alcohol, 54% of respondents were unable to give an answer. 21% of the police officers indicated behavior as the greatest hinder in the communication with people intoxicated by alcohol, the most frequent answers were “aggressive behavior”, “unbalanced behavior”, “inappropriate behavior”. 19% of respondents preferred the verbal component and gave the following examples: “swearing”, “unable to perceive speech”, “unable to express themselves”. 81% of respondents failed to answer the question about the problems involved in communicating with individuals similar to those appearing on wanted lists. Interviewed police officers experienced great difficulties in communicating with members of informal youth groups, 80% of respondents found it difficult to answer this question. When asked to describe the difficulties in communicating with members of extremist youth groups, 82% of the police officers participating in the survey were unable to formulate their answer. 77% of respondents experienced difficulties in communicating with people with mental disorders. When asked about the difficulties that arise when dealing with suicidal individuals, 81% of the police officers could not answer. When asked to describe the difficulties of communicating with train hoppers, 86% of respondents found it difficult to answer. 57% of respondents answered affirmative to the question “Do you have to engage in interpersonal contact with minors in your daily work?” and 43% of respondents answered negative. 77% of the police officers were unable to answer the question regarding the difficulty of communicating with minors. When asked whether they needed workshops with a psychologist to learn more about attributes that may be used to identify individuals who pose a threat to the life and health of other people, 43% of the transport police officers answered negative, 17% found it difficult to answer, and only 40% answered affirmative. Discussion By studying the answers given as part of the survey by the transport police officers, we can conclude that the level of observation skills in the respondents is low. In the very first answers that relate to the regulatory framework and its applications in identifying in the passenger flow and detaining people prone to commit crimes, certain contradictions are observed. 65% of respondents felt that the regulatory framework is optimal, However, when answering the next question concerning improvements to that framework, 63% of the transport police officers spoke in favor of improving the existing regulations. It can be seen here that the respondents do not directly indicate that they are not fully satisfied by the legal and regulatory framework and

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attempt to express their opinion using the question about improvements. It can be interpreted in such a way that the police officers are unwilling to openly criticize the existing procedures and regulations, but they do want improvements. In their daily work, the respondents mainly rely on their intuition and the information they receive from open sources, for example, the media and the Internet, 27% and 22%, respectively, i.e. half of all police officers in their daily observation of the passenger flow rely more on their own information and skills, this may indicate a low level of sophistication and effectiveness of the existing regulatory framework. Transport police officers demonstrate a moderate level of psychological observation skills in relation to individuals intoxicated by drugs or alcohol. It was precisely when asked questions devoted to this category of people that the respondents most often gave answers. When asked these questions, the police officers give the most complete answers concerning behavior (“excitement”, “activity”, “biting nails”, “disorientation”, “panic”, “aggression”, etc.), kinesics (“shaky gait”, “stumbling”, “unsteady posture”, “impaired coordination of movement”, “aimless movements”, etc.), smell (“smell of alcohol”, “smell of vomit”, etc.), verbal component (“swearing”, “slurred speech”, “mumbling”, “talking loudly, shouting”, etc.). When answering questions related to informal and extremist youth groups, a reduced level of psychological observation skills was found. Almost a third of the respondents found it difficult to answer, but the majority gave examples in their answers, usually focused on behavior (“aggressive behavior”, “hostile behavior”, “unselfconsciousness”, “inadequacy”, etc.) and garments (“tracksuit”, “scarves”, “sports symbols”, “club emblems”, “leather clothes”, “military boots”, “shaved heads”, etc.). The police officers experience the greatest difficulties with mentally impaired individuals, suicidal individuals, and train hoppers; here, up to half of the surveyed police officers failed to give an answer. This is especially true for the train hopper category, the level of psychological observation skills in their respect is extremely low, transport police officers often cannot describe or characterize such individuals, while this category is most common at rail infrastructure sites. This raises concerns about the willingness and ability of the police to act with respect to train hoppers, who can pose a threat to both their lives and lives of other people. The respondents experienced the greatest problems when asked to describe difficulties in communication. Difficulties in communicating with individuals intoxicated by alcohol or drugs were experienced by more than half of the police officers (54% and 55%, respectively). For instance, 80% and 82% of the respondents were unable to give an answer about the difficulties in communicating with members of informal and extremist youth groups. 77% of the respondents had problems communicating with people with mental disorders. The respondents experienced the greatest difficulties in communication with train hoppers – 86% were unable to give an answer. More than 77% of the police officers had problems communicating with minors, while more than half (57%) engaged in interpersonal contact with them. Inability to communicate with individuals who may pose a threat to the public can adversely affect public safety in passenger traffic. This is especially true for minors, because in most cases train hoppers are teenagers. Transport police officers are constantly confronted with train hoppers and suicidal individuals. If they are unable to identify such individuals and establish contact with them, this can affect not only, for example, the operation of rail transport, but also the prestige of the entire police force. The questionnaire contained 3 groups of questions. Group 1 was devoted to the behavior of individuals posing a threat to public safety, group 2 was dedicated to the external signs typical of such individuals, and group 3 focused on difficulties in communicating with these individuals. The main problem was that the police officers gave either similar or identical answers in all groups, excluding communication difficulties, however, those who answered used the wording from their previous answers. For the majority of the respondents, “behavioral attributes” and “external signs” are the same, therefore they repeated their answers in these

109 CONTEMPORARY PROBLEMS OF SOCIAL WORK groups. Considering these results, we can conclude that in the future, when conducting similar surveys, the questionnaire should be accompanied with instructions that would explain the police officers the different terms, concepts, etc. This will allow police officers to better understand what is expected of them when answering a particular question. It should also be noted that only 40% of the respondents considered necessary training involving a psychologist to learn more about signs used to identify categories of individuals that pose a threat to the life and health of other people. 43% of the respondents do not consider such classes necessary, and 17% of the respondents found it difficult to answer. In their responses, the majority of the police officers showed a low level of psychological observation skills. Based on the data collected, one can conclude that the respondents do not fully understand the role and importance of a psychologist in matters of visual identification and building a dialogue with individuals who can pose a threat to the life and health of other people. If competent psychologists are available at the police departments, the level of psychological observation skills in the police officers can be improved to an acceptable level. Conclusion By studying the responses given by the transport police officers, we conclude that their level of psychological observation skills is low. The most challenging for the respondents is visually identifying individuals posing a threat in the passenger traffic. Difficulties in communicating with such individuals should also be noted. This indicates a low level of training and competence of the police, as well as a lack of specialized knowledge to handle these categories of individuals. All this can lead to the failure to timely detain individuals posing a threat to both their own lives and the lives of other people. To sum up, we believe that police officers need to improve their skills through audio and video training, this will allow them to be more attentive and prudent in their dealings with target groups and strengthen their psychological observation skills. Only through an integrated approach will it be possible to develop the psychological observation skills in the police force and improve their professionalism.

References 1. Ananyev B.G. Education of observation of school children. Leningrad: Lenizdat, 1940. 64 p. 2. Andreeva G.M. Psychology of social cognition: Textbook. Manual for students of higher educational institutions. 2nd edition, reprint. and add. M.: Aspect Press, 2000. 329 p. 3. Andreeva G.M. To build a theoretical scheme for the study of social perception // Questions of psychology. 2003. No. 3. 79 p. 4. Bobneva M.I. Specificity of socio-psychological properties and abilities of the individual // Social psychology of personality. M., 1979. 132 p. 5. Druzhinin V.N. Experimental psychology. SPb.: Piter, 2002. 89 p. 6. Kislova G.I. development of observation in the process of professional training of future teachers: dis. ... cand. of psychol. sciences. SPb., 1995. 124 p. 7. Klimov E.A. Psychology of professional self-determination. M.: Academia, 2012. 253 p. 8. Konovalova M.D. Experimental psychology. M.: Higher education, 2006. 122 p. 9. Kulkova I.V. Development of psychological observation of civil service personnel: autoref. dis ... cand. psychol. sciences. M., 1996. 25 p. 10. Kunitsina V.N., Kazarinova N.V., Pogolsha V.M. Interpersonal communication: Textbook for universities. SPb.: Piter, 2010. 544 p. 11. Labunskaya V.A. human Expression: communication and interpersonal cognition. Rostov on/D, 1999. 608 p. 12. Lange N.N. “On the action of hashish” (Psychological note). URL: https://librolife.ru/ g2122229. 13. Lee Won Ho. Socio-psychological observation and its formation in a doctor: dis. ... cand. of psychol. sciences. M., 2007. 173 p. 14. Lezhnina L.V. The Relationship of observation of future teachers and the success of their empirical forecasts: dis. ... cand. psychol. sciences. SPb., 1995. 143 p. 15. Psychological dictionary: dictionary / ed. by A.V. Petrovsky, M.G. Yaroshevsky. 3rd ed., corr. and addit. M.: Politizdat, 2008. 494 p.

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16. Regush L.A. Observation in practical psychology. SPb., 1996. 148 p. 17. Regush L.A. Practicum on observation and observation. 3rd ed. SPb.: Piter, 2008. 208 p. 18. Rodionova A.A.. Personal determinants of psychological observation: dis. ... cand. of psychol. sciences. M., 2001. 173 p. 19. Rosen G.Ya. Psychology of knowledge as an independent research direction // Foreign research on the psychology of knowledge. Collection of analytical reviews. M.: University group, 2010. 39 p. 20. Slotina T.V. Psychology of personality: Textbook. 2nd ed. SPb.: Piter, 2017. 448 p.

REFERENCE TO ARTICLE Petrova, E.A. & Sisoshvili, M.S. (2020) Psychological Observation Skills in the Daily Work of Transport Police Officers, Contemporary Problems of Social Work. Vol. 6. No. 2 (22). P. 104– 111. DOI 10.17922/2412-5466-2020-6-2-104-111 (International bibliographic description).

CONTACT INFORMATION: Petrova Elena Alekseevna Doctor of Psychological Sciences Professor, Dean of the Faculty of Psychology Head of the Department of Social, General and Clinical Psychology Russian State Social University Wilhelm Pieck str., 4, build. 1 129226 Moscow, Russian Federation E-mail: [email protected] Sisoshvili Michael Sergeevich Postgraduate Student Russian State Social University Wilhelm Pieck str., 4, build. 1 129226 Moscow, Russian Federation E-mail: [email protected]

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Polyakova O.B., Candidate of Psychological Sciences, Associate Professor, Associate Professor of the Department of Social, General and Clinical Psychology, Russian State Social University, Moscow; Associate Professor of the Department of Pedagogy and Psychology, Open Humanitarian and Economic University, Moscow. E-mail: [email protected] Scopus Author ID: 57205426592 ORCID ID: orcid.org/0000-0003-2581-5516 UDC 159.923 DOI 10.17922/2412-5466-2020-6-2-112-118 Features of Professional Reflection of Social Workers with Professional Deformations

Receiving date: Preprint date: Taking to print date: 25.03.2020 29.05.2020 29.06.2020

Annotation: social workers with professional deformations (high level of emotional exhaustion; higher than the average level of general professional deformations, reduction processes in the field of personal achievements and professional motivation, personal distancing, psycho-emotional exhaustion, depersonalization changes) revealed the following features of professional reflection: below average level of active and reflective types, reflection as a consideration of future activities, reflection of real activity, reflection, communication and interaction with others, self-reflection, reflection system, socio reflection; the average level of introspection, quasi-reflection, general reflection, pragmatism, retrospective reflection of activity, reflexivity, theoretical type. Key words: burnout, professional reflection, professional deformation, reflection, social workers. JEL classification: А130, А230.

Introduction At present, in the humanities, including psychology, the issue of professionally important qualities and the specifics of their formation is relevant for representatives of different types of professions, in particular the type of profession «person – person», that is, socionomic workers (teachers, psychologists, doctors, social workers, etc.) (Mironova O.I., Polyakova O.B., Ushkov F.I., 2018) [14]. The formation of professionally important qualities is influenced by a huge number of different external (social, economic, industrial, organizational, domestic, interpersonal, etc.) and internal (individual psychological characteristics of the personality of the specialists themselves) factors (Elshansky S.P., Anufriev A.F., Polyakova O.B., Semenov D.V., 2018) [4]. Reflection as a distinguishing feature of man from the rest of the animal world, as paying attention to the results of his own activity with subsequent rethinking, to himself and his consciousness with the prospect of further self-actualization, acts as an internal characteristic of the subject, the basic basis for the effectiveness of the activity and the premise of preventing possible professional deformations of the personality of specialists (Karpov A.V., 2003) [10], (Leontiev D.A., Osin E.N., 2014) [11].

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The professional activity of the representatives of socionomic professions, in particular social workers, places high demands on the professional reflection of specialists, which is understood as referring to oneself as a subject of professional activity in order to correlate one’s individual psychological characteristics, one’s self capabilities with the requirements of professional activity to achieve goals, enabling: to level the premises of antisocial behavior (Bonkalo T.I., Polyakova O.B., Bonkalo S.V., Kolesnik N.T., Sorokoumova E.A., 2015) [2], professional deformations (burnout), psychosomatization (Polyakova O.B., Petrova E.A., Mironova O.I., Semenov D.V., 2019) [16]; exercise self-control in communication and interaction (Polyakova O.B., 2011) [17]; to overcome stressful situations in educational and professional activities (Jafar Zade D.A., Senkevich L.V., Polyakova O.B., Basimov M.M., Strelkov V.I., Tarasov M.V., 2019) [8]. Organization and methodology The study of the features of professional deformations and professional reflection was attended by 418 social workers. Identification of the characteristics of professional deformations of social workers was carried out using a burnout questionnaire (MBI) C. Maslach & S. Jackson [13], modifications of the burnout questionnaire (mod MBI) C. Maslach & S. Jackson [13] and the questionnaire on the definition of mental burnout (QDMB) B.A. Farber [5]. The apparatus for identifying the features of professional reflection of social workers with professional deformations included: differential type of reflection (DTR); authors: D.A. Leontiev, E.M. Lapteva, E.N. Osin and A.Zh. Salikhova; year – 2009; the goal is to identify the type of reflection as a stable personality trait [11]; the author of the modification of the interpretation of the results is O.B. Polyakova (table 1); determination of the style of learning, activity and reflection (DSLAR); authors: Honey and Mumford; year – 1992; the goal is to determine theoretical and practical abilities, as well as the style of learning, activity and reflexivity [7]; the author of the modification of the interpretation of the results is O.B. Polyakova (table 1); determination of the severity and orientation of reflection (DSOR); author – M. Grant; the goal is to determine the level of expression and direction of reflection [6]; the author of the modification of the interpretation of the results is O.B. Polyakova (table 1); determination of the level of reflexivity (DLR); authors: A.V. Karpov and V.V. Ponomareva; the goal is to determine the level of reflexivity [10]; the author of the modification of the interpretation of the results is O.B. Polyakova (table 1).

Table 1 Level scales for identifying the features of professional reflection of social workers with professional deformations The severity levels of professional low level below average above high level reflection and its components average level average DTR 10–15 16–21 22–28 29–34 35–40 DSLAR individual styles 0–4 5–8 9–12 13–16 17–20 reflection 0–16 17–32 33–48 49–64 65–80 DSOR individual species 10–20 21–30 31–40 41–50 51–60 reflection 20–40 41–60 61–80 81–100 101–120 DLR individual species 8–17 18–27 28–36 37–46 47–56 walls 0–2 3–4 5–6 7–8 9–10

Bringing the results of the study to a common denominator required determining the levels of scales for identifying the features of professional reflection (R) of social workers with professional deformations (O.B. Polyakova; table 2).

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Table 2 Levels of diagnostic scales for the features of professional reflection of social workers with professional deformations Diagnostic abbreviations / low level below average above high level Levels of reflection average level average DSLAR 0–16 17–32 33–48 49–64 65–80 DSOR 20–40 41–60 61–80 81–100 101–120 DLR 0–2 3–4 5–6 7–8 9–10 R 20–59 60–97 98–135 136–173 174–210

Results The main features of professional deformations of social workers include: a high level of emotional fatigue (44.2); higher than the average level of general professional deformations (100.0 and 112.2), reduction processes in the field of personal achievements (33.5) and professional motivation (32.9), alienation of a personal nature (38.5), psychoemotional exhaustion (40.8), depersonalization changes (22.3). The results of identifying the type of reflection as a stable personality trait (DTR) showed: 1) below the average level of system reflection (20.7 arithmetic mean score), including a look at oneself from the outside, coverage of both the poles of the subject and the object of activity, self-distance; social workers: rarely think about the causes of what is happening to them; do not receive new information about themselves, situation ally analyzing their actions and actions; spend little time studying others, which makes it difficult to understand themselves; they do not know how to stop in order to get a holistic view of the situation; not often trying to see the situation through the eyes of the interlocutor; not capable of deep self-knowledge, which interferes with the understanding of others; only situation ally analyze the causes that cause certain emotions and feelings; rarely analyze what has been done, which interferes with self-knowledge; practically do not compare their views with the opinions of others, which prevents the receipt of useful information; do not pay attention to their reactions to others and events; 2) the average level: of introspection as self-digging (23.5 arithmetic mean score), characterized by focusing on one’s own experiences and condition; social workers: sometimes distracted from affairs, leaving in their own experiences; situation ally prone to deep feelings in connection with current events; experiencing difficulty in distracting from the thought that something is not working out for them; rarely have difficulty moving from thoughts to activities; sometimes they are very worried about the results of work; sometimes they note a tendency to anxiety, enhancing experiences; often able to disconnect from thoughts about pressing issues that impede the implementation of activities; seldom experience their own mistakes and mistakes so much that they interfere with their correction; not subject to the trend of continuous failure analysis; rarely pay attention to unusual events, which may serve as a reason for establishing causal relationships; quasi-reflection (27.4 arithmetic mean point), aimed at an abstract object and connected with separation from the actual life situation; social workers: do not devote much time to dreams; seldom forget about affairs, dreaming; more realists, not dreamers; do not often present themselves in various situations; do not often seek to imagine random events and meetings; performing tasks, do not seek to mentally transfer to another situation; do not often mentally travel to unfamiliar places; try less often to fantasize about how life could have turned out differently; strive not to be distracted from matters by extraneous thoughts; feel the desire to understand their own emotions and feelings. The results of the determination of theoretical and practical abilities, as well as the style of training, activity and reflexivity (DSLAR) showed:

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1) the average level: of pragmatism (12.1 arithmetic average); social workers: try to formulate their thoughts simply and directly; they are mainly interested in ideas that have practical application; trying to catch new ideas and approaches used in practice; strive to adhere to the rules and procedures effective for the activity; note relevance in disputes finding the essence; try to grasp the essence of any issue; carry out regular planning; tend to evaluate ideas from the perspective of practical application; trying to convey realistic ideas to interlocutors; strive to find effective ways to carry out activities and solve problems; prefer to communicate on business, without lyrical digressions; seek to act, not reason; when performing activities, they prefer business contacts; theoretical type (12.3 arithmetic average); social workers: it is difficult to generate ideas under pressure and the influence of specific conditions; prefer to communicate while maintaining distance, systematize knowledge and correlate current affairs with the long term; try to be demanding of themselves and others and develop a tendency to solve problems step by step; react with irritation to frivolous people; try to be adherents of discipline, achieve excellence, be guided by beliefs about correctness / incorrectness and correlate actions with generally recognized principles; often apply logic and analytical approach; learning styles, activities and reflexivity (40.5 total points); social workers: like to observe the behavior of the participants in the discussion; they try to correctly interpret the data, consider all alternative options and compare their own with other points of view; very anxious when doing hard work in a limited time frame; try to choose activities over time for preparation, avoid hasty conclusions and pay attention to details; strive to have a large number of sources of information, carefully make decisions and work carefully; 2) below the average level: of the reflexive type (7.9 arithmetic average point); social workers: speak more than listen; unfortunately, they prefer one option without considering alternatives; do not often take a restrained position in discussions and get annoyed during hasty actions; prefer to act rather than ponder secular conversations; rarely interested in the opinions of others and resort to thoughtful information analysis; situationally moving away from the situation to consider prospects; the active type (8.2 arithmetic average point); social workers: act without considering consequences; experiencing difficulties in solving new problems and awkwardness with thoughtful people; do not advocate for specific goals and plans; pay attention to spontaneously manifesting people; consider restriction by formal procedures wrong; prefer actions based on feelings and use the moment in the present; rarely seek to gain new experience; strive to finish difficult things faster. The results of determining the level of expression and direction of reflection (DSOR) showed below the average level: of self-reflection (29.6 arithmetic average) as social workers reflect themselves in various aspects with the help of the psyche (four basic situations: knowledge about knowledge, knowledge about ignorance, ignorance about knowledge, ignorance of ignorance); social workers: do not resort to deep introspection; do not often think about the reasons for their own behavior and evaluate their own actions and feelings; rarely analyze their feelings and listen to the sensations; seek to act, not to reflect and to control their own actions when doing work; socio-reflection (29.1 arithmetic mean score) as aspirations and skills of social workers to look at themselves through the eyes of other people (colleagues, clients, others) and evaluate themselves from the outside, as a desire to analyze and comprehend their actions, qualities and actions, how to take into account perceptions and characteristics of perception other people of the social worker himself; social workers: it is difficult to predict the actions and words of others; have difficulty in the process of conversation; do not seek to observe and analyze the behavior of others; disregard the opinions of others; rarely think about the consequences of their own actions and words and understand the motivation of others; often puzzled by the behavior of others; reflection (58.7 total score) as the ability of the psyche to reflect, as a reflection of oneself, situations, other people; social workers: have difficulty reflecting themselves in various situations; not often seek to analyze their own actions, personal

115 CONTEMPORARY PROBLEMS OF SOCIAL WORK qualities and actions; have a reduced desire and ability to look at themselves from the position of others; rarely can evaluate themselves from the outside; situationally take into account the peculiarities of perceiving oneself by others. The results of determining the level of reflexivity (DLR) showed: 1) lower than the average level: of reflection of communication and interaction with other people (26.5 arithmetic average score), including the time social workers think about situations of interpersonal interaction, the tendency to introspection in various life situations, the degree of decision making, the frequency of analysis of what is happening; social workers: in most conflict situations do not consider themselves guilty; difficult to predict the behavior expected by others; sometimes they do not understand the reasons for the discontent of others; do not often think about the consequences of their own actions and words; rarely put themselves in the place of others; reflection of the present activity (27.2 arithmetic mean score), understood as self-control of behavior by social workers in the current situation, as an understanding of the elements of professional activity, the ability of social workers to correlate their actions with the professional situation and to coordinate actions in accordance with changing production tasks and their own state; social workers: difficult to make decisions; sometimes they answer that the first has occurred to him; do not consider themselves guilty of most quarrels; do not often clarify details and consider all options conceived; sometimes make rash decisions; prefer to act rather than speculate; rarely track a conversation in a conversation; reflection as a consideration of future activities (26.4 average point), describing the analysis of upcoming activities, behavior, future orientation, forecasting the likely outcome, careful planning of the details of behavior, the frequency of access to upcoming events; social workers: pay much attention to details, losing sight of the main goal; do not worry about the future; do not often draw up a plan for upcoming work; rarely plan an upcoming conversation; they worry about upcoming difficulties when embarking on complex activities; 2) the average level: of retrospective reflection of an activity (35.1 arithmetic mean score), characterized by a tendency to analyze the activity performed, the premises, motives and reasons for what happened, the results and mistakes made, and the past; social workers: difficult to analyze the causes of failures; sometimes make rash decisions; do not often seek to establish causal relationships; continue to ponder the past even when performing other activities; rarely feel a desire to discuss what happened or read and regret what was said; often mentally return to completed activities; general reflection (28.8 arithmetic mean score); social workers: in most conflict situations do not consider themselves guilty; difficult when making decisions and predicting the actions and words of others; sometimes make rash decisions; do not resort to deep introspection; disregard the opinions of others; do not often think about the reasons for their own behavior and draw up a plan for future work; rarely analyze their feelings, evaluate themselves from the outside and track the conversation in the conversation chain of thoughts. The generalized results of determining the level of professional reflection (R) showed an average level of professional reflection of social workers with professional deformations (128 total points). Discussion In modern psychology and social pedagogy, attention is paid to such aspects of the professional activities of social workers and their professionally important qualities, such as: aspects of professional interaction between social worker and client (Sysoeva E.A., Glebova V.A., 2019) [21]; changing self-reflection of modern professionals (Semenova V., 2017) [20]; differential diagnosis of reflection and its components (Leontiev D.A., Osin E.N., 2014) [11]; professional and pedagogical reflection of students (Dudina M.N., 2017) [3]; professional aspects of training specialists in the field of social work (Lukyanov R.V., 2006) [12]; reflexivity as a mental property (Karpov A.V., 2003) [10]; self-actualization of the personality of future social workers (Yashchenko E.F., 2015) [22].

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Conclusion Thus, the main features of the professional reflection of social workers with professional deformations (a high level of emotional exhaustion; higher than the average level of general professional deformations, reduction processes in the field of personal achievement and professional motivation, personal distancing, psychoemotional exhaustion, depersonalization changes) are: 1) below the average level of the active and reflective types, reflection as a consideration of future activities, reflection of the present activity, reflection of communication and interaction with other people, self-reflection, system reflection, socio- reflection; 2) the average level of introspection, quasi-reflection, general reflection, pragmatism, retrospective reflection of activity, reflexivity, theorism. For the purpose of psychological prevention and psychological correction of professional reflection, it is necessary: systematic monitoring of professional reflection (four times during the working year) using the above diagnostic procedures, as well as using questionnaires: «Determining the level of reflection» (DLR), author – O.S. Anisimov, the goal is to determine the level of reflection [1]; «Determining the level of reflection formation» (DLRF), author – E.E. Rukavishnikov, the goal is to determine the level of reflection formation [19]; «Reflexivity Questionnaire» (RQ), author – V.N. Karandashev, the goal is to determine the level of reflexivity [9]; «The degree of your reflexivity in the subject sphere» (DYRSS), author – A.V. Morozov, the goal is to determine the severity of reflexivity in the subject sphere [15]; the use in the process of training of active forms of work – exercises and games aimed at increasing the educational and professional motivation and maintaining the level of professional reflection (for example, «Absorption», «Locus of control», «Planning the future», «Press conference: 10 years later», «Search for benefits», developer – psychological laboratory azps.ru [18]). Gratitude to the social workers who participated in identifying the features of professional deformations and professional reflection.

References 1. Anisimov O.S. Determination of the level of reflection. URL: http://dodr-k.ru/opredelenie- urovnya-refleksii-po-o-s-anisimovu.html (date of publication of information: 28.09.2018; date of treatment: 01.05.2020). 2. Bonkalo T.I., Polyakova O.B., Bonkalo S.V., Kolesnik N.T., Sorokoumova E.A. Development of ethnic social identity among the members of ethnic community organizations as the factor of preventing the spread of nationalist in a multicultural society // Biosciences Biotechnology Research Asia. Vol. 12. 2015. No. 3. P. 2361–2372. 3. Dudina M.N. Professional and pedagogical reflection of students: results of an empirical study // Education and Science. Vol. 19. 2017. No. 10. P. 47–68. 4. Elshansky S.P., Anufriev A.F., Polyakova O.B., Semenov D.V. Positive personal qualities and depression // Prensa Medica Argentina. Vol. 104. 2018. No. 6. P. 1000322. 5. Farber B.A. Introduction: A critical perspective on burnout // Stress and burnout in the human service professions. N.Y.: Pergamon Press, 1983. P. 1–20. 6. Grant M. Determination of the severity and direction of reflection. URL: http://psihologia. biz/psihofiziologiya_801/metodika-urovnya-vyirajennosti-napravlennosti-15059.html (date of publication of information: 24.01.2019; date of treatment: 01.05.2020). 7. Honey P., Mumford A. Defining a learning style, activity, and reflexivity. URL: https://historich. ru/test-honi-i-mamforda/index.html (date of publication of information: 06.08.2017; date of treatment: 01.05.2020). 8. Jafar Zade D.A., Senkevich L.V., Polyakova O.B., Basimov M.M., Strelkov V.I., Tarasov M.V. Features of professional deformation (burnout) of medical workers depending on working conditions // Prensa Medica Argentina. Vol. 105. 2019. No. 1. P. 1000334. 9. Karandashev V.N. Reflexivity Questionnaire. URL: http://uchebnikfree.com/ pedagogicheskaya-psihologiya-uchebniki/oprosnik-refleksivnosti-karandasheva-29804. html (date of publication of information: 29.08.2004; date of treatment: 01.05.2020). 10. Karpov A.V. Reflexivity as a mental property and the technique of its diagnosis // Psychological journal. Vol. 24. 2003. No. 5. P. 45–57.

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11. Leontiev D.A., Osin E.N. Reflection «good» or «bad»: from an explanatory model to differential diagnosis // Psychology: Journal of the Higher School of Economics. Vol. 11. 2014. No. 4. P. 110–135. 12. Lukyanov R.V. Professional aspects of training specialists in the field of social work at a university // Bulletin of the Voronezh State Technical University. Vol. 2. 2006. No. 10. P. 78–80. 13. Maslach C., Jackson S. MBI: Maslach Burnout Inventory; research edition. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press, 1981. P. 13–15. 14. Mironova O.I., Polyakova O.B., Ushkov F.I. Psychological health of leaders with professional burnout in compelled contacts // The European Proceedings of Social & Behavioral Sciences EpSBS. 2018. P. 801–807. 15. Morozov A.V. The degree of your reflexivity in the subject sphere. URL: https://studfile. net/preview/7144667/page:66/ (date of publication of information: 10.11.2018; date of treatment: 01.05.2020). 16. Polyakova O.B., Petrova E.A., Mironova O.I., Semenov D.V. Specificity of Psychosomatization of Psychologist-leaders with Professional Deformations (Burnout) // Prensa Medica Argentina. Vol. 105. 2019. No. 1. P. 1000326. 17. Polyakova O.B. Self-control in communication as a factor in overcoming the states of depersonalization of psychologists and teachers // Tomsk State University Bulletin. 2011. No. 348. P. 133–137. 18. Psychological laboratory azps.ru: psychological trainings. URL: http://azps.ru/training/ (date of publication of information: 31.10.2012; date of treatment: 01.05.2020). 19. Rukavishnikov E.E. Determining the level of reflection formation. URL: http://www.studfiles. ru/preview/3242809/ (date of publication of information: 19.04.2015; date of treatment: 01.05.2020). 20. Semenova V. Professional success: changing self-reflection of modern professionals // Interaction. Interview. Interpretation. Vol. 9. 2017. No. 14. P. 16–30. 21. Sysoeva E.A., Glebova V.A. Social worker and client in the aspect of professional interaction // Student Herald. 2019. No. 40-2 (90). P. 79–81. 22. Yashchenko E.F. Self-actualization of the personality of future social workers: the formation of general cultural competencies // Modern problems of science and education. 2015. No. 4.

REFERENCE TO ARTICLE Polyakova, O.B. (2020) Features of Professional Reflection of Social Workers with Professional Deformations, Contemporary Problems of Social Work. Vol. 6. No. 2 (22). P. 112–118. DOI 10.17922/2412-5466-2020-6-2-112-118 (International bibliographic description).

CONTACT INFORMATION: Polyakova Olga Borisovna Candidate of Psychological Sciences, Associate Professor Associate Professor of the Department of Social, General and Clinical Psychology Russian State Social University Wilhelm Pieck str., 4, build. 1 129226 Moscow, Russian Federation Associate Professor of the Department of Pedagogy and Psychology Open Humanitarian and Economic University Taganskaya str., house 31/22, room No. 27 109147, Moscow, Russian Federation E-mail: [email protected]

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Kurbatov S.A., Postgraduate Student, Russian State Social University, Moscow. E-mail: [email protected] ORCID ID: orcid.org/0000-0002-1395-3260 Zubkova V.M., Doctor of Biological Sciences, Professor of the Department of Technosphere Safety and Ecology, Russian State Social University, Moscow. E-mail: [email protected] Scopus Author ID: 57188717378 ORCID ID: orcid.org/0000-0002-0713-7646 UDC 331.45; 574.2 DOI 10.17922/2412-5466-2020-6-2-119-127 Antioxidant Activity of Medicinal Plants from Habitats with Different Anthropogenic Loads

Receiving date: Preprint date: Taking to print date: 10.03.2020 29.05.2020 29.06.2020

Annotation: the analysis of results of biochemical research concerning antioxidant activity of medicinal raw materials, with use of a method of inhibition of autooxidation of adrenaline in vitro is carried out. The mechanism of formation of free radicals and their sources is considered. A brief overview of the action of free radicals on the human body and cells is given. For the first time, depending on the biological characteristics, the antioxidant activity of plants in areas characterized by different anthropogenic loads was studied: an increase in the anthropogenic load was accompanied by a decrease in the antioxidant activity of plants. Key words: antioxidants, free radicals, oxidative stress, environmental pollution, natural antioxidants, free radical action. JEL classification: J190, J280.

Introduction In the conditions of anthropogenic pressure, the study of the state of ecosystems is impossible without studying the plant component. The study of phytocenoses is of interest from the point of view of protecting both the plant associations themselves and the environment as a whole, and is becoming increasingly relevant, due to the need to preserve both biodiversity and natural complexes. Free radicals formed in living organisms have a damaging effect on cell membranes, disrupt the processes of metabolism, contribute to the accumulation of intermediate exchange products,

119 CONTEMPORARY PROBLEMS OF SOCIAL WORK which ultimately leads to a violation of the immune system, stimulates various diseases, accelerates the aging of the body. When the anthropogenic impact on the environment increases in the cells of living organisms, the processes of oxidative stress that cause the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) increase. Neutralization of free radicals is performed by an antioxidant defense system, the main active element of which is antioxidants. Due to the fact that plant raw materials potentially have antioxidant properties, research to determine the antioxidant status of various plants is very relevant. At the same time, it should be noted that the antioxidant activity of plants, along with species specificity, is largely determined by the environmental conditions of their habitats. Antioxidants are substances that suppress or entirely prevent the oxidation of organic compounds. They defend the organism from the negative influence of free radicals. The antioxidant attaches to the free radical and forms a “shield” to the devastating action of the extra electron. Thanks to the help of the enzyme defense system, the organism modifies the cellular oxidizer into water and oxygen (non-radical) [1]. Free radicals (M. Gomberg) are unstable atoms and compounds that act as aggressive (hostile) oxidizers and as a result, damage vital components of the body. In other words, free radicals are reactive formations (molecules) that have unpaired electrons on the outer orbital. They tend to normalize the number of electrons, and therefore, tear off the missing electron from other molecules, so that the molecule that lost the electron becomes a free radical. A chain reaction is formed that destroys a living cell. This effect is called «oxidative stress» [6]. . Reactive oxygen species (ROS), in particular the superoxide anionic radical ()O2 the hydroxyl radical (•OH -), and hydrogen peroxide ( HO22), are metabolic byproducts of normal aerobic metabolism. Typically, the production of appropriate ROS, which are controlled by the antioxidant system in living organisms, is necessary for many cellular functions, such as phagocyte destruction, bacterial uptake, and redox regulation of signal transduction. However, high levels of ROS have been implicated in various pathological states, inclusive cardiovascular disease, oncology, and premature aging [2; 7; 10; 13]. HO22 is one of the varieties of ROS, it is formed from almost all sources of oxidative stress and has the capacity to diffuse easily into cells and body tissues. Some synthetic antioxidants act as mutagens and tumor promoters in high doses. Natural antioxidants, on the other hand, ensure a higher degree of safety, even at higher dosages, and such compounds can also provide other health benefits. Natural antioxidants can defend the human organism from free radicals, as well as slow down the development of various chronic diseases (cancer, heart disease, diabetes, etc.)., and improve or slow down the rancidity of lipids in foods . Among various natural antioxidants, phenolic compounds have the ability to suppress free radicals derived from oxygen by giving a hydrogen atom or electron to a free radical. Phenolic compounds from plant materials neutralize free radicals in various model systems [14]. In addition, it was found that the antioxidant properties of plant products are mainly due to the presence of phenolic compounds, such as flavonoids, phenolic acids, tannins and phenolic diterpenes [5]. Free radicals are production of normal cellular exchange. A free radical can be defined as an atom or molecule comprising one or more unpaired electrons in a valence shell or external orbital and capable of independent existence. An odd number of free radical electrons makes it volatile, short-lived, and aloft reactive. Because of their large reactivity, they can abstract electrons from other compounds to achieve resistance. Thus, the attacked molecule forfeit its electron and becomes a free radical itself, starting a circuit reaction cascade that damages a living cell [5]. Both ROS (reactive oxygen species) and RNS (reactive nitrogen species) together make up free radicals and other non-radical reactive substances. ROS / RNS perform a dual function both useful and toxic to the living system. At medium or low levels, ROS / RNS have a beneficial

120 VOLUME 6, No. 2 (22), 2020 effect and include various physiological functions, such as immune function (for example, protection against pathogens), in a number of cellular signaling pathways, in mitogenic reply, and in redox regulation, but at higher concentrations, both ROS and RNS produce oxidative stress and nitrosative stress, respectively, challenging potential injury to biomolecules. Oxidative stress and nitrosative stress develop when there is a surplus production of ROS / RNS on the one hand and an insufficiency of enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants on the other hand. Most importantly, surplus ROS can injury the integrity of different biomolecules, inclusive lipids, proteins, and DNA, which leads to enlarged oxidative stress in various human pathology, such as diabetes, rheumatoid arthritis, cardiovascular diseases, respiratory diseases, and in the aging process [23]. . It is known that the superoxide radical ( O2 ) and hydrogen peroxide ( HO22) are produced in the cerebrum and nervous system in vivo, and some areas of the human brain are rich in iron, which, according to the literature [3; 13; 16; 18] is easily mobilized in a form that can encourage . free radical reactions. Superoxide dismutase (SOD) removes O2 due to the significant acceleration of its transformation into ( HO22). Catalase in peroxisomes converts ( HO22) into water and O2 , thereby helping to utilize ( HO22), formed under the activity of oxidase ferments that are situated in these organelles. Other important enzymes that remove ( HO22) in human cells are glutathione peroxidases. In excess production, ROS can cause tissue damage. However, tissue damage itself can cause ROS generation (for example, by triggering phagocyte activation or liberating transition metal ions from corrupted cells), which may (or may not, according on the situation) contribute to the deterioration of the damage. Evaluating oxidative injury to biomolecules through new technologies based on DNA oxidative damage products (for example, 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine), lipids (for example, isoprostanes), and proteins (modified amino acids) can expand our understanding of the mechanisms underlying this process [3]. Sources of free radicals are divided into internal, external sources and physiological factors. Internal sources may be enzymatic reactions that serve as a source of free radicals. These include those reactions associated with the respiratory chain, phagocytosis, prostaglandin synthesis, and cytochrome P 450. Some internal sources of free radical formation are mitochondria, xanthine oxidase, phagocytes, reactions involving iron and other transition metals, peroxisomes, arachidone pathways, exercise, ischemia / reperfusion, and inflammation. External sources include non-enzymatic reactions of oxygen with organic compounds; free radicals that occur in reactions initiated by ionizing radiation; cigarette smoke, environmental pollutants, radiation, ultraviolet light, ozone, certain drugs, pesticides, anesthetics, and industrial solvents, as well as physiological factors – a mental state such as stress, emotions, and so on. Painful conditions are also accountable for the formation of free radicals [18]. Types of free radicals [12; 16; 19]:  Peroxide;  Hydroperoxyl;  Triplet oxygen;  Superoxide radical;  Active oxygen. Mechanism of free radical formation Free radicals can be shaped in three ways:  by homolytic splitting of the covalent ties of a normal molecule with each snippet retaining one of the paired electrons.

XY:  X** Y  miss of a single electron from a normal molecule.

XY:  X Y 121 CONTEMPORARY PROBLEMS OF SOCIAL WORK

 When adding one electron to a normal molecule.

Xe X A radical can donate its unpaired electron to another molecule. It can take an electron from another molecule to pair, or it can just join the molecule. When a radical gives away one electron or accepts one electron, or simply adds an anion to become a radical. Thus, the future of reactions that usually occur as a chain reaction is such that one radical generates another [24]. Natural antioxidant systems developed in the course of evolution have been tested «for strength» for many millions of years. Therefore, it is logical to take into account the experience of nature and use natural (natural) antioxidant complexes isolated, for example, from plants for pharmaceutical purposes. There are several reasons for this [14]. 1. A wide selection of plant material that has not only an antioxidant effect, but also other beneficial properties for the body. Therefore, multi-functional products can be prepared from vegetable raw materials. 2. When using plant fees, there is no risk of viral infection, as in the case of using animal raw materials. 3. Availability of plant material. Thus, antioxidants are involved in controlling the processes of free radical transformations in cells, ensuring their integrity and functional activity. Therefore, the study of plant raw materials that potentially have antioxidant properties is relevant for applied biological research. Methodology We chose the content of such toxicants as heavy metals in the soil as the basis for assessing the intensity of the environmental situation. Soil samples were selected at the same points as plant samples. Soil sampling was performed in accordance with GOST 17.4.4.02-84 «Methods of sampling and preparation of samples for chemical, bacteriological, helminthological analysis». In the environmental assessment of soil pollution [17], the total pollution index (Zc) calculated in relation to the background is used (proposed by Yu.E. Saet).

Zc = Kncc (1) where, Kcc = CCibc/ – concentration coefficient, Ci – the content of the element in the object under study, Cbc – background content of the element, n – number of elements. The selection of plants was carried out on the selected 10 plots of 1 m2 in size, placing them on the diagonals of the plot. The combined samples were crushed to 1–3 cm. Then, by quartering, an average sample was isolated from this sample, which was dried in a drying cabinet at a temperature of 60°C to an air-dry state. Water extracts of medicinal material were prepared using extraction methods in accordance with the State Pharmacopoeia XI [22] and recommendations of pharmaceutical companies, individually for each pharmacy collection.

Volume of distilled water ((Vdw..), which is necessary for the preparation of the extract, is calculated using the formula [9]:

Väèñò . = Vextr. + mmpc.. * Kcwa.. where, Vextr. – extraction volume,

mmpc.. – the weight of the portion of medicinal plant collection,

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Kcwa.. – the coefficient of water absorption. Water absorption coefficient – the amount of extraction absorbed by 1 gram of plant material (has a tabular value). The antioxidant activity of the studied plant raw materials was judged by their ability to inhibit (slow down) the in vitro epinephrine auto-oxidation reaction and thereby help prevent the formation of active (reactive) oxygen forms [20; 21]. To do this, 0.1 ml of epinephrine (epinephrine) hydrochloride solution (0.1%) was added to 2 ml of sodium-carbonate buffer solution (pH = 10.65) and the ability of the test object to absorb light (optical density) was measured for a duration of 10 minutes, at a wavelength of 347 nm in a cell with a thickness of 10 mm on a PE – 5300VH spectrophotometer ( D1 ). Then, 0.03 ml of the test collection extract and 0.1 ml of 0.1% epinephrine hydrochloride solution (0.1%) were added to 2 ml of the sodium-carbonate buffer solution (pH = 10.65) and the optical density was measured for a duration of 10 minutes at a wavelength of 347 nm in a cuvette with a thickness of 10 mm on a PE – 5300VH ( D2 ) spectrophotometer. The antioxidant activity (AOA) of the studied charges was calculated using the formula (as a percentage, %):

DD12 *100% АОА = D1

Results Table 1 TM content in the soil of the studied areas, mg / kg Study area Element Zc Zn Pb Cu Cd Cr Odintsovsky district 78,4 ± 5,9 12,7 ± 1,2 36,7 ± 2,7 0,33 ± 0,02 15,2 ± 1,4 (village Podushkino) 24,5 Balashikha city dis- 132,5 ± 10 31,9 ± 3,1/ 84 ± 6,3 1,40 ± 0,06 29,1 ± 2,7 trict (с.Balashikha) 81,5 Istra district 57,1 ± 6,9 8,4 ± 1 22,1 ± 3,9 0,16 ± 0,03 11,3 ± 1,8 (v.Grebenki) 11,8 Volokolamsk district 129,9 ± 9,8 26,8 ± 2,2 75 ± 6,1 0,91 ± 0,04 30 ± 2,8 (v. Yadrovo) 61,5 Kursk region, 87,4 ± 4,2 119,5 ± 2,9 20,9 ± 1,3 0,23 ± 0,03 44,26 ± 4,0 (v. Krivets) 14,0 background content 18,7 3,8 5,0 0,027 8,3 of the element * background content 52 16 22 0,03 82 of the element**

* – background content of heavy metals in the Moscow region ** – for the background content of elements, the number of elements established in the soil of the Kursk Chernozem of the standard sample (certificate SP-1 No. 901-90) within the entire region is accepted.

Thus, in accordance with the scale of assessment of soil pollution soil Balashikha city district (с. Balashikha)) is characterized by a high degree of pollution, Volokolamsk district (v. Yadrovo) – strong, Odintsovsky district (village Podushkino) – moderate, Istra district (v. Grebenki) – weak. Kursk region (Krivets village) is characterized by a low degree of pollution (table 1).

123 CONTEMPORARY PROBLEMS OF SOCIAL WORK y g p ( )

 Figure 1. Dynamics of antioxidant activity of Sorbus aucuparia The dynamics of antioxidant activity was unstable during the 10th minute of exposure (fig. 1). The indicator for all samples naturally increased. As a result of research, several maxima in the activity of antioxidants in plants have been identified, which is primarily associated with low temperatures in spring and autumn and high temperatures in summer. Extracts from leaves and fruits of woody plants were characterized by antioxidant activity during the entire ten-minute period of determination, while by the end of the determination, the antioxidant activity increased by 22–75% in Sórbus aucupária and by 13–66% in Tília cordáta (fig. 2).



 Figure 2. Dynamics of antioxidant activity of Tilia cordata

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Discussion Soil condition is an integral indicator of the long-term process of environmental pollution, which gives an idea of the quality of life-supporting media-atmospheric air and water. Polluted soils themselves are a resource of secondary contamination of the surface stratum of air, surface and ground water, and vegetation. Thus, soils are of triple interest: as an initial link in the food chain, as a source of secondary pollution of the atmosphere and hydrosphere, and as an integral indicator of the ecological condition of the environment. The analysis of literature data and interactive maps on the pollution of the study areas shows that the total emission of harmful substances into the atmosphere in the most polluted areas is 0.16–0.4 t/ha, while in the Odintsovo and Istrinsky districts (the village of Grebenki) – 0.04– 0.08 t/ha. On average the level of air pollution by suspended substances, nitrogen dioxide, and sulfur, carbon monoxide and Balashikha to Volokolamsk areas can reach 2 maximum permissible concentration(mpc); in Odintsovsky and Istrinsky areas (D. Grebeniki) does not exceed [3]. On the territory of the Volokolamsk district and the Balashikha district there are garbage dumps that have an adverse effect on the environment [24]. According to the integrated assessment of the degree of environmental distress for all natural environments, these areas are characterized by a tense situation and a tense assessment for two natural environments. According to the degree of pollution and changes in the natural environment, the Balashikha district and the Volokolamsk district have a very high and crisis degree of change; the Odintsovo and Istrinsky districts have an average degree of change. The quality of water in the districts is critical, according to the pollution index, reservoirs are class 4 (very dirty) [3]. This environmental situation in the Moscow region is primarily associated with the presence of industrial complexes, landfills and landfills, intensive agriculture, vehicles, etc., affecting the environment, polluting and changing it. As a result of the research of the antioxidant activity of collections of woody plants collected from the territory with different anthropogenic loads, all samples showed their antioxidant status, but the rate of accumulation of epinephrine auto-oxidation products was unstable. In the conditions of anthropogenic loads, the antioxidant index in the studied plants was lower than the same indicator in the same plant species, but collected under more favorable conditions (Fig. 1). It can be concluded that pollutants help to reduce the accumulation of antioxidants in plant organisms. The highest indicator of antioxidant activity was demonstrated by samples collected near the village of Grebenki (Istrinsky district). The average value of antioxidant activity is negatively correlated with the total pollution index (r (Sórbus aucupária) = -0.96; r (Tília cordáta) = -0.92) .This means that when one variable (Zc) increases, the other (AO) decreases. The indisputable influence of growing conditions on the formation and accumulation of antioxidants has been proved by many studies. The effect of a complex of external conditions can be expressed depending on the amount and composition of antioxidants from the place of growth in certain geographical locations. In the literature, there is data on the impact of anthropogenic pollution on the content of flavonoids. O.N. Nemereshina and N.F. Gusev found that the content of total flavonoids in the biomass of plants growing in the zone of atmospheric emissions exceeds the amount of flavonoids in the biomass of plants in the control areas [19]. Conclusion 1. Evaluation of ecological tension areas of the Moscow region allows the level of pollutant emissions into the atmosphere, accumulation of heavy metals in soil, pollution index, water bodies to allocate the Balashikha district and Volokolamsk district characterized as more stressful environment compared to the Odintsovsky and Istrinsky areas. 2. Extracts of woody plants are characterized by antioxidant activity throughout the determination period, while by the end of the determination, the antioxidant activity increases by 22–75% in Sórbus aucuparia and by 13–66% in Tilia cordata. 125 CONTEMPORARY PROBLEMS OF SOCIAL WORK

3. The highest antioxidant activity is typical for areas with a lower anthropogenic load. On average, during the determination period in areas with lower environmental stress, the antioxidant activity was 29–38% for Sórbus aucupária, 30–52% for Tília cordáta, and exceeded that in areas with higher environmental stress by 2–5 times and 2–4 times, respectively. For the Kursk region, the average antioxidant activity was 41.07 for Sórbus aucupária and 37.56 for Tília cordáta.

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REFERENCE TO ARTICLE Kurbatov, S.A. & Zubkova, V.M. (2020) Antioxidant Activity of Medicinal Plants from Habitats with Different Anthropogenic Loads, Contemporary Problems of Social Work. Vol. 6. No. 2 (22). P. 119–127. DOI 10.17922/2412-5466-2020-6-2-119-127 (International bibliographic description).

CONTACT INFORMATION: Kurbatov Sergey Andreevich Postgraduate Student Russian State Social University Wilhelm Pieck str., 4, build. 1 129226 Moscow, Russian Federation E-mail: [email protected] Zubkova Valentina Mikhailovna Doctor of Biological Sciences Professor of the Department of Technosphere Safety and Ecology Russian State Social University Wilhelm Pieck str., 4, build. 1 129226 Moscow, Russian Federation E-mail: [email protected]

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